MIRA ( R-1 | AS4 ENG103)

PLURALITY OF ENGLISH

“There is an underlying unity among language as there are specific features that are common to
all human languages in the world. These are the language universals.

LINGUISTIC UNIVERSAL
Linguistic universals are fundamental characteristics or patterns that are found across all
human languages or a significant subset of them. These universals represent commonalities in
the structure and organization of languages and provide insights into the nature of human
language and cognition.

2 APPROACHES OF LINGUISTIC UNIVERSAL

 NOAM CHOMSKY
Every human being has the language ability that is already innate so that s/he
can acquire the large amount of knowledge by hearing just a part of it without enough
experience; there has to be some genetic determinacy/ biological properties that makes the
phenomenon possible.
Deals with deep structure rules and patterns of the language in the brain (abstract). His
study showed that humans are born with the linguistic units in their brains to have a language,
and these linguistic units are the language universals.
 JOSEPH GREENBERG
Language universals are the general principles or rules that govern all the spoken
languages around the world. It states what is possible in human language and what is not. Deals
with data collected from worldwide languages (concrete).

2 MAIN TYPES OF LINGUISTIC UNIVERSAL

 Absolute Universals
These are patterns or features that are believed to apply to every known language
without exception. Absolute universals are relatively rare and represent fundamental
characteristics of human language.
 Implicational Universals
Implicational universals describe patterns where the presence of one linguistic feature
implies the presence of another.

Statistical Universals
Statistical universals are tendencies or patterns that are common across many
languages but are not necessarily true for all languages. These are generalizations based on the
observation of a large number of languages.

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR
 Universal Grammar (UG) is a theoretical concept in linguistics proposed by Noam
Chomsky. It represents the hypothetical innate structure or cognitive framework that is
believed to underlie all human languages. According to the theory of Universal Grammar,
humans are born with a biological predisposition or mental "blueprint" for language, which is
common to all humans regardless of the specific language they learn.

ENGLISH VS ENGLISHES
ENGLISH

English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects
brought by Germanic invaders into Britain. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects,
reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England. Eventually, one of these
dialects, Late West Saxon, came to dominate.

WORLD ENGLISHES
World Englishes is a term for emerging localised or indigenised varieties of English,
especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the
United States. The study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used in
diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural
backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of English in different regions of the
world.

ENGLISH VS WORLD ENGLISHES

The notions of World English and World Englishes are far from similar, although the
terms are often mistakenly used interchangeably. World English refers to the English language
as a lingua franca used in business, trade, diplomacy and other spheres of global activity, while
World Englishes refers to the different varieties of English and English-based creoles developed
in different regions of the world. Alternatively, the term Global Englishes has been used by
scholars in the field to emphasise the more recent spread of English due to globalization, which
has resulted in increased usage of English as a lingua franca.

TACOY, RUBEN JOY A.

BSED ENGLISH 2A
TOPIC: A. STANDARD OF ENGLISH
B. COMMON LANGUAGE/ BILINGUALISM/ MULTILINGUALISM
C. WORLD ENGLISHES

Standard English (often shortened to S.E. within linguistic circles) refers to whatever form of the English language is
accepted as a national norm in an Anglophone country. It encompasses grammar, vocabulary, and spelling. In the
British Isles, particularly in England and Wales, it is often associated with: the "Received Pronunciation" accent
(there are several variants of the accent) and UKSE (United Kingdom Standard English), which refers to grammar
and vocabulary. In the United States it is generally associated with the "General American" accent, and in Australia
with General Australian. Unlike the case of other standard languages, however, there is no official or central
regulating body defining S.E

Standard English is recognized as not being a class or regional dialect. It is an educated form of English used for
official purposes such as administration, education and information. It has its own specific grammar and
vocabulary. We distinguish the British standard (R.P) and the American standard or (G.A). There are differences
between these two standards mainly in the field of lexis (vocabulary) and to a
British and American English Differences

British and American Pronunciation Differences

• In British English, many vowels have different sounds and are usually not nasalized.
- Down, sound, found

• In British English the “a” sound is pronounced at the back of the mouth. While in America English it's
pronounced at the front of the mouth.
- Class, grass, can’t, fast, ask

• Stressed vowels are usually longer in American English. In packet, for example, the "a" is longer.
• In British English the /r/ sound is pronounced only before a vowel (Ex. red, real, bedroom). In all other
cases the /r/ is silent, sounding more similar to the sound "ah"
- Word, heart, car, over

• In American English the /r/ sound is always pronounced wherever it appears in a word.

. In American English the "t" between vowels is pronounced as a soft "d" (/d/), so that writer and rider have
similar sound.
British English speakers usually pronounce the "t" as /t/.
- matter, better, fatter

• In British English the “o” sound is pronounced by rounding lips

- Pot, hot, knot, god

• The “aw” sound

- Walk, talks, awkward

British and American Vocabulary Difference

AMERICAN BRITISH
ANTENNA AERIAL
APARTMENT FLAT
APARTMENT BUILDING BLOCKS OF FLATS
BATHROOM TOILETS
BASY ( PHONE LINE) ENGAGED
CAFETERIA CANTEE
CANDY SWEETS British and American Grammar Differences
COOKIE BISCUITS In sentences which talk about an action in
COTTON CANDY CANDY FLOSS the past that has an effect in the present:
CROSSWALK ZEBRA CROSSING
FIRSTWALK GROUND FLOOR
- Jenny feels ill. She ate too much.
- Jenny feels ill. She's eaten too much.

Common Language
refers to words or phrases that are commonly understood by a group of people.
Bilingualism
is defined as a speaker's ability to use two languages for communication.
Multilingualism
the act of using polyglots, or using multiple languages.

The top 10 common Languages

1. ENGLISH
(1.452 billion speakers)
English is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family. Originating in early
medieval England, today English is both the most spoken language in the world and the third
most spoken native language, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.
2. MANDARIN CHINESE
(1.118 billion Speakers)
Mandarin is a group of Sinitic dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and
south-western China. The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of the phonology of
Standard Chinese, the official language of China.
3. HINDI
(602 million speakers)
Modern Standard Hindi, commonly referred to as Hindi, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken
chiefly in North India, and serves as the lingua franca of the Hindi Belt region encompassing
parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India.
4. SPANISH
(534 million speakers)
Spanish or Castilian is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved
from colloquial Latin spoken on the Iberian Peninsula of Europe. Today, it is a global language
with about 474.7 million native speakers, mainly in the Americas and Spain. Spanish is the
official language of 20 countries.
Arabic
(372 million speakers)
Arabic is a language of great importance in the world, with over 372 million speakers. It is
official in 25 countries in the Middle East and North Africa, including Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and
Iraq, and widely spoken in many more.
French
(300 million speakers)
French is a language that has captured the interest of millions of people worldwide. As the
second-most studied language, it has become a popular choice for individuals seeking to
broaden their cultural horizons or enhance their career prospects.
7. Bengali
(265 million speakers)
With over 250 million speakers, Bengali is an Indo-Aryan language that evolved from the
ancient Sanskrit language. It is the official language of Bangladesh and is also widely spoken in
many parts of India.
8. Russian
(258 million speakers)
Russian is not just a language but a culture in itself. It has a rich history and serves as the official
language of Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.
9. Portuguese
(223 million speakers)
Portuguese is much more than just a language, it’s a culture. It is official in 10 countries and
spoken by millions of people worldwide, making it one of the most widely-spoken Romance
languages.
10. Swahili (also known as Kiswahili)
(200 million speakers)
Swahili, an alternative name for Kiswahili, has gained recognition beyond East Africa,
captivating the interest of language enthusiasts and learners worldwide. As a result, it has
become one of the most studied African languages globally.

