Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

DOI 10.1007/s00126-010-0300-0

ARTICLE

The gold content of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits

Patrick Mercier-Langevin & Mark D. Hannington &
Benoît Dubé & Valérie Bécu

Received: 11 May 2010 / Accepted: 14 June 2010 / Published online: 15 July 2010
# Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada 2010

Abstract Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits contain mean plus one geometric standard deviation) are considered
variable amounts of gold, both in terms of average grade auriferous. The geometric mean gold content is 4.7 t Au,
and total gold content, with some VMS deposits hosting with a geometric standard deviation of +26.3 t Au. Deposits
world-class gold mines with more than 100 t Au. Previous containing 31 t Au or more (geometric mean plus one
studies have identified gold-rich VMS as having an average geometric standard deviation) are also considered to be
gold grade, expressed in g/t, exceeding the total abundance anomalous in terms of gold content, irrespective of the gold
of base metals, expressed in wt.%. However, statistically grade. Deposits with more than 3.46 g/t Au and 31 t Au are
meaningful criteria for the identification of truly anomalous considered gold-rich VMS. A large proportion of the total
deposits have not been established. This paper presents a gold hosted in VMS worldwide is found in a relatively
more extensive analysis of gold grades and tonnages of 513 small number of such deposits. The identification of these
VMS deposits worldwide, revealing a number of important truly anomalous systems helps shed light on the geological
features in the distribution of the data. A large proportion of parameters that control unusual enrichment of gold in
deposits are characterized by a relatively low gold grade VMS. At the district scale, the gold-rich deposits occupy a
(<2 g/t), with a gradual decrease in frequency towards stratigraphic position and volcanic setting that commonly
maximum gold grades, defining a log-normal distribution. differs from other deposits of the district possibly due to a
In the analysis presented in this paper, the geometric mean step change in the geodynamic and magmatic evolution of
and geometric standard deviation appear to be the simplest local volcanic complexes. The gold-rich VMS are com-
metric for identifying subclasses of VMS deposits based on monly associated with transitional to calc-alkaline interme-
gold grade, especially when comparing deposits within diate to felsic volcanic rocks, which may reflect a
individual belts and districts. The geometric mean gold particularly fertile geodynamic setting and/or timing (e.g.,
grade of 513 VMS deposits worldwide is 0.76 g/t; the early arc rifting or rifting front). At the deposit scale,
geometric standard deviation is +2.70 g/t Au. In this uncommon alteration assemblages (e.g., advanced argillic,
analysis, deposits with more than 3.46 g/t Au (geometric aluminous, strongly siliceous, or potassium feldspar alter-
ation) and trace element signatures may be recognized (e.g.,
Editorial handling: B. Lehmann Au–Ag–As–Sb ± Bi–Hg–Te), suggesting a direct magmatic
input in some systems.
Geological Survey of Canada contribution 20090023
P. Mercier-Langevin (*) : B. Dubé : V. Bécu Keywords Gold . Volcanogenic massive sulfides . Gold-
Geological Survey of Canada,
rich VMS . World-class . Base metals
490 rue de la Couronne,
Quebec City, QC G1K 9A9, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
M. D. Hannington
University of Ottawa,
140 Louis Pasteur, Gold-rich volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits are
Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada important exploration targets as their gold content contrib-
510 Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

ute significantly to their total value and their polymetallic mineralogy (e.g., Poulsen and Hannington 1996; Sillitoe et
nature makes them less vulnerable to metal price fluctua- al. 1996; Hannington et al. 1999; Dubé et al. 2007a).
tions. Some deposits are mined primarily for their gold However, it remains unclear how much gold constitutes a
content (e.g., Poulsen and Hannington 1996; Dubé et al. truly anomalous enrichment that must reflect special ore-
2007a). However, there is little consensus in the literature forming conditions.
about what constitutes a “gold-rich” VMS, in terms of gold When comparing the metal endowment of deposits, it is
grade or total contained gold. More rigorous criteria are necessary to consider both the grade and the size of the
needed to identify such deposits so that research can be deposit, as well as the metal ratios. In previous studies,
focused on examples that best represent the geological gold-rich VMS have been identified as having average gold
attributes associated with gold enrichment. This could help grades expressed in ppm or g/t that exceed the combined
better define key exploration criteria and target areas. content of base metals expressed in wt.% (Au g/t or ppm >
The main geological characteristics, mechanisms of gold Cu + Zn + Pb wt.%; Poulsen and Hannington 1996;
concentration, and genetic models for gold-rich VMS Poulsen et al. 2000; Dubé et al. 2007a). However, this
deposits have been reviewed for both ancient and modern approach misclassifies some “gold-rich” polymetallic
settings (e.g., Hannington et al. 1986; Huston and Large deposits that are accompanied by high grades of base
1989; Large et al. 1989; Hannington and Scott 1989a, b; metals. Conversely, some VMS deposits with a relatively
Large 1992a, b; Poulsen and Hannington 1996; Sillitoe et low gold grade nevertheless produced significant amounts
al. 1996; Hannington et al. 1999; Huston 2000; Dubé et al. of gold due to their large size. Deposits in which gold can
2007a). It is clear from these and other reviews (e.g., be mined economically on its own without any contribution
Franklin et al. 1981, 2005; Franklin 1993; Barrie and from base metals could be, although not objectively,
Hannington 1999; Galley et al. 2007a) that VMS deposits considered gold-rich. However, a more rigorous analysis
contain highly variable amounts of gold, both in terms of of gold grades and tonnages is presented here. This analysis
average grade and tonnage, with many VMS deposits being considers the frequency distribution of gold grades in 513
significant gold producers, especially in the last few deposits worldwide, as well as the absolute gold contents of
decades. For example, approximately 13% of the gold the deposits and the gold-to-base metals ratio. This analysis
mined in Canada up to 2003 came from VMS deposits has identified a group of deposits with truly anomalous
(Lydon 2007) and gold represented about a fifth of the total gold contents which highlight a number of geological
value of VMS reserves and resources in Canada from 1994 attributes that should be targeted in exploration for gold-
to 2005 (Lydon 2007). Similarly, approximately 80% of the rich VMS.
gold produced in Sweden from 1999 to 2006 came from
VMS (statistics compiled from the Metals Economics
Group, the Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières, Gold in VMS deposits
and the Geological Survey of Sweden), whereas 15% of
the gold produced in Tasmania for the same period came The data used in this study are from a global compilation of
from VMS (ABARE, Australian Minerals Statistics). VMS deposits in Franklin et al. (2005). Some modifications
Moreover, the relative value of gold in a median grade were made to the dataset; in particular information on
VMS deposit (i.e., ~0.9 g/t Au, 1.3% Cu and 3.3% Zn) in deposits with a very high average gold grade and deposits
1950 was about 10% of the total value of the deposit, with a large total gold tonnage was updated. Deposits for
whereas it was about 23% in 2008, illustrating the which there are no known gold values and those that are
increasing economic importance of the gold content of a characterized by a very high gold grade resulting from
deposit. For example, the gold at Horne, Quebec (54 Mt supergene enrichment were excluded, resulting in a dataset
grading 6.1 g/t Au and 2.2% Cu) was worth about 14% of comprising 513 deposits.
the total value of the deposit based on 1950 gold and Singer (1995) and Franklin et al. (2005) discuss a
copper prices, whereas it would represent about 57% of the number of the limitations of such deposit grade and tonnage
total value of the deposit at average prices for 2008. compilations. For example, the compiled numbers include
Various classification schemes for VMS deposits based production data as well as estimates of reserves and
on their compositions have been used to interpret geo- resources. Production numbers differ from reserves and
dynamic settings and other aspects of ore genesis (e.g., resources, as metal recovery, particularly for gold, is never
Hutchinson 1973; Solomon 1976; Franklin et al. 1981). complete. A mining operation may be optimized for base
Similar attempts have been made to interpret the genetic metal production at the expense of precious metals recovery
aspects specific to “gold-rich” VMS based on Cu–Au resulting in a bias towards lower reported average gold
versus Zn–Au associations (e.g., Huston and Large 1989; grades for deposits that have been or are presently
Huston 2000) and the style of mineralization or the ore producing base metals as their main commodities. This is
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539 511