BILINGUALISM
Bilingualism what is it?
• Proficiency in two or more languages.
• Bilingualism is evident in reading, writing, speaking & listening.
• 50% of the world’s population is bilingual

Concepts Related to Bilingualism

 Consecutive versus Simultaneous Bilingual
 Early versus Late Bilingual
 Balanced versus Dominant Bilingual
 Additive versus Subtractive Bilingual
 Elite versus Folk Bilingual.

Consecutive vs. Simultaneous

Consecutive (or Successive) bilingual
Learning one language after already knowing another. This is the situation for all those
who become bilingual as adults, as well as for many who became bilingual earlier in life.
Sometimes also called consecutive bilingualism.
• Simultaneous bilingual:
 – Learning two languages as "first languages". That is, a person who is a simultaneous bilingual
goes from speaking no languages at all directly to speaking two languages. Infants who are
exposed to two languages from birth will become simultaneous bilinguals.
• Receptive bilingual:
– Being able to understand two languages but express oneself in only one. This is generally not
considered "true" bilingualism but is a fairly common situation.
EARLY VS LATE BILINGUAL
Early age of bilingual exposure has a significant impact on multiple aspects of a child’s
development: linguistic, cognitive and reading.
Children who experience early and extensive exposure to both of their languages quickly grasp
the fundamentals of both of their languages and in a manner similar to that of monolingual
language learners
Adolescent bilingual acquisition refers to the acquisition of a second language after puberty.
Adult bilingual acquisition refers to acquisition after the teen years.

Balanced vs. Dominant Bilinguals

Balanced bilingual: – someone whose mastery of two languages is roughly equivalent.
Dominant bilingual: – someone with greater proficiency in one of his or her languages and
uses it significantly more than the other language.
Semi lingual: – someone with insufficient knowledge of either language.

Types of processes in becoming bilingual

• Additive bilingualism
– Gain a second language while retaining a first language
– Acquisition of a second language is treated as an asset.
• Subtractive bilingualism
– Lose fluency of a first language when acquiring a second language
– Special heritage language schools can help children maintain the language and culture of their
parents.

Elite vs. Folk Bilinguals

• Elite bilingual:
– Individuals who choose to have a bilingual home, often in order to enhance social status.
• Folk bilingual:
– Individuals who develop second language capacity under circumstances that is not often of
their own choosing and in conditions where the society does not value their native language.

MULTILINGUALISM
the act of using polyglots, or using multiple languages. It can be either used by an individual
speaker or by a community of speakers.
TYPES OF MULTILINGUANISM
 ADDITIVE
 Learning of second language does not interfere with first language.

 SUBTRACTIVE
Learning of second language does interfere (replaces) with first language

Ways of Learning
 SUCCESSIVE Bilingualism
• Learning one language after already knowing another.
• Eg. Those who become bilingual as adults or in early life.
 SEQUENTIAL Bilingualism
• Learning two languages as “first languages”.
• Speaking no languages at all to speaking two languages directly.
• Eg. Infants exposed to two languages from birth
 RECEPTIVE Bilingualism
• Having the ability to understand a second language but not speaking it or not being
able to speak it due to psychological barriers.
• Eg. Children in Mexican immigrant households hear English on TV, in stores etc., but
use their home language (Spanish) in everyday communication. When they enter
preschool or kindergarten, these children are likely to make rapid progress in English
because their receptive language skills in English has been developed.

WORLD ENGLISHES
refers to the emergence of localized or indigenized varieties of English, especially
varieties that have developed in nations colonized by Great Britain or influenced by the
United States. World Englishes consist of varieties of English used in diverse
sociolinguistic contexts globally, and how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural
backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of colonial English in different
regions of the world.
The issue of World Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of regional
Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness, comprehensibility and
interpretability justified the use of English as an international and intra-national
language. In 1988, at a Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
conference in Honolulu, Hawaii, the International Committee of the Study of World
Englishes (ICWE) was formed.[In 1992, the ICWE formally launched the International
Association for World Englishes (IAWE) at a conference of "World Englishes Today", at
the University of Illinois, USA. approximately 75 territories where English is spoken
either as a first language (L1) or as an unofficial or institutionalized second language (L2)
in fields such as government, law and education. It is difficult to establish the total
 number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English are constantly being
developed and discovered.

Languages develop to fulfill the needs of the societies that use them. Because societies
contain a diverse range of social needs, and because these needs can differ across
cultures and geographies, multiple varieties of the English language exist. These include
American English, British English, Australian English, Canadian English, Indian English,
and so on.

Classification of Englishes
The spread of English around the world is often discussed in
terms of three distinct groups of users, where English is used
respectively as:

• a native language (ENL); the primary language of the majority

population of a country, such as in the United States, the United
Kingdom and Australia.

• a second language (ESL); an additional language for intranational as

well as international communication in communities that are
multilingual, such as in India, Nigeria, and Singapore

• A foreign language (EFL); used almost exclusively for international

communication, such as in Japan and Germany.

MANAYAN, DARYL L.
BSED ENGLISH
 KACKHRU’S CONCENTRIC CIRCLE AND PHILIPPINE ENGLISH

Braj Kachru (1985/1988) was a Professor of Linguistics who coined the term 'World English'.

'World English' refers to the fact that the English language has been used as a global means of communication in
numerous dialects worldwide. It also refers to the movement towards an 'international standard' of the English
language.

The Kachru’s model consisted on three concentric circles;

INNER CIRCLE
OUTER CIRCLE
EXPANDING CIRCLE

• The amount of speakers in the Inner and Outer Circles are both estimated at 37 million and the Expanding Circle
at 750-1000million.
• According to Graddol (2000). Inner Circle Englishes in the model refer to the traditional Centre’s of the language
or the colonizing nations that spread the language to different territories, here English is the first or native
language. The Outer Circle populated by the colonized territories in which English is a second or non-native
language and used in different functional domains, such as government, and the Expanding Circle includes all
nations that use English as a foreign language.

The Inner Circle

The inner circle is consist of those countries who are considered the 'traditional bases' of English, such as
the U.K., U.S.A, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and anglophone Canada. English in these countries are classed as a
'first' language. Kachru labels the inner circle countries as 'norm-providing' - the norms (standard of the English
language are produced there.

The Outer Circle

The outer circle is consist of countries where English is not spoken natively but is still maintained as an
important language for communication .These countries include: India, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia,
Tanzania, Kenya, non- anglophone South Africa and Canada. Kachru labels these countries as 'norm- developing' -
the norms produced by the inner circle are further developed and reproduced in the outer circle.

The Expanding Circle

The expanding circle includes much of the rest of the world's population - countries that do not hold
historical or governmental importance towards English, but class it as a foreign language. Main examples of such
countries include: most of Europe, China, Russia, Japan, Korea, Egypt and Indonesia. These countries are 'norm-
dependent' - they fully depend on the norms originally produced by the native speakers of the inner circle. They
generally do not develop or reproduce 'Englishes'.

PHILIPPINE ENGLISH
 Philippine English is the variety of English used in the Philippines.
 English is taught in schools as one of the two official languages of the country.
 Philippine English is one of the very few American-transplanted Englishes.
Philippine English (similar and related to American English) is any variety of English native to the
Philippines, including those used by the media and the vast majority of educated Filipinos and
English learners in the Philippines from adjacent Asian countries.
A national variety called Philippine English evolved as a result of the American colonization, and
was arguably one of the fastest to develop in the postcolonial world.

Here are a few key features of Philippine English:

1. Vocabulary
Philippine English incorporates words and phrases from Filipino languages, known as
Taglish or Englog. Code-switching – the mixing of English and Filipino words – is common in
everyday speech. Additionally, some uniquely Filipino words and expressions are used in
Philippine English.

2. Pronunciation
Due to influences from local languages, the pronunciation of certain English sounds
may differ from standard American or British English. Filipinos tend to stress the second-to-last
syllable of words, and there may be a slight accent or nasal quality in their pronunciation.

3. Grammar
Philippine English generally follows the same grammatical rules as other varieties, but
there are some differences in usage. For example, the use of certain verb forms, prepositions,
and articles may vary. There is also a tendency to use repetition for emphasis, such as saying "I
am going na going to the store."

4. Intonation and Rhythm

Filipinos often have a melodious and sing-song quality to their speech, which is
influenced by their native languages. This can be observed through the rising and falling
intonation patterns, slight pauses, and expressive gestures in conversation.

5. English Proficiency
English has a strong presence in the Philippines, with many Filipinos being fluent or
highly proficient in the language. It is widely used in education, government, media, and
business. As a result, Philippine English speakers may have a higher level of English proficiency
compared to speakers of English in other non-native countries.

It is important to note that Philippine English is a dynamic and evolving form of the language,
influenced by factors such as social media, pop culture, and globalization. The extent of usage
and variation may also vary depending on the speaker's level of education, region, and social
background.
LOOD

Charles F. Hockett

In the 1960s, linguistic anthropologist Charles F. Hockett defined a set of features that characterize
human language and set it apart from animal communication. He called these characteristics the design
features of language. Hockett originally believed there to be 13 design features. While primate
communication utilizes the first 9 features, the final 4 features (displacement, productivity, cultural
transmission, and duality) are reserved for humans. Hockett later added prevarication, reflexiveness, and
learnability to the list as uniquely human characteristics. He asserted that even the most basic human
languages possess these 16 features.

The 13 features of human language

The first 9.

1. Vocal-Auditory Channel: refers to the idea that speaking/hearing is the mode humans use for
language. It best describes the way how vocal signals can be used to produce language. Hocket
defined this first feature as only using the sense of hearing and most especially talking which
simply hinted or reflects that the ideology of orality was prevalent during the time.

Like humans, many primates communicate through vocalizations that are heard by others. For
instance, chimpanzees use various vocalizations to signal different emotions. They may scream
when threatened or produce a "pant hoot" to communicate over long distances.

2. Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: as the name suggests, it is the human or the
animal’s language signals which is sent out in all directions, while it is perceived in a limited
direction. In other words, the sounds perpetuate as waveforms that expand from the mouth in
all directions, and the listener hears those sounds as coming from particular direction.

Primate vocalizations are often broadcast to a wide audience. When a monkey alarm calls to
warn of a predator, it's meant for all group members to hear. However, directional reception can
occur, as receivers can locate the source of a call.

3. Rapid Fading (Transitoriness): in the case of primates, primate vocalizations often have limited
persistence, meaning they don't last long after being produced.

Many primate vocalizations have limited persistence. For example, a vervet monkey's alarm call
may cease shortly after the threat has passed. Another example is the dawn chorus of birds in
the early morning often consists of multiple individuals singing to establish territory and signal
readiness for the day. Once the morning light is established and territories are claimed, the
intense singing tends to subside. Another example is Roosters. Once the light change in the
morning and the environmental conditions, they typically stop crowing or do so less frequently
throughout the day.

4. Interchangeability: the speaker can both receive and broadcast the same signal. Put, differently
the speaker can be a listener and a speaker in a turn taking situation. While primates can
 produce various vocalizations, they cannot typically switch roles as both sender and receiver in a
single interaction to the same extent as humans can.
For instance, while the monkeys can give an alarm call, it cannot easily respond to its own call in
a way that conveys the same message. However, humans can.

5. Total Feedback: in a human scale, the sender of the message also hears and perceived the
message. The speaker can hear themselves while producing the speech and thus can monitor
their language performance as they proceed.

For example, “piyok”

6. Specialization: this means that the organs used for producing speech are specially adapted to
perform that task. Just like how you say the letter “L” so you put it in the top of your mouth or in
your palate. Or how you close and open your mouth when you say “mama.” This simply refers
that the purpose of linguistic signals is to communicate and not to provide some other biological
function.

One example on non-specialized communication is dog panting.

7. Semanticity: it commonly refers to as “meaning”. Specific language signals represent specific

meanings; the associations are ‘relatively fixed’. An example is how a single object is represented
by different language signals i.e., words in different languages. In French, the word sel represents
a white, crystalline substance consisting of sodium and chlorine atoms. Yet in English, this same
substance is represented by the word salt.

For instance, in the case of animals, a female baboon's vocalizations may vary depending on
whether she is in estrus (a state in which a female mammal is ready to mate) or not, reflecting
her reproductive state.