a common situation in VMS deposits as the recovery rates et al. 1993; Ansil deposit, Quebec: Galley et al. 1995). This
for gold, copper, and zinc are 67%, 86%, and 83%, commonly results in significant coarsening of gold,
respectively (based on Canadian deposits mined up to upgrading of the deposits, and improvements in gold
2005: Lydon 2007). The opposite situation also exists, with recovery.
some VMS deposits mined and optimized for gold In many cases, a deposit’s genesis and the origin of the
production. For example, gold, copper, and zinc recovery gold enrichments remain controversial (e.g., Mount
rates are approximately 76%, 93%, and 86% at the Flin Morgan, Queensland: Cornelius 1969; Taube 1986, 1990;
Flon concentrator (HudBay Minerals Inc. Annual Report Arnold and Sillitoe 1989; Ulrich et al. 2002). For example,
2008), whereas they are approximately 91%, 86%, and 87% some deposits are thought to have formed in (shallow)
at the LaRonde concentrator (Agnico-Eagle Mines Ltd. submarine volcanic-dominated environments and have
Annual Report 2008). Thus, the head grades, which are the distinctive epithermal characteristics (e.g., Sillitoe et al.
best measure of metal contents in the deposits, can differ 1996; Hannington and Herzig 2000), suggesting a hybrid
significantly from reported grades based on past produc- VMS-epithermal classification (e.g., Mount Lyell, Tasma-
tion. Comparing past or current producers with deposits for nia: Large 2000; Corbett 2001; Huston and Kamprad 2001;
which only resources or reserves are known or estimated Large et al. 2001; Eskay Creek, British Columbia: Roth et
also may affect the grade distribution, without significantly al. 1999; Johnson River, Alaska: Steefel 1987; Iron Dyke,
affecting overall trends, as noted in previous studies of Oregon: Bussey and LeAnderson 1994), or even as
base–metal ratios in VMS deposits (Sangster 1977, 1980; intermediates between VMS and porphyry (e.g., Balta Tau
Franklin et al. 1981). The mining method also can have a and Baimak-type deposits of the South Urals; Prokin and
major impact on reported grades and tonnages, as an open Buslaev 1999).
pit operation will typically mine large tonnages at lower The average gold grades of VMS deposits tend to cluster
grades, illustrating the importance of considering the total at low values, with ~78% of the data below 2 g/t (Fig. 1).
gold content and gold-to-base metal ratios when comparing As is typical of the grade distribution in many ore deposit
deposits. Moreover, gold may not be recovered in some types (e.g., Sangster 1977; Parker 1991; Singer 1995;
deposits, despite large total contained amounts due to the Franklin et al. 2005), gold grades in VMS deposits
refractory nature of the ore (e.g., Brunswick No. 12 in the worldwide show a highly skewed frequency distribution
Bathurst Mining Camp; McClenaghan et al. 2009). Many (Fig. 1) that is log-normal (i.e., with a large number of
deposits that are not considered gold-rich are however deposits having very low gold grades and a small number
characterized by relatively small but richer lenses or zones of deposits having very high gold grades; Fig. 2). The
that do not affect significantly the average grade of the arithmetic mean gold grade for VMS deposits is 1.50 g/t
deposit (e.g., Rambler-Ming in Newfoundland, Canada; (Fig. 2), whereas the median grade is much lower (0.86 g/t).
Santaguida and Hannington 1996; Hyde 2008; Iron Blow The large difference between the mean and the median
lens, Mount Lyell, Tasmania: Corbett 2001). reflects the skewness of the data, and the arithmetic mean is
Many VMS deposits are characterized by disseminated more effective at characterizing normally distributed data.
and/or semi-massive sulfide zones that can be more Other measures of central tendency, such as the geometric
economically important than massive sulfide zones. This mean, are less sensitive to extreme values (e.g., Borradaile
is the case for a number of deposits with minor massive 2003) and may be more useful in characterizing the
sulfide zones but high gold grades in stockwork zones (e.g., distribution of gold grades in VMS deposits. The geometric
Iron Dyke, Oregon: Bussey and LeAnderson 1994; Juhas et mean is very helpful when dealing with such skewed
al. 1980). In other deposits, the mined gold does not occur distributions. The geometric mean gold grade for VMS
in the massive sulfide lenses but around it as stockworks, deposits is 0.76 g/t Au (Fig. 2), which better reflects the
disseminations, or in barite lenses and exhalites (e.g., Kali large number of low-grade deposits. The standard deviation
Kuning and Lerokis on Wetar Island, Indonesia: Sewell and on the geometric mean is +2.70 g/t. These calculated values
Wheatley 1994b; Sillitoe et al. 1996; Hannington et al. are in agreement with the values estimated graphically on
1999; Huston 2000; Scotney et al. 2005). In some cases, the cumulative probability frequency plot for average gold
gold has been remobilized into veins or veinlets peripheral grades in VMS deposits shown in Fig. 2. However, the
to or within the VMS deposit during deformation and cumulative probability frequency diagram shows that
metamorphism (Mobrun, Quebec: Larocque et al. 1993; the distribution is not homogeneous, which may be due to
Bousquet 2, Quebec: Tourigny et al. 1993; Eastern the presence of more than one population (see below).
Australian VMS deposits: Huston et al. 1992; Boliden, Figure 1 shows that there is no relationship between the
Sweden: Wagner et al. 2007; Myra Falls, British Columbia: total base metals content or Zn or Cu grades of a deposit
Sinclair et al. 2000a, b) or late-stage hydrothermal and its gold grade. However, many base metal-rich deposits
remobilization (e.g., Chisel Lake deposit, Manitoba: Galley have relatively low gold values, and vice versa, mainly
512 Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

45
A 10 40
n = 513 B C
35
40 n = 502 n = 507
30

Cu (wt.%)
25

Zn (wt.%)
35
Total Base Metals (Cu+Zn+Pb wt.%)

5 20

30 15
10
25 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 40 45 50
20 Gold grade (ppm or g/t) Gold grade (ppm or g/t)

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 40 45 50
Gold grade (ppm or g/t)