8. Arbitrariness: (meaning “unreasonable”) There is no intrinsic or logical connection between the

form of specific language signals and the nature of the specific meanings they represent.
Instead, the signal and the meaning are linked by either convention or instinct. The signal is
related to the meaning by convention but has no inherent relationship with the meaning. There
is no reason why a four-legged domestic canine should be called dog.

9. Discreteness: Language can be broken down into small discrete units which are reproducible and
combinable. These units are perceived distinctly and not continuously. Signs are decomposed
into meaningless units, which however can be recombined into new signs. For example, the
difference between a /b/ sound and a /p/ sound is not actually very great, but when these
sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrences of
one rather than the other is meaningful. It simply discusses the concept of phonemes(the
smallest units of sound in a language that can change the meaning of word when replaced.)
based from the given example itself, the sounds represented by the letters “b” and “p” are
distinct phonemes because they can change the meaning of a word.

The 4 classifications that are for humans.

 10. Displacement: it’s about communicating about things or events that are distant in time or
space. Refers to the idea that humans can talk about things that are not physically present or
that do not even exist. Speakers can talk about the past and the future and can express hopes
and dreams. A human’s speech is not limited to here and now. Displacement is one of the
features that separates human language from other forms of primate communication.
Displacement also includes prevarication, which is the ability to lie or produce utterances which
do not correspond with reality. Language signals may be used to convey ideas about things not
physically or temporally present at the time of the communicative event such as a topic that is
linked to the past or future.

11. Productivity: Human language is highly productive, meaning that we can create and understand
an infinite number of novel sentences by combining a finite set of linguistic elements (words,
morphemes, etc.). This allows for creativity and the expression of a wide range of ideas and
concepts, which is not as flexible in primate communication. In other cases, humans can create
and conjure a new word that was never been heard before, and that’s an example of
productivity.
Refers to the idea that language-users can create and understand novel utterances. Humans are
able to produce an unlimited number of utterances. Also related to productivity is the concept of
grammatical patterning, which facilitates the use and comprehension of language. Language is
not stagnant but is constantly changing. New idioms are created all the time and the meaning of
signals can vary depending on the context and situation.
also called openness or creativity. It entails reflexiveness, the ability of language to be used to
talk about language. Humans can use language to understand and produce an indefinite number
of novel utterances.

12. Traditional transmission (cultural transmission): is the idea that, while humans are born with
innate language capabilities, language is learned after birth in a social setting. It differs critically
from Chomsky's idea of Universal Grammar but rather purports that people learn how to speak
by interacting with experienced language users. Significantly, language and culture are woven
together in this construct, functioning hand in hand for language acquisition.

13. Duality of Patterning: The discrete speech sounds of a language combine to form discrete
morphological units, which do not have meaning in itself. These morphemes have to be further
combined to form meaningful words and sentences. Meaningful messages are made up of
distinct smaller units. These smaller units (such as sounds) are virtually meaningless until they
are combined into meaningful patterns (such as words). Large numbers of meaningful signals
(e.g., morphemes or words) produced from a small number of meaningless units (e.g.,
phonemes). For example, when we create a sentence, we first combine phonemes (smallest unit
of sound) to create morphemes (words) and then we combine morphemes to create a sentence.

The Other features

1. Prevarication: the ability to lie or deceive. When using language, humans can make false or
meaningless statements.
2. Reflexiveness: humans can use language to talk about language.
3. Learnability: language is teachable and learnable. In the same way as a speaker learns their first
language, the speaker is able to learn other languages. It is worth nothing that young children
 learn language with competence and ease; however, language acquisition becomes more
difficult once children pass a certain age.

Michael Halliday
- was a British linguist who studied child language acquisition.
- He suggested that communication and language acquisition begin before children can speak.
- his work is based on a description of how his son Nigel learnt to talk.
- he recorded his son’s developing language in the form of extensive notes, which included
pronunciation, intonation and stress.
- He categorized two functions of language, the Meta-function (Macro-function) and the Micro-
function.
- He believes that, as a child learns its first language, it simultaneously learns about the world
around them. Halliday viewed language as a cultural code that teaches us how to be part of
society, rather than simply a method of communication.

THE META-FUNCTION (Macro-function)

Halliday, the proponents of systemic functional linguistics, described language as Meta-functional.

According to him, Meta-function is a set of principles of language that are essential in explaining how
adult language works. This includes textual, ideational and interpersonal functions.

ldeational Function

An ideational function involves the natural world and human consciousness. This is concerned
with creating and maintaining a notion of experience, which is both experiential and logical.

Experiential function denotes the speaker's choice of linguistic elements that will help him to
make meaning. This is mostly illustrated when you interact with your surrounding and use the language
to construe an abstract prototype of your experiences. The pattens of meaning are installed in your
brain, which are used to make sense of the complex world around you. Halliday noted that through
interactions, humans make meaning from their experiences.

Logical function denotes logical-semantic associations, where the relationship between one
clausal unit and another is established. Combining clausal units such that in conditional sentences is a
logical process.

Example 1 (Experiential Function): "The sun is shining brightly."

In this sentence, the language is used to express the experience of the sun shining,
conveying information about a specific event or state.

Example 2 (Logical Function): "Because it rained last night, the ground is wet this
morning."
This sentence uses language to establish a logical connection between the rain and
the wet ground, showing a cause-and-effect relationship.
Interpersonal Function

An interpersonal function is about the world of people working together. This function seeks to
create and uphold social relationships. This includes sentences and grammatical choices that allow a
person to enact interpersonal relations. This is grounded on the assumption that a speaker always
communicates with another, which shows that language does not only interpret experiences but also as
a vehicle with which to interact.

Halliday argues that through the changing micro-encounters of the day-to-day interactions,
people set a complex pattern of dialogue to a more permanent relationship, where the language is used
to institute social bonds. The grammatical system that relates to the interpersonal function includes
mood, modality, and polarity.

Example: "Could you please pass the salt?"

This sentence uses the interrogative mood and polite expressions to make a
request, demonstrating the interpersonal function of language by conveying
politeness and seeking cooperation.

Textual Function

Halliday believes that ideational and interpersonal functions are intricately structured. These two
are combined freely and as Halliday puts it, with a distinct mode of meaning that is the textual function.
The textual function comprises all the grammatical systems needed to create relevance to
context, through which "language creates a semiotic world of its own" A text is created that coheres the
context of the situation within itself.

Example: "First, we need to gather the ingredients. Next, we'll mix them
thoroughly, and finally, we'll bake the cake."
This sequence of sentences illustrates the textual function of language by
providing a clear structure and sequence for a set of instructions.

THE MICRO-FUNCTION

Halliday (1978), further, looked at language as constructed by interaction, rather than acquired.
He believes that "what the child hears is functionally related to the observable situations around him."
He proposed 7 functions of language based on the premise that interaction in society is necessary to
master the language.

He categorized the 7 functions of language. The first 4 functions are what he referred to as
pragmatic, which is to fulfill his social, physical, and emotional needs such as instrumental, regulatory,
interactional, and personal. For children, language is used as a tool for controlling of others and
expressing oneself or, for creating interaction within the child's social world.

The remaining three functions are what he calls "mathematic", which are used to help a person
come to terms with his/her physical atmosphere, which include imaginative, heuristic, and
representational.
Instrumental function

Before the child learns the concrete language, he/she uses sounds and signs to communicate
with the people around him/her. This use of language instruments is called the instrumental function.
Oftentimes the instrumental function is used when a child expresses what he/she wants, such as food or
milk. Even crying serves as an instrument of a child's need. It signals the adults around him/her that
he/she could be hungry, or he/she needs a hug and cuddle, or that he/she wants the attention of the
people around him/her.

The instrumental function of language refers to the use of language to communicate needs,
express desires, choices, and preferences. Using language as an instrument, the child could get things
done. Halliday illustrates instrumental function as a child's instrument such as sounds to get what he/she
wants, even before learning a concrete verbal language.

The expression I want to… is often used.

Regulatory function

There are instances when the child demands attention and wants to control or influence the
people around. This is done by the use of verbal language. Such language is used for regulatory function.
The regulatory function refers to the use of language to control and regulate behavior. It is concerned
with influencing people to do things for the child.

Most of the regulatory expressions include:

Go away…
Do as I tell you…
You need…

Interactional

After learning a few words, children tend to become very talkative. They always want to interact
with the people around them, oftentimes to get the attention of people, about the things that they
notice, or just to use the language. The language takes functions as interactional function.

Interactional language is often used to develop a relationship and smoothen interaction. This
includes greetings or responding to calls.

Interactional language includes phrases like:

I love you" or "thank you.

Personal function

This is when the child announces himself/herself which oftentimes starts with competing with
others. This happens when the child wants to display his/her grasp of himself/herself and how he/she is
distinct from the environment. This language function is called personal.
 A personal function of language is demonstrated when it is used to convey information based
on a personal level such as emotions and attitudes and the identity of the speaker. This function
includes "noises children make when they find something interesting, or something tastes nice"
(Thwaite, 2019). Example:
The expression used is "Here I am…”

Heuristic Function

Children have inquisitive minds. They always try to learn new things and gain knowledge of their
surroundings. Once a boundary between them and the environment is established, they start to explore
his/her environment. Their curiosity is ignited as they name objects, throw questions, ask about
everything that they see and observe.

When the children explore and desire to learn from their environment, they use language in a
heuristic manner.

Example expressions include:

What is that for?
Tell me why…

Imaginative Function

Children’s minds are very imaginative. They usually use language to get into world of fantasy.
Children love to tell stories and invent dialogues without having the constraints of having to tell the
truth. In this sense, language is used with an imaginative function.

The imaginative function of language is used by children to generate imaginary construct. This
is observed when they talk to themselves, create a story, and converse with an imaginary friend. The
imaginary function of language is fulfilled when children, create and modify the place and the situation
that they are in by using the language.

Some imaginative language expressions include:

Let's pretend…
Imagine that…

Representational function

After learning the environment, children then formulate ideas and tell others of their
observations. They use language to convey facts, explain ideas, relay, and request information. This use
of language is what Halliday called the representational function of language where the child accurately
captures how the world works. The representational language function is done more when children
start attending school and start to stretch their speech.
Examples:
I will tell you…
I know…
CAMPOREDONDO

Non-Human Communication

What is communication

 Communication is the act of conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through
the use of mutually understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules.
Non-Human Communication

 is the way anything non-human communicates without the use of words.

 It is not symbolic, so it cannot preserve ideas of the past.
How do animals communicate?

 An animal can transmit information to another animal causing some kind of change in the
animal that gets the information.
 Communication may happen between animals of the same species or animals of different
species.
Common Forms of Animal Communication

 Visual CommunicationUsing their sense of sight, they are able to convey their message to one
another. It comes in two forms: badges and displays. Badges refers to the physical appearance
of an animal that hold certain meaning for their kind. Displays, on the other hand, are the
animal behaviors.
 Auditory CommunicationIt involves the use of hearing, on which animals produce sounds that
conveys different meanings. The hissing, barking, purring, and growling are some of the
examples of auditory communication. The sounds that they produce maybe used to ward off
threats, attract mates, or express feelings of pain or happiness
 Tactile Communication They also use the sense of touch to convey messages. They use this form
of communication to show comfort or fear, affection, and power.
 Chemical CommunicationSome animals also use pheromones or chemical markings to attract
mate, ward off threats, and mark their territories. They do that by releasing or leaving their own
signature scent.Transmission in Animal Communication
Illustration 1:
 Animal Consciousness
 It is the quality or state of self-awareness within a non-human animal.
Self-Awareness

 to be conscious means to be awake and receptive to stimulus received from the surrounding
environment.
 Mirror Test: A popular test for consciousness
Critical Thinking
  capacity to reason, think, analyze, and make logical decisions.

Experiments on Languages and Animals

 1930s: A chimp named Gua was trained. He was able to understand a hundred words but could
not produce any of them.
 1960s: Washoe was taught American Sign Lang. She learnt how to sign more than 100 words:
airplane, baby. banana.
 1980s: Kanzi, the Bonobo, learned the word symbols not by being taught but by being exposed
to them at an early age.

Submitted by: Halasan Jhea T. BSED-ENG2

Submitted to: Mr. Nelmer L. Ganaton
Course Code: AS4
Topic: Language and Culture
 Accounts on the Origin of Language( Biblical, Mythological, Historical, and
Scientific Accounts)
 Otto Jespersen Language Origin Hypotheses

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to;
 Identify the different accounts on the origin of language and Otto Jespersen’s
hypotheses.
 Explain the importance of knowing the origin of language.
 Differentiate the accounts on the origin of language and the hypotheses of Otto
Jespersen.

Concept Notes:
Accounts on the Origin of Language
1. Biblical Accounts
 The bible doesn’t describe the original development of language. Rather,
language is shown to be a trait of God Himself. In just the third verse of Genesis
1, we read,
“And God said, Let there be light….”
 Adam and Eve
God brought the animals to Adam “to see what he would call them; And
whatever Adam called each living creature, that’s what its name. So,
Adam gave names to all…” (Genesis 2:19-20; new King James Version)
  Tower of Babel
Tower of Babel, in biblical literature, structure built in the land of Shinar
(Babylonia). The story of its construction, given in Genesis 11:1-9, appears
to be an attempt to explain the existence of diverse human languages.