Fig. 1 a Total base metals content (Cu + Zn + Pb in wt.%) versus that there are no direct correlations between the average gold grade of
gold grade for VMS deposits worldwide. b Cu (wt.%) and c Zn (wt. the VMS deposits and the average concentration in base metals. Data
%) versus gold grades for VMS deposits worldwide. These plots show modified from Franklin et al. (2005)

reflecting mining economics (i.e., a gold-rich deposit may than 45 t of gold each and account for about 64% of the
be economic despite low base metal grades). Similarly, the total amount of gold contained in VMS deposits worldwide.
total gold content, which is also characterized by a highly The top 5% of the deposits each contained more than 83 t
skewed frequency distribution that is log-normal (Fig. 3), is of gold, accounting for about 47% of all the gold hosted in
not only a function of grade. The arithmetic mean gold VMS deposits (Fig. 4b).
tonnage for VMS deposits is 17.7 t of Au. However, the When individual districts or mining camps are consid-
cumulative frequency distribution shown in Fig. 3 suggests ered, the distribution of gold grades is generally log-
that the median value (50% of cumulated data), which is a normal, but one or more deposits almost always have
good estimate of the geometric mean (Lepeltier 1969), is anomalous grades that are distinct from the rest of the
~4.7 t Au with a geometric standard deviation of +26.3 t. deposits in the camp (see also Hannington et al. 1999). In
Eighteen VMS deposits in the dataset were among the some cases (e.g., Abitibi Greenstone Belt and Flin Flon–
top 10% of gold deposits worldwide in terms of contained Snow Lake Camps in Canada) the gold grade distribution is
gold in 1995 (Fig. 4a). Each of these deposits contained bimodal. This appears to indicate that a particular process
more than 100 t of gold and is among the world-class gold or set of geological conditions responsible for gold
deposits according to the definition of Singer (1995) (i.e., enrichment in some deposits did not operate in others.
>100 t Au). Five of these deposits, with more than 250 t of Examples of gold grade distribution in a number of VMS-
Au (see Appendix), are among the top 5% of gold deposits bearing belts and districts are shown in Fig. 5. Most belts or
worldwide (Fig. 4a). Although there are many supergiant districts contain at least one discordant or distinctly gold-
VMS deposits (Franklin et al. 2005; Galley et al. 2007a), rich deposit and some districts contain a number of such
none contains enough gold to be considered a giant gold deposits (e.g., Noranda and Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde
deposit according to the definitions of Sillitoe (2000) and Mining Camps in the Blake River Group of the Abitibi
Singer (1995) (i.e., >600 t Au for a giant gold deposit and Greenstone Belt, Quebec: Dubé et al. 2007a; Mercier-
≥1,000 t Au for a “supergiant” deposit). The cumulative Langevin et al. 2007b; Mount Read Volcanics, Tasmania:
frequency plot of the gold content of VMS deposits Huston 2000). There are no clear relationships between the
(Fig. 4b) shows that the top 10% of deposits contain more size and the grade of the deposits as shown on Fig. 6,
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539 513

180
140
99.99
160 120 99.9
99.5
100 99
98

Cumulative probability (%)

140 95
Frequency 90
80
80
120
60 50

20
Frequency

100 40
10
5
20 2
80 0.5
0 0.1

60 -2.4 -1.8 -1.2 -0.6 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Gold grade (ppm or g/t, Log scale) Gold grade (ppm or g/t, Log scale)

40 n = 513

Arithmetic Geometric
mean: 1.50 g/tAu mean: 0.76 g/tAu
20 median: 0.86 g/tAu std. dev.: +2.70 g/tAu
std. dev.: 2.60 g/tAu

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 40 45 50
Gold grade (ppm or g/t)

Fig. 2 Frequency histogram of average gold grade in VMS deposits multiple populations. Deposits with a reported average gold grade of 0
worldwide. The distribution is strongly skewed (log-normal after log were omitted from the dataset to allow for calculation of the
transformation of the data; inset, left). A probability plot of the data logarithm. Std. dev. standard deviation. Data modified from Franklin
(inset, right), indicates a non-homogeneous distribution that reflects et al. (2005)

except perhaps for the Abitibi Greenstone Belt and the gold-rich VMS deposits worldwide are located in the Blake
Skellefte District where the richest deposits are among the River Group of the Southern Abitibi Greenstone Belt.
largest VMS deposits of the district. Moreover, the VMS deposits of the Blake River Group
The VMS deposits of the Abitibi Greenstone Belt (n= represent approximately 48% of the total VMS tonnage of
56; Fig. 5), which are clustered in a number of districts of the Abitibi Greenstone Belt, but contain about 92% of the
various sizes, have a mean gold grade of 1.43 g/t, with a total VMS gold of the belt. Similarly, the VMS deposits of
geometric mean of 0.64 g/t. Of these deposits, 43 (~77%) the Macuchi Belt in Ecuador are particularly rich in gold
have gold grades that are lower than the arithmetic mean (Chiaradia and Fontboté 2001) and the Mount Read
indicating the major influence of a few deposits. In contrast, Volcanics in Tasmania are “lacking” the typical dominance
for the Flin Flon and Snow Lake Camps, 15% of the of low-grade deposits (Figs. 5 and 6) with a median grade
deposits have gold grades higher than 3 g/t (Figs. 5 and 6). of 2.38 g/t Au. This illustrates the provinciality of some
The two most gold-rich deposits in the Bathurst Mining gold-rich VMS deposits (Hannington et al. 1999; Huston
Camp, New Brunswick (Goodfellow and McCutcheon 2000; Dubé et al. 2007a) and strongly suggests a large-scale
2003; McClenaghan et al. 2003, 2004) also stand out from geological control on the enrichment of gold (see below).
the other deposits in the camp (Figs. 5 and 6), although they
would not be considered auriferous in comparison to
deposits worldwide (e.g., Fig. 1). Nevertheless, these Discriminating anomalous, auriferous, and gold-rich
atypical deposits in terms of gold grade indicate an VMS deposits
underlying process or condition of ore formation that is
unique in the camp. Two of the largest (Horne and Poulsen and Hannington (1996) defined gold-rich VMS as
LaRonde Penna) and four of the richest (Westwood- having an average gold content (expressed in ppm or in g/t)
Warrenmac, Bousquet 2-Dumagami, Quemont, Bousquet 1) that exceeds the total base metals content (expressed in
514 Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

300
100
280 99.99

260 80 99.9
99.5
240 99

Cumulative probability (%)

98
220 Frequency 60 95
90
4.7 t
200 80
70 31 t
40
180 50
Frequency

30
160 20
20 10
140 5
2
120
0 0.5
100 -2.4 -1.8 -1.2 -0.6 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Gold tonnage (Log10) Gold tonnage (Log scale)
80
n = 513
60
Arithmetic Geometric (graphic)
40 mean: 17.7 tAu mean: 4.7 tAu
median: 4.00 tAu std.dev.: +26.3 tAu
20 std. dev.: 40.4 tAu

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350
Gold tonnage (metric t)