2. Historical Accounts
 In the early days of human migration back 260 million years ago, the world was
much less populated. Groups of people that shared a single language and
culture often split into smaller tribes, going separate ways in search of fresh food
and fertile land.
 As they migrated and settled in new places, they became isolated from one
another and developed in different ways. Centuries of living in different
conditions, eating different food and encountering different neighbours turned
similar dialects with varied pronunciation and vocabulary into radically
different languages, continuing to divide as populations grew and spread out
further.
3. Mythological Accounts
 god Thoth ( Egyptian Mythology)
The Egyptians believe that the god of language is god Thoth. He was
highly regarded as the creator of languages, the inventor of writing, the
god’s scribe, and the interpreter.
 goddess Amaterasu (Japanese Mythology)
The goddess of creation and the creation itself was thought to be the
creator of language.
 Goddess Saravasti ( Hindu Mythology)
For the Hindus, their ability to speak was bestowed to them by the
goddess Saravasti, the wife of Brahma.
 According to the Wa-Sania people from East Africa, all human spoke a single
language, but then a sickness came over them that cause them go crazy and
speak new words, developing into different languages.
 Aboriginal Australian Myth
An old woman named Wurruri passed away, and different tribes of
people came to eat her corpse. With each tribe eating a different part of
her body, they came way speaking different languages.
4. Scientific Accounts
 Ta-Ta Theory -Language began as tongue movements and mimicking hand
gestures. An example would be the word “ta-ta” itself—the mouth almost
“waves” just like the hand does when saying “goodbye”.
  Ta-ra-ra-boom-de-ay Theory - Language is rooted in the sounds created by
ancient people in ritual and prayer.
 Yo-He-Ho Theory - Humans developed language through coordinated chanting
in order to get work done, to hunt for food and to alert kinsmen to potential
threats.
 Put the baby down - This theory proposes that when humans evolved, mothers
lost the ability to have enough body hair that let babies cling to their mothers. It
speculates that parent and infant would have more need to communicate when
perpetual physical contact was abandoned.
 Single Step Theory (Noam Chomsky) - According to him, human language came
about from a single random mutation in the human brain. Chomsky presumes
that this mutation created a small group of homo sapiens who had the ability to
speak, and through natural selection and evolution, this mutation eventually
spread to all humans. This mutation, he says, gave humans the innate ability to
communicate with complex language.

Otto Jespersen’s Language Origin Hypotheses

Who is Otto Jespersen?

 His full name is “ Jens Otto Harry Jespersen”
 Born on July 16, 1860
 A Danish Linguist and a Foremost authority of English Grammar.
 He helped to revolutionized language teaching in Europe, he contributed greatly
to the advancement of phonetics, linguistic theory, and the history of English, and
originated on international language Novial.
 Died on April 30, 1943 in Roskilde, Denmark at the aged of 82 years old.
1. Bow-Wow Theory
 Language began as imitations of natural sounds.
 Such as “bark”, “moo”, and “meow”
 Technically referred to us as onomatopoeia.
2. Pooh-Pooh Theory
 People make instinctive sounds related to emotions, body functions, and pain.
 Such as “oh!”, “wow” for surprise and “ouch” for pain.
3. Ding-Dong Theory
  This theory maintains that speech arose in response to the essential qualities of
objects in the environment. The original sounds people made were supposedly in
harmony with the world around them.
4. Sing-Song Theory
 Jespersen suggested that language comes out of play, laughter, cooing, courtship,
emotional mutterings and the like.

Also known as the La-La theory or the theory that language was born of the need to
express poetry and love.

JED B. LUBAS REPORT AS4 ENG103

SEMIOTICS
the study of signs, symbols, and their use of interpretation
WHAT IS SEMIOTICS?
- noun
• the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation.

• the systematic study of sign processes and meaning-making.

Semiosis is any activity, conduct, or process that involves signs, where a sign is defined as anything that
communicates something, usually called a meaning, to the sign's interpreter. Semiotics can include signs, logos,
gestures and other linguistic and nonlinguistic communication methods. As a word, semiotics derives from the
Greek sēmeiōtikós, which describes “the action of interpreting signs”.
HISTORICAL CATALOGS OF THE SEMIOTIC FUNCTION AND THEORIES:
• The importance of signs and signification has been recognized throughout much of the history
of philosophy and psychology. The term derives from Ancient Greek σημειωτικός (sēmeiōtikós) 'observant
of signs' (from σημεῖον (sēmeîon) 'a sign, mark, token'). For the Greeks, 'signs' (σημεῖον sēmeîon)
occurred in the world of nature and 'symbols' (σύμβολον súmbolon) in the world of culture. As
such, Plato and Aristotle explored the relationship between signs and the world.

It would not be until Augustine of Hippo or Saint Augustine that the nature of the sign would be considered within
a conventional system. Augustine introduced a thematic proposal for uniting the two under the notion of 'sign'
(signum) as transcending the nature-culture divide and identifying symbols as no more than a species (or sub-
species) of signum. A monograph study on this question would be done by Manetti (1987).
SEMIOTICS IN ITS MODERNIZED DEFINITION AND FUNCTION
It was defined by one of its founders, the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, as the study of “the life of signs
within society.” Although the word was used in this sense in the 17th century by the English philosopher John
Locke, the idea of semiotics as an interdisciplinary field of study emerged only in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries with the independent work of Saussure and of the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce.
Saussure treated language as a sign-system, and his work in linguistics supplied the concepts and methods that
semioticians applied to sign-systems other than language. One such basic semiotic concept is Saussure’s distinction
between the two inseparable components of a sign: the signifier, which in language is a set of speech sounds or
marks on a page, and the signified, which is the concept or idea behind the sign. Saussure also
distinguished parole, or actual individual utterances, from langue, the underlying system of conventions that
makes such utterances understandable; it is this underlying langue that most interests semioticians.
Peirce’s seminal work in the field was anchored in pragmatism and logic. He defined a sign as “something which
stands to somebody for something,” and one of his major contributions to semiotics was the categorization of
signs into three main types: (1) an icon, which resembles its referent (such as a road sign for falling rocks); (2)
an index, which is associated with its referent (as smoke is a sign of fire); and (3) a symbol, which is related to its
referent only by convention (as with words or traffic signals). Peirce also demonstrated that a sign can never have
a definite meaning, for the meaning must be continuously qualified.
Ferdinand de Saussure, the founder of semiotics saw signs as the basic unit of meaning and he defined two parts of
signs.
1. Signifier — The form of a sign. The form might be a sound, a word, a photograph, a facial expression, a
painting of a pipe, etc.

2. Signified — The concept or object that’s represented. The concept or object might be an actual pipe, the
command to stop, a warning of radioactivity.

Peirce added a third part, the interpretant or what the audience makes of the sign or the sense of what’s actually
communicated.
The 5 components of modern Signifiers in Semiotics:
• Icon

• Index

• Symptom

• Signal

• Symbol

ICON
• In semiotics, an icon is a sign that represents an object, place or idea.

• Icons bear a physical resemblance to what's being represented. A photograph is an example of an icon
signifier. Take a picture of a tree and the resulting image will look like that tree.

4 Types of Iconic Representation

• Resemblance icons are direct likenesses of the objects they represent. (camera icon for a smartphone
camera app)

• Exemplar icons depict a common example of the class of objects they represent. (trowel or rake to
represent gardening)

• Symbolic icons convey a concept at a higher level of abstraction than the object depicted. (cracked
wineglass to indicate something is fragile)

• Arbitrary icons have no relationship to an object or concept and their association must be learned.
(computer on/off power button)

INDEX
• In semiotics, an index describes the connection between signifier and signified. With an index, the signifier
can not exist without the presence of the signified. For example smoke is an index of fire. Dark clouds are
an index of rain.

SYMPTOM
• In semiotics, a symptom could be any action that indicate another action.

• Symptoms also bear a physical resemblance to what's being represented. A person holding his belly in
crouching position is an example of an acting symptom. Look at a man with this action, it could mean a
stomach ache, or any other symptoms of uncomforting or pain; look at a man walking with one leg and
the other raised, it could mean a leg injury, among other symptoms.
SIGNAL
• In semiotics, a signal could be any action that expresses environmental factors.

• Similar to symptoms, signals also bear a physical resemblance to what's also being represented. A person
waving one of his arm could signal the receiver’s attention, a child’s cry signals the guardian/parents
attention, a construction worker waving a green flag signals the traffic to proceed in the route.

SYMBOL
• In semiotics, a Symbol has no resemblance between the signifier and the signified.

• The connection between them must be culturally learned. Numbers and alphabets are good examples.
There’s nothing inherent in the number 9 to indicate what it represents. It must be culturally learned.

• Biological hazard and Radioactive symbols needs to be learned to be understood by the learner. If one
does not know its meaning and saw this sign in real life, one cannot just look at it and say “What is that
symbol it looks so cool!”

Sign language
What is Sign Language?
noun
• Sign languages are languages that use the visual-manual modality to convey meaning, instead of spoken
words. Sign languages are expressed through manual articulation in combination with non-manual
markers. Sign languages are full-fledged natural languages with their own grammar and lexicon.

• A system of communication using visual gestures and signs, as used by deaf people.

Sign languages (also known as signed languages) are languages that use the visual-manual modality to convey
meaning, instead of spoken words. Sign languages are expressed through manual articulation in combination
with non-manual markers. Sign languages are full-fledged natural languages with their own grammar and lexicon.
Sign languages are not universal and are usually not mutually intelligible, although there are also similarities
among different sign languages.
Linguists consider both spoken and signed communication to be types of natural language, meaning that both
emerged through an abstract, protracted aging process and evolved over time without meticulous planning. This is
supported by the fact that there is substantial overlap between the neural substrates of sign and spoken language
processing, despite the obvious differences in modality. Sign language should not be confused with body language,
a type of nonverbal communication.
Wherever communities of deaf people exist, sign languages have developed as useful means of communication
and form the core of local Deaf cultures. Although signing is used primarily by the deaf and hard of hearing, it is
also used by hearing individuals, such as those unable to physically speak, those who have trouble with oral
language due to a disability or condition (augmentative and alternative communication), and those with deaf
family members including children of deaf adults.
The number of sign languages worldwide is not precisely known. Each country generally has its own native sign
language; some have more than one. The 2021 edition of Ethnologue lists 150 sign languages, while the SIGN-HUB
Atlas of Sign Language Structures lists over 200 and notes that there are more which have not been documented
or discovered yet. As of 2021, Indo Sign Language is the most used sign language in the world,
and Ethnologue ranks it as the 151st most "spoken" language in the world.
Some sign languages have obtained some form of legal recognition.
Linguists distinguish natural sign languages from other systems that are precursors to them or obtained from
them, such as constructed manual codes for spoken languages, home sign, "baby sign", and signs learned by non-
human primates.
Groups of deaf people have used sign languages throughout history. One of the earliest written records of a sign
language is from the fifth century BC, in Plato's Cratylus, where Socrates says: "If we hadn't a voice or a tongue,
and wanted to express things to one another, wouldn't we try to make signs by moving our hands, head, and the
rest of our body, just as dumb people do at present?" Until the 19th century, most of what is known about
historical sign languages is limited to the manual alphabets (fingerspelling systems) that were invented to facilitate
the transfer of words from a spoken language to a sign language, rather than documentation of the language itself.
Debate around the monastic sign-language developed in the Middle Ages has come to regard it as a gestural
system rather than a true sign language.
The earliest records of contact between Europeans and Indigenous peoples of the Gulf Coast region in what is now
Texas and northern Mexico note a fully formed sign language already in use by the time of the Europeans' arrival
there. These records include the accounts of Cabeza de Vaca in 1527 and Coronado in 1541.