Fig. 3 Frequency histogram of total gold tonnage in VMS deposits probability diagram (inset, right), showing a relatively homogeneous
worldwide. The distribution is strongly skewed (log-normal after log distribution, except for the very low values. Std. dev. standard
transformation of the data; inset, left). The data are also plotted on a deviation. Data modified from Franklin et al. (2005)

weight percent; Fig. 7). However, some ambiguity arises in used in this analysis. Because gold grades and gold tonnage
this classification for deposits that have both high gold of VMS deposits worldwide define positively skewed
grades and high base metal grades (e.g., Lemoine, Quebec; distributions (Figs. 2 and 3), the standard deviation has
Guha 1984; Guha et al. 1988; La Plata, Ecuador; Chiaradia been calculated on the geometric mean (geometric standard
et al. 2008; Iron King, Arizona; Creasey 1952) or very low deviation), which appears to be in closest agreement with
gold and base metals contents (e.g., Mount Lyell, Tasmania; the observed distribution of gold grades in most VMS
Corbett 2001; Seymour et al. 2007). The latter may be camps or districts. On a global scale, discordant or
related to the style of mineralization and/or the mining anomalous deposits are those having gold grades higher
method (e.g., Mount Lyell, which is dominated by than 3.46 g/t (geometric mean value plus one geometric
disseminated sulfides and pyrite-rich ore, was mined by standard deviation calculated from the database of 513
open pit: Corbett 2001). The problem of classifying very deposits). Forty-six VMS deposits have gold grades
low grade deposits has been discussed by Poulsen et al. exceeding this value (Fig. 8 and Appendix). Examination
(2000) among others, who proposed that the classification of the gold grade distribution in different districts (Fig. 5)
be restricted to only those deposits that were or could be shows that the global geometric mean and geometric
mined economically. standard deviation are a useful discriminator of auriferous
Discordant or anomalous sample populations are char- deposits in most cases. Deviations from a strictly log-
acteristic of trace element abundance data (e.g., Limpert et normal distribution in the cumulative frequency plot
al. 2001). In many cases, the discordance serves to identify (Fig. 2) are related to the superposition of different
an important feature of practical geological importance, populations (e.g., log-normal grade distribution in some
especially if it is caused by natural variability (Beckman districts, bimodal in others).
and Cook 1983). The standard deviation from the mean is The geometric mean plus one geometric standard
the most common metric to identify discordance in a deviation of the total contained gold (i.e., 31 t Au) also
dataset (e.g., de Wijs 1951; Grubbs 1969) and has been identifies deposits with anomalous gold endowment,
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539 515

100
Cumulative frequency of deposit size (%)
Number of Gold Deposits A total VMS tonnage. A majority of these 11 deposits also
Worldwide in 1995 (all types) have a gold-to-base metals ratio that is greater than 1
80 (Fig. 7, Table 1 and Appendix). The 46 deposits that
Volcanogenic massive
sulfide deposits contain more than 3.46 g/t represent about 9% of the
60 18 deposits among the deposits worldwide for which gold grades are known
top 10% of worldwide (database of 513 deposits) and account for about 20% of
Au deposits in terms
of size (t Au)
the VMS gold but only 3.5% of the global VMS tonnage.
40
These statistics highlight the fact that a large proportion of
5 deposits among the the total gold hosted in VMS worldwide is found in a
top 5% (>250 t Au)
20 relatively small number of deposits. Overall, 113 deposits
10% of Deposits meet at least one of these criteria (see Appendix and
5% of Deposits Fig. 9). Twenty-nine deposits meet at least two criteria.
0
0.0001 0.01 1 100 10000 Only nine deposits meet all three criteria (≥31 t of
Tonnes of Gold per Deposit contained Au, an average gold grade higher than
3.46 g/t, and a gold-to-base metals ratio ≥1: Fig. 8, Table 1
100
B and Appendix); six of these are in the Blake River Group
Cumulative Frequency of Deposit Size

Amount of Au
Number of of the Abitibi Greenstone Belt.
and Total Amount of Gold (%)

80 volcanogenic
massive sulfide
deposits worldwide 69.8% of Au
64% of Au
60 Characteristics of anomalous, auriferous and gold-rich
VMS deposits
47% of Au
40
Table 1 summarizes the main characteristics (grades, age,
Number of deposits . interpreted geodynamic setting, lithostratigraphic associa-
20 tion, host rocks, mineralization, and alteration styles) of 31
12.7% of Deposits deposits highlighted in this analysis, and Appendix lists all
10% of Deposits
5% of Deposits
0
gold-rich, auriferous, and anomalous VMS deposits identi-
fied in our analysis. The distribution of these deposits is
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 31 t 100 1000
Tonnes of Gold per Deposit
shown on Fig. 9. The data presented in Table 1 emphasize
specific geological attributes that distinguish them from
Fig. 4 a Cumulative frequency plots of contained gold in gold- other less gold-rich deposits.
bearing deposits of all types, worldwide (modified from Singer 1995).
The sizes and grades vary significantly, but at the camp
Eighteen gold-bearing VMS deposits are among the top 10% of gold
deposits worldwide in terms of total contained gold, and five are scale, the richest deposits are commonly either the largest
among the top 5%. b Plot of cumulative frequency of deposit size and or among the largest deposits of the district or the belt (e.g.,
total contained gold among VMS deposits worldwide for which gold Horne, LaRonde Penna, Quemont and Bousquet 2-
grades are known. Data modified from Franklin et al. (2005). The top
Dumagami in the Abitibi Greenstone Belt; Boliden in the
5% and 10% of the deposits in terms of size contain 47% and 64% of
the total gold in VMS deposits, respectively. Deposits with 31 t of Au Skellefte District; Flin Flon in the Flin Flon and Snow Lake
or more represent less than 13% of the total number of deposits but Camps; Caribou in the Bathurst Mining Camp; La Zarza in
contain about 70% of the VMS gold. Thus, a large proportion of the the Iberian Pyrite Belt; Greens Creek in the Juneau-
VMS-hosted gold worldwide is contained in just a few deposits. These
Admiralty District; Fig. 6 and Table 1). It is noteworthy
deposits form a unique group that best illustrate the geological
parameters that control the formation of gold-rich VMS that six of the 15 largest VMS deposits in the Abitibi
Greenstone Belt, accounting for 42% of the total tonnage of
VMS in the Abitibi, are also the most gold-rich, accounting
irrespective of their gold grade (Fig. 8). Deposits with total for 88% of the VMS gold. Moreover, Horne (H-G and Zone
contained gold of 31 t or more (n=63: Appendix) are 5) and LaRonde Penna, two world-class gold-rich VMS
termed “anomalous VMS” and account for 69.8% of the deposits, account for 35% of the total VMS tonnage of the
total gold contained in VMS deposits worldwide (Fig. 4b). entire Abitibi and for 60% of the total VMS gold of the
This indicates that approximately 70% of the VMS gold is belt. In other districts, the most gold-rich deposits are
hosted in about 13% of the VMS deposits. Eleven of these among the smallest (e.g., Delbridge and Deldona in
deposits have gold grades higher than 3.46 g/t (Fig. 8 and Noranda: Boldy 1968; Gibson and Galley 2007; Petiknas
Table 1). These deposits, termed “gold-rich VMS,” account North and Holmtjarn in Skellefte; Lomero-Poyatos in the
for 17.8% of the total gold contained in VMS deposits Iberian Pyrite Belt; Photo Lake in Flin Flon/Snow Lake;
worldwide, even though they only represent 2.9% of the Balta Tau in the South Urals; Fig. 6 and Table 1). The gold-
516 Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

20 16 10
Abitibi Greenstone Belt A Skellefte District B Flin Flon and Snow Lake Camps C
Abitibi (n=56)
16 Noranda Camp (n=22) n = 20 8 Snow Lake (n=18)
DBL Camp (n=4) 12 Arithmetic: Flin Flon (n=21)
mean = 2.29
Frequency

12 n = 56 std. dev. = 3.61 6 n = 39

Arithmetic: Geometric: Arithmetic:
8 mean = 1.14 mean = 1.63
mean = 1.43 2.46
8 std. dev. = 1.87 std. dev. = +3.70 4 3.46
std. dev. = 1.25
2.65
Geometric: 4.84 Geometric:
mean = 0.64 mean = 1.10

tja rth
4 std. dev. = +1.36

o
std. dev. = +2.01

N
4 2

rn
3.46 3.46

s
na

en
m
tik

lid
ol
Pe

Bo
H
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Gold grade (ppm or g/t) Gold grade (ppm or g/t) Gold grade (ppm or g/t)

5 10 15
Mount Read Volcanics D Bathurst Mining Camp E South Urals F
n = 20
4 8 Arithmetic:
n=8
ll

n = 35
e
Ly

Arithmetic: mean = 0.58 Arithmetic:

nt

10
ou

std. dev. = 0.56

Frequency

mean = 1.81
M

2.15 mean = 1.46

3 6 Geometric:
std. dev. = 1.37 1.88 std. dev. = 0.95
Geometric: mean = 0.40 Geometric:
mean = 0.72 std. dev. = +0.58 mean = 1.09
2 4
ke
std. dev. = +1.43 0.98 std. dev. = +0.79
La 5
g
3.46
in
nd
er

La
iv

2
ou

1
R

u
3.46 3.46
oe

Ta
ib
ue

an
ar

lta
Q

C
C

Ba
0 0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 2 4 6 8 10
Gold grade (ppm or g/t) Gold grade (ppm or g/t) Gold grade (ppm or g/t)

12 10
Iberian Pyrite Belt G Kuroko Belt H

n = 21 8 n = 25
Arithmetic: Arithmetic:
8 mean = 0.78 mean = 1.13
Frequency

std. dev. = 0.93 6 std. dev. = 1.35

Geometric: Geometric:
mean = 0.53 mean = 0.75
std. dev. = +0.94 4 std. dev. = +1.37
1.47 2.12
4
os
t
ya

a
Po

aw

2
a

o-

3.46 3.46
rz

uk
er
Za

ur
m

N
Lo
La

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Gold grade (ppm or g/t) Gold grade (ppm or g/t)

Fig. 5 Frequency histograms of gold grades in VMS deposits for value of the geometric mean plus one standard deviation from the
selected major camps and districts of various ages. a Archean Abitibi geometric mean calculated for the individual camps (dashed line). The
Greenstone Belt in Canada. b Paleoproterozoic Skellefte District in distribution of gold grades in individual belts, camps, or districts is
Sweden c Paleoproterozoic Flin Flon and Snow Lake Camps in generally log-normal, but one or more deposits almost always have
Canada. d Cambrian Mount Read Volcanics in Tasmania, Australia. e anomalous grades that are distinct from the rest of the deposits in the
Ordovician Bathurst Mining Camp in Canada. f Devonian South Urals belt, camp, or district. In some cases, the gold grade distribution is
in Kazakhstan and Russia. g Carboniferous Iberian Pyrite Belt in bimodal. The global geometric mean plus one standard deviation from
Spain and Portugal. h Miocene Kuroko Belt in Japan. The geometric the geometric mean is a useful discriminator of gold-rich deposits in
mean plus one standard deviation from the geometric mean obtained most cases. However, the geometric mean plus one standard deviation
from the global database is shown on each plot (arrow), as well as the in each belt, district, or camp varies. Std. dev. standard deviation
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539 517

100
A Abitibi Greenstone Belt B Skellefte District C Flin Flon and Snow Lake
Relative total ore tonnage (%)

Horne Zone 5 Flin Flon

Kidd Creek LaRonde Snow Lake (n=18)
10 Penna
Flin Flon (n=20)
Lalor

1 Horne
H-G
Boliden Photo Lake
Petiknas
North
0.1 Holmtjarn
Abitibi (n=50)
Noranda Camp (n=20)
DBL Camp (n=4)
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Relative gold tonnage (%) Relative gold tonnage (%) Relative gold tonnage (%)

100
D Mount Read Volcanics Mount E Bathurst Mining Camp F South Urals
Relative total ore tonnage (%)

Lyell

10 Caribou

Hellyer Canoe
Landing
1 Lake
Que River

Balta Tau
0.1

0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Relative gold tonnage (%) Relative gold tonnage (%) Relative gold tonnage (%)

100 SYMBOLS LEGEND

G Iberian Pyrite Belt H Kuroko Belt
Relative total ore tonnage (%)

1 g/t Au

2 g/t Au
10 7 g/t Au
La Zarza
3 g/t Au

15 g/t Au
1 4 g/t Au
10 g/t Au

5 g/t Au 5 g/t Au
0.1 Lomero-Poyatos Nurukawa 1

6 g/t Au
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Relative gold tonnage (%) Relative gold tonnage (%)

Fig. 6 Bubble plots showing the relative contribution of VMS Mining Camp in Canada. f Devonian South Urals in Kazakhstan and
deposits to the total gold tonnage and total ore tonnage of their Russia. g Carboniferous Iberian Pyrite Belt in Spain and Portugal.
respective camps or districts for selected major belts, camps, and h Miocene Kuroko Belt in Japan. The plots show that there are no
districts of various ages. Bubble size is proportional to the average clear relationships between the size and the grade of the deposits,
gold grade of the deposit: a Archean Abitibi Greestone Belt in except perhaps for the Abitibi Greenstone Belt and the Skellefte
Canada. b Paleoproterozoic Skellefte District in Sweden c Paleopro- District where the richest deposits are among the largest VMS of the
terozoic Flin Flon and Snow Lake Camps in Canada. d Cambrian district
Mount Read Volcanics in Tasmania, Australia. e Ordovician Bathurst
518 Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

40
0.76 (Geometric Mean)
Au (ppm or g/t) > Base Metals (wt.%)
(gold-to-base metals ratio >1)
35 Au (ppm or g/t) > Geo. Mean + Geo. Std. Dev.)
Au (ppm or g/t) > Geo. Mean (0.76 g/t)
(Au > 3.46 g/t Au)
[Auriferous VMS]
Auriferous
Total Base Metals (Cu+Zn+Pb wt.%)

30 Au (ppm or g/t) < Base Metals (wt.%)

3.46 (Geometric Mean + Geometric Std Dev.) Au (ppm or g/t) > Geo. Mean + Std. Dev.
(Au ppm or g/t >3.46)
[Auriferous VMS]
25
Au (ppm or g/t) < Geo. Mean + Std. Dev.
Au (ppm or g/t) < total base (Au ppm or g/t <3.46)
20 metals (wt.%)
1 )
(Au / total b.m. < 1)
m .= Selected examples of deposits with >3.46 g/t Au
discussed in text and/or Fig. 5 and Table 1
b .
t a l
15 to
u / Au (ppm or g/t) > total base metals (wt.%)
(A
Nurukawa
(Au / total b.m. > 1)
Photo Lake
10 La Plata Johnson R. Auriferous Eskay Creek
Balta Tau
Petiknas North
Lomero
LaRonde Penna
5 Holmtjarn
Quemont Mercedes
Boliden
Horne H&G
Bousquet 1
Bousquet 2-Dumagami
0
0 5 Mt. Morgan 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Gold grade (ppm or g/t)

Fig. 7 Bivariate plots of total base metals grade (Cu + Zn + Pb in wt.%) (geometric mean plus one standard deviation from the geometric mean;
versus gold grade of VMS deposits worldwide. Deposits are considered see Fig. 8), (3) the gold grade in g/t equals or exceeds the total
anomalous in terms of gold content if they meet at least one of three concentration of base metals in wt.% (Au/total b.m. ≥1). Johnson R.
criteria: (1) the gold grade is higher than 3.46 g/t, which corresponds to Johnson River. Geo. Mean = geometric mean, Geo. Std. Dev. standard
the geometric mean plus one standard deviation from the geometric deviation from the geometric mean
mean, (2) the total gold tonnage is equal to or greater than 31 t Au

to-base metals ratios are highly variable among the gold- volcanic complex. For example, the Horne and Quemont
rich and auriferous VMS deposits (Table 1), including at deposits are older than the Cu–Zn VMS deposits of the
the camp scale (e.g., Skellefte District in Sweden and Noranda Central Camp (McNicoll et al. 2008) and are
Macuchi Camp in Ecuador), with some deposits having an among the oldest deposits of the Blake River Group,
elevated (>2) gold-to-base metals ratio (Boliden in Skellefte whereas the gold-rich VMS deposits of the Doyon-
and Mercedes in Macuchi) located close to deposits with Bousquet-LaRonde Camp 50 km east of Noranda
relatively low ratios (Petiknas North and Holmtjarn in (LaRonde Penna, Bousquet 2-Dumagami, Bousquet 1, and
Skellefte and La Plata in Macuchi). The richest deposits are Westwood-Warrenmac) are among the youngest deposits of
not necessarily those having the highest gold-to-base metals the Blake River Group (Lafrance et al. 2005; Mercier-
ratio (e.g., South Urals: Balta Tau at 4.5 g/t Au with a ratio Langevin et al. 2007c). The Photo Lake deposit in Snow
of 0.56 and Yubileinoe at 2.5 g/t Au with a ratio of 0.76; Lake is possibly the youngest deposit of the camp, although
Table 1). Despite relatively high gold grades, the deposits tectonic disturbance obscures the stratigraphic relationships
of the Mount Read Volcanics are characterized by very low of this area (Galley et al. 2007b). The Caribou and Canoe
gold-to-base metals ratios due to very high base metal Landing Lake deposits of the Bathurst Mining Camp are
contents (Table 1). hosted by the Middle Ordovician California Lake Group,
As noted by Hannington et al. (1999), Huston (2000), and are among the earliest formed VMS deposits in the
and Dubé et al. (2007a), gold-rich VMS deposits can be region (Walker and McDonald 1995; Goodfellow 2003).
found in belts and districts of all ages (e.g., Figs. 5 and 6, The California Lake Group tends to host deposits that are,
Table 1 and Appendix). However, in some districts, the on average, slightly richer in gold than deposits of the
gold-rich VMS appear to have formed at specific times. coeval Tetagouche Group (McClenaghan et al. 2003, 2004)
Although there are few camps where detailed and very and may result from their formation on differing crustal
precise geochronology are available to establish the blocks as reflected in base metals and isotopic signature
position of the VMS deposits, stratigraphic reconstructions (Goodfellow and McCutcheon 2003). The specific timing
in some cases provide insight on the relative timing of of formation of gold-rich deposits in certain VMS districts
hydrothermal events and magmatic evolution of the host may be directly related to the geodynamic evolution of the
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539 519

100
Selected examples of deposits with:
(discussed in text, and/or Fig. 5 and Table 1)
1 t Au 10 t Au 100 t Au
>3.46 g/t Au
Eskay Creek
>31 t Au
Gold-rich >3.46 g/t Au and >31 t Au
Boliden >3.46 g/t Au, >31 t Au and
Johnson R. Mercedes a Au/total base metals ratio >1
10 Petiknas N. Westwood-Warrenmac
Holmtjarn Nurukawa Kali Kuning Bousquet 2-Dumagami
Auriferous Balta Tau Bousquet 1 Horne H-G
100 kg Au Iron D. Lomero Quemont Mount Morgan
La Plata
Gold grade (ppm or g/t)

Hixbar Iron K. Abyz Greens Creek LaRonde Penna

3.46 g/t Au Hellyer Lalor Flin Flon
Photo Lake Yubileinoe
Canoe-L.
Caribou La Zarza
Horne Zone 5
Gai
1
10 kg Au

Mount Lyell
Au grade in ppm or An
g/t >3.46 [Auriferous] om
alo
Au tonnage >31 metric 31 us
0.1 t [Anomalous] tA
u
Au grade in ppm or
g/t >3.46 g/t and Au
tonnage >31 metric t
[Gold-rich]
Ordinary VMS
0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Deposits tonnage (million metric t)

Fig. 8 Bivariate plot of gold grade versus tonnage for VMS deposits. anomalous. VMS deposits with more than 3.46 g/t Au and 31 t of Au
Data are shown for 513 deposits worldwide (dataset modified from (n=11) are considered gold-rich. One hundred thirteen deposits meet
Franklin et al. 2005). The shaded regions show the geometric mean at least one of these criteria, 29 deposits meet at least two criteria, and
plus one standard deviation from the geometric mean of the gold grade only nine deposits meet all three criteria. Canoe-L. Canoe Landing
and the total contained gold for all 513 deposits. Auriferous deposits Lake, Iron D. Iron Dyke, Iron K. Iron King, Johnson R. Johnson
are considered to have a gold grade greater than 3.46 g/t and/or gold River, Lomero Lomero-Poyatos, Petiknas N. Petiknas North, Geo.
grades in g/t equal or exceeding the total concentration of base metals Mean geometric mean, Std. Dev. standard deviation
in wt.%. VMS deposits with more than 31 t Au (n=50) are considered

arc–back-arc systems and the nature of the corresponding and volcaniclastics with only minor intermediate to mafic
magmatism (e.g., Macuchi Arc in Ecuador; Chiaradia et al. rocks (Barrett et al. 1991; Kerr and Gibson 1993; Monecke
2008; Baimak-type VMS deposits of the South Urals; et al. 2008): this contrasts sharply with the dominantly
Prokin and Buslaev 1999; Herrington et al. 2005b). andesitic sequences that host the other Cu–Zn VMS lenses
Barrie and Hannington (1999), Franklin et al. (2005), of the Noranda Central Camp (Spence and de Rosen-
and Galley et al. (2007a) noted that the average gold grades Spence 1975; Kerr and Gibson 1993). The Horne rhyolites
of VMS deposits are highest in mafic and bimodal-felsic are tholeiitic to transitional and characterized by a slight
volcanic sequences. The gold-rich and auriferous VMS depletion in rare earth elements that distinguishes them
deposits listed in Table 1 have a variety of lithostratigraphic from rhyolites in the Noranda Central Camp hosting Cu–Zn
associations; however, most are thought to have formed in deposits. This suggests a different magmatic evolution for
arc-related rifts in their early stages, in oceanic or the Horne sequence (Kerr and Gibson 1993). The gold-rich
continental arc or back-arc settings, and at times of VMS deposits of the Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde Camp are
evolving arc magmatism. Transitional to calc-alkaline, hosted by a sequence consisting of transitional to calc-
intermediate to felsic rocks, including andesites, dacites, alkaline dacite, rhyodacite, and rhyolite overlying Archean
rhyodacites, and rhyolites appear to be common hosts (e.g., tholeiitic basalts (Mercier-Langevin et al. 2007c). The La
Table 1), similar to many sub-aerial epithermal deposits Zarza and Lomero-Poyatos deposits are located in the
(Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003; Simmons et al. 2005). Gold- northern part of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, which has a much
rich VMS are associated with particularly voluminous felsic higher proportion of calc-alkaline felsic volcanic rocks
volcanism in many districts (e.g., Table 1). The Horne (dacites and lesser amounts of rhyolite) and less sedimen-
deposit is hosted in a thick succession of rhyolitic domes tary rocks than the southern part of the belt (Leistel et al.
 520

Table 1 Selected characteristics for some examples of gold-rich VMS and auriferous deposits of various ages
District/ Deposit Tonnage Gold Gold Total Gold- Matching Age Inferred Lithotectonic Host rocks Mineralization Alteration Specific geologic Selected references
Camp (Mt)a grade tonnage base to- base criterias geodynamic typeb attributesc
(Country) (g/t)a (metric metals metals setting
t)a (wt.%)a ratio

Abitibi, Horne 53.7 6.10 327.6 2.2 2.77 3/3 (world- Archean Back-arc Bimodal- Tholeiitic to Massive and Extensive, semi- - Unusually large; Mostly Kerr and Mason
Noranda (2.2% class (2,702– basin on mafic transitional disseminated conformable felsic volcaniclastics; (1990); Barrett et al.
(Canada) Cu) gold- rich) 2,701 Ma) immature felsic sulfides, Sr, proximal Oldest deposit of the (1991); Cattalani et
mafic crust volcaniclastics, stringers (Py > Sr-Chl-Qz and camp; Located outside al. (1993); Kerr and
very minor Po> > Cpy > local Chl- Py the Noranda central Gibson (1993);
tholeiitic Mt > Sph ± camp "cauldron", with Gibson et al. (2000);
pillowed mafics Gn-Td with other Au- rich VMS McNicoll et al.
gold and occurrences; No (2008); Monecke et
electrum) extensive footwall al. (2008)
stringers
Quemont 16.7 5.50 91.6 3.0 1.83 3/3 Archean Back-arc Bimodal- Tholeiitic to Massive and Semi- - Unusually large; Mostly Taylor (1957); Gibson
(1.2% (gold- rich) (2,702– basin on mafic transitional disseminated conformable felsic volcanics; Taylor and Watkinson
Cu, 2,701 Ma) immature massive to sulfides, Sr, proximal (1957); Gibson and (1990); MacLean
1.8% mafic crust volcaniclastic stringers (Py > Sr-Chl and Watkinson (1990); and Hoy (1991);
Zn) rhyolites with Po > Sp > massive Chl MacLean and Hoy Cattalani et al.
minor andesites Cp > Mt) with Located outside the (1993); McNicoll et
electrum central camp; Close al. (2008)
(1991); Cattalani et al.
(1993); McNicoll et al.
(2008) to Horne;
Located in the largest
rhyolitic complex of the
Blake River Group
Abitibi, DBL LaRonde 58.8 4.31 253 2.5 1.72 3/3 (world- Archean Submarine Bimodal- Tholeiitic to Massive and Semi- - Unusually large; Calc- Lafrance et al. (2003,
(Canada) Penna (0.3% class (2,698 Ma) back- arc mafic/ transitional semimassive conformable to alkaline felsics, 2005); Dubé et al.
Cu, gold-rich) basin/rift on felsic mafic and sulfides and discordant Bo- Aluminous (advanced (2007a, b); Mercier-
2.2% arc crust intermediate stockworks Qz-Gt-Sr-Chl argillic-style) alteration; Langevin et al.
Zn) rock, and (Py > Sp > and aluminous Youngest deposit of the (2007a, 2007b,
transitional to Cp > Po > Gn (Qz-S Ky- Blake River Group; 2007c, 2007d)
calc-alkaline with And-St) Located away from the
felsic rocks tellurides and assemblages Noranda camp; Stacked
electrum) lenses without
extensive footwall
stringers; Au-Cu and
Au-Zn-Pb-Ag
associations
Bousquet 2- 15.5 7.25 112.2 0.9 8.06 3/3 (world- Archean Submarine Bimodal- Tholeiitic to Massive sulfides Distal semi- - Unusually large; Calc- Marquis et al. (1990);
Dumagami (0.5% class (2,698 Ma) back- arc mafic/felsic transitional and conformable alkaline felsics, Stone (1990);
Cu, gold-rich) basin/rift on mafic and disseminations (Chl-Bo-Qz- Aluminous (advanced Tourigny et al.
0.4% arc crust intermediate (Py > Cpy > Gt-Sr±Cb) argillic-style) alteration; (1993); Lafrance et
Zn) rock, and Bn > Sp > and proximal Youngest deposit of the al. (2003, 2005);
transitional to Cc > Tn with aluminous (Sr- Blake Langevin et al. Dubé et al. (2007a,
calc-alkaline tellurides and Qz and Qz-Sr- (2007a, b, d) River b); Mercier-
felsic rocks electrum) Ky-And) Group; Located away Langevin et al.
assemblages from the Noranda (2007a, b, d)
central camp
Bousquet 1 9.3 5.45 50.5 0.3 18.2 3/3 Archean Submarine Bimodal- Tholeiitic to Sulfide veins, Semi- - Aluminous (advanced Valliant and Barnett
(0.3% (gold-rich) (2,698 Ma) back-arc mafic/ transitional stockworks conformable arfillic-style) alteration; (1982); Valliant et
Cu) basin/rift on felsic mafic and and Bo-Chl-Qz-Gt- Youngest deposit of the al. (1982); Tourigny
arc crust intermediate disseminations Sr-Cb and Blake River Group; et al. (1989); Stone
rock, and minor (Py > Cpy> > proximal Low base metals; Vein- (1990); Lafrance et
transitional to Sp > Po > Bn aluminous style mineralization al. (2003, 2005);
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539
Table 1 (continued)
District/ Deposit Tonnage Gold Gold Total Gold- Matching Age Inferred Lithotectonic Host rocks Mineralization Alteration Specific geologic Selected references
Camp (Mt)a grade tonnage base to- base criterias geodynamic typeb attributesc
(Country) (g/t)a (metric metals metals setting
t)a (wt.%)a ratio

calc- alkaline with electrum (Qz-Sr-Ky- Mercier-Langevin et

felsic rocks and tellurides) And) al. (2007a, d)
assemblages
Westwood- 14.2 7.60 107.9 (> 1) 3/3 (world- Archean Submarine Bimodal- Tholeiitic to Massive sulfides, Semi- - Aluminous (advanced Savoie et al. (1991);
Warrenmac class (2,698 Ma) back-arc mafic/ transitional sulfide veins, conformable to argillic-style) alteration; Lafrance et al.
gold-rich) basin/rift on felsic mafic and stockworks discordant Bo- Youngest deposit of the (2003, 2005);
arc crust intermediate and Qz-Chl-Sr- Gt Blake River Group; Mercier-Langevin et
rock, and minor disseminations and Qz-Sr± Located close to the al. (2007a,d, 2009)
transitional to (Py > Cpy > Ky-And mineralized Mooshla
calc- alkaline Sp > Po with assemblages synvolcanic intrusion;
felsic rocks electrum and Vein-style and VMS
tellurides) style mineralization
Skellefte Boliden 8.3 15.50 128.7 2.7 5.74 3/3 (world- Paleo- Submarine Bimodal Transitional to Massive and Discordant - Mostly transitional Odman (1941); Grip
(Sweden) (1.5% class proterozoic continental felsic mildly calc- disseminated distal Chl intermediate to felsic and Wirstam (1970);
Cu, gold-rich) (1,885– margin alkaline dacitic sulfides (Py > alteration, rocks; Aluminous Nilsson (1968);
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

0.9% 1,880 Ma) volcanic arc to rhyolitic Aspy > Cpy proximal Sr- alteration; Shallow Vivallo (1987);
Zn, volcaniclastics > Sph-Po-Gn) Qz and Qz- water?; Au-As-Cu-Sb Weihed et al.
0.3% and domes, with electrum And-Ru association; Located (1992); Allen et al.
Pb) transitional sulfosalts and close to a (1996); Bergman
andesites tellurides disconformity; Low Weihed et al.
base metals; Enriched (1996); Billstrom
in Te and Se; Au and Weihed (1996);
(personal comm. 2009) Wagner and Jonsson
Cu association (2001); Boliden
Minerals AB
unpublished data (R.
Allen personal
comm. 2009)
Petiknas 1.3 5.60 7.3 7.8 0.72 1/3 Paleo- Submarine Bimodal Transitional to Massive Stratabound to - Mostly transitional Vivallo (1987); Allen
North (1.3% (auriferous) proterozoic continental felsic calc-alkaline sulfides (Py > discordant felsic to intermediate et al. (1996);
Cu, (1,885– margin rhyolitic domes Sph > Cpy > distal Sr-Chl rocks; Extensive Weihed and Maki
5.6% 1,880 Ma) volcanic arc and pyroclastics Po > Aspy > and proximal stringer; Felsic (1997);Allen and
Zn, (footwall), mud- Gn with Chl-Qz-Sr and volcaniclastics and Svenson (2004);
0.9% stones and rhyo- electrum and massive Chl domes; High Sb and Boliden Minerals
Pb) litic to andesitic sulfosalts) As; Subsea-floor AB unpublished
pyroclastic mass replacement; Au-Zn-Pb data (R. Allen
flows Ag association personal comm.
2009)
Holmtjarn 0.5 7.40 3.7 4.8 1.54 2/3 Paleo- Submarine Bimodal Volcaniclastic Massive, Intense Sr-Qz - Bimodal volcano- Svensson and Willden
(0.4% (auriferous) proterozoic continental felsic rhyolite, semimassive alteration and sedimentary setting; (1986); Vivallo
Cu, (1,885– margin andesite, and local Chl Au-As association; (1987); Allen et al.
4% 1,880 Ma) volcanic arc basaltic disseminated alteration, Possible analog to (1996); Hannington
Zn, andesite, basalt, sulfides(Py > zones of Boliden but no major et al. (1999);
0.4% minor dacite, Sph > Aspy- intense aluminous alteration Sundblad (2003)
Pb) Conglomerates Cpy > Mt-Po silicification and less As, with more
sills and base metals; Au-Zn-Pb-
sulfosalts) Ag association
Flin Flon/ Flin Flon 62.5 2.64 165.1 6.3 0.42 1/3 Paleo- Juvenile Bimodal afic Tholeiitic mafic Massive and Semi- - Unusually large; only Koo and Mossman
Snow Lake (2.2% (anomalous) proterozoic submarine flows and vol- disseminated conformable slightly enriched in (1975); Syme and
(Canada) Cu, (1,902– oceanic arc/ caniclastics, sulfides (Py > distal Qz-Ep- gold but twice the Bailes (1993); Syme
4.1% 1,887 Ma) arc rifting massive to brec- Sph > Cpy > Ab, discordant average for the district; et al. (1999);
Zn) ciated rhyolite Po with proximal Chl- Primitive rhyolites Franklin et al.
(footwall), felsic minor Aspy, Sr-Qz (domes) (2005); Galley et al.
volcaniclastics Mt, Gn, Td, alteration (2007b)
and basalts Ag and
(hanging wall) electrum)
Lalor 28.6 2.78 79.6 6.1 0.46 1/3 Paleo- Mature Bimodal Mafic and felsic Massive and Estensive and - Largest deposit of the Bailes et al. (2009);
(0.6% (anomalous) proterozoic submarine felsic volcaniclastics, disseminated intense Sr-Chl- Snow Lake camp; Gilmore et al.
Cu, (1,890 Ma) volcanic felsic flow sulfides (Py > Qz and Gt, Ky, Separate gold-rich (2009); Hudbay
5.5% arc/arc complexes Sph > Cpy > Bo, St, Co, Gh lenses with up to 12 Mt Minerals Press
Zn) rifting (footwall and Gn > Aspy) alteration at 4-5 g/t Au Release, October
521

hanging wall) 8th, 2009.

Table 1 (continued)
522

District/ Deposit Tonnage Gold Gold Total Gold- Matching Age Inferred Lithotectonic Host rocks Mineralization Alteration Specific geologic Selected references
Camp (Mt)a grade tonnage base to- base criterias geodynamic typeb attributesc
(Country) (g/t)a (metric metals metals setting
t)a (wt.%)a ratio

Photo Lake 0.7 4.87 3.4 11 0.44 1/3 Paleo- Mature Bimodal Mafic and felsic Massive and Semi- - Richest and possible Menard and Gordon
(4.6% (auriferous) proterozoic submarine felsic volcaniclastics, disseminated conformable youngest deposit of (1995); Paradis et
Cu, (1,890 Ma) volcanic felsic flow sulfides weak Ac-Chl Snow lake; Au-Cu-Zn al. (1998); Bailes
6.4% arc/arc complexes (Py > Po > and strong association; Associated and Galley (1999);
Zn) rifting (footwall and Cpy-Sph) Chl-Bo-Gt-St, with dacites and Galley and Bailes
hanging wall) discordant Qz- rhyodacites largest (2002); Franklin et
Hb Gt and felsic center of Snow al. (2005); Galley et
Chl-Gt-Bo- Lake; different tectonic al. (2007b); Bailes
Qz-Mt setting? et al. (2009)
Mount Read Mount 311.0 0.31 96.4 1 0.32 1/3 Middle