Spanish monk Pedro Ponce de León (1520–1584) developed the first manual alphabet. This alphabet was based, in
whole or in part, on the simple hand gestures used by monks living in silence.
In 1620, Juan Pablo Bonet published Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos ('Reduction
of letters and art for teaching mute people to speak') in Madrid. It is considered the first modern treatise of sign
language phonetics, setting out a method of oral education for deaf people and a manual alphabet.
In Britain, manual alphabets were also in use for a number of purposes, such as secret communication, public
speaking, or communication by or with deaf people. In 1648, John Bulwer described "Master Babington", a deaf
man proficient in the use of a manual alphabet, "contryved on the joynts of his fingers", whose wife could converse
with him easily, even in the dark through the use of tactile signing.
In 1680, George Dalgarno published Didascalocophus, or, The deaf and dumb mans tutor, in which he presented
his own method of deaf education, including an "arthrological" alphabet, where letters are indicated by pointing to
different joints of the fingers and palm of the left hand. Arthrological systems had been in use by hearing people
for some time; some have speculated that they can be traced to early Ogham manual alphabets.
SIGN LANGUAGE IN THE PHILIPPINES
In the Philippines, there’s an estimated 121,000 Deaf Filipinos according to the 2000 Philippine census. Often, the
Hearing might not be conscious of them or their experiences — but it doesn’t mean that they don’t exist. In fact, in
the face of current events and changes going on in the country, it’s important now more than ever to understand
and work with various sectors, including the Deaf population.
One of the common misconceptions about Deaf Filipinos has to do with sign language. While plenty of Hearing are
likely familiar with American Sign Language (ASL), many are still unaware that the Filipino Deaf have their own
unique language called Filipino Sign Language (FSL).
According to “Filipino Sign Language A Compilation of signs from the regions of the Philippines,” published by the
Philippine Federation of the Deaf (PFD) in 2005, the use of sign language in the Philippines can be dated as far back
as 1604. Using signs, a Spanish priest in Leyte taught two deaf Filipinos about God. These two would then go on to
teach other deaf Filipinos in their mission residence.As pointed out in the PFD publication, regardless of whether or
not the exchange used Filipino or Spanish sign language, what is important is that communication took place
between Deaf people using a shared language.
When the American Thomasites arrived in 1907, they brought with them ASL and artificial signs in English, marking
ASL’s first entry into the Filipino Deaf’s sign language system. The CEAD FSL research team shares that the
Thomasites, U.S. Peace Corps volunteers, and American missionaries who founded Deaf schools in the Philippines
have referred to ‘Filipino,’ ‘Philippine,’ or ‘Traditional’ signs in certain publications, such as “Love Signs,” published
by American missionary Rev Wayne Shaneyfelt. This tells us about how FSL rooted itself and how the entry of ASL,
especially in education, took hold.
In a lot of today’s Deaf education, Signing Exact English (SEE) is also commonly used, especially when the teacher is
not deaf and defaults to directly translating the lessons.
The use of ASL early on in Filipino Deaf education has led to its being ingrained into FSL, even until today.
Ultimately, FSL has become a product of the complex history of SEE, ASL, and FSL being shared in the
communication between Deaf Filipinos.
As the CEAD FSL research team puts it, “there’s no such thing as 100 percent FSL ... But it’s still important that we
recognize that FSL has its own structure and that it developed naturally.”
Though Filipino Sign Language has come a long way, it is still constantly growing and evolving throughout the
nation, as different regions adapt and develop their own unique signs. According to the 2004 study, “FSL
Compilation of Signs from Regions of the Philippines Part Two,” the word ‘pig,’ for example, has at least 20
recorded variations across the Philippines.
Disney Aguila, president of Pinoy Deaf Rainbow, gives another example. “Halimbawa ‘Bicol,’ ganito …” she says
while signing what resembles a volcano. “Kasi Mayon Volcano. Ganito ‘yan kasi visual.”
“[Pero] ‘pag dating sa Bicol, sabi nila hindi. ‘Ito ang Bicol para sa amin,’” she continues, signing instead a motion
where she fans her mouth. “Kasi mahilig sila sa sili. So ang sabi namin, sige rerespetuhin namin ‘yung senyas niyo
diyan.”
However, while the language continues to evolve around the country, with prevalent use of it among the Filipino
Deaf, there’s still a struggle to make the rest of the nation accept and understand the nature of FSL.
Many Filipinos still think that ASL is the only sign system and that it’s used universally, but while there is indeed a
large overlap in signs between FSL and ASL (and other sign languages) and plenty of Deaf would understand the
gist or topic of what is being signed, it’s still not enough. There are variations in many signs, including those that
refer to specific locations.
McLawrence Dabalos BSED – English II
Theories in Language and Culture
Safir-Worf Hypothesis – is a theory in the field of linguistics and cognitive science that suggests that the
language we speak can influence and shape our perception of the world and our thought processes. It is
named after its proponents, Benjamin Lee Whorf and his mentor Edward Sapir, both of whom were
linguists in the early 20th century.
 Linguistic Determinism – Linguistic determinism (Strong Version) is the idea that the
language we speak shapes or determines the way we think and perceive the world. In other
words, it suggests that the structure and vocabulary of a language can limit our thoughts and
cognitive abilities.
 Linguistic Relativism – Linguistic relativism (Weak Version) is the idea that the language
we speak can influence the way we think and perceive the world, but it doesn’t lock you into
a single way of thinking. In other words, it acknowledges the influence of language on
thought and perception but does not impose strict boundaries on what we can think or
perceive. It recognizes the flexibility and adaptability of human cognition in the face of
linguistic diversity.
Ethnopoetics – is a multidisciplinary field that combines elements of ethnography, linguistics, and
literary studies to study and understand the oral traditions and verbal arts of various cultures around the
world. It seeks to explore how different societies use language and oral performance to convey their
cultural, historical, and social values.
 Oral Traditions: Ethnopoetics primarily examines oral traditions, such as storytelling,
poetry, chants, and songs, that have been passed down through generations within a specific
cultural group. These traditions are often performed rather than written down.
 Performance: Ethnopoetics places a strong emphasis on the performative aspect of oral
traditions. It considers how language is used in live performances, including the use of
rhythm, intonation, gesture, and other non-verbal elements to convey meaning and emotion.
 Poetics and Aesthetics: Ethnopoetics explores the artistic and aesthetic dimensions of oral
literature, including the use of metaphor, symbolism, repetition, and other poetic devices. It
also examines the cultural significance of these artistic choices.
 Cultural Preservation: Ethnopoetics plays a role in preserving and documenting
endangered oral traditions. As cultures change and languages become endangered, ethnopoets
and researchers work to record and study these traditions before they disappear.
 Interdisciplinary Approach: Ethnopoetics draws on insights from various disciplines,
including anthropology, linguistics, literary studies, folklore, and cultural studies. Scholars in
this field often collaborate across these disciplines to gain a comprehensive understanding of
oral traditions.
 Fieldwork: Ethnopoetics often involves fieldwork, where researchers engage directly
with members of a cultural community to document and study their oral traditions. This may
include recording performances, conducting interviews, and participating in cultural events.
Oral-Gesture Theory: The oral-gesture theory proposed by Richard Paget is a theory that language
originally formed through a combination of vocalizations and manual gestures. Early humans used both
spoken sounds and hand movements together to convey meaning. Over time, these gestures and
vocalizations evolved into language as we know it today. This theory challenges the idea that spoken
language developed independently of gestures, emphasizing the role of both in language evolution.
 Origins of Language: According to this theory, early humans didn’t start with fully
developed spoken language as we know it today. Instead, they communicated using a
combination of vocal sounds and hand movements. These gestures and vocalizations were
used together to convey meaning.
 Simultaneous Use: In the early stages of language development, people would use
gestures along with vocal sounds when they spoke. For example, they might point to
something while making a sound to describe it.
 Evolutionary Process: Over time, these gestures and vocalizations became more abstract
and sophisticated. They gradually evolved into the complex language we use today. This
evolution involved a shift from relying heavily on gestures to primarily using spoken words.
 Multimodal Communication: The theory emphasizes that early human communication
was multimodal, meaning it involved multiple modes or channels of expression—both
speaking and gesturing. This multimodal approach was crucial for conveying meaning and
understanding one another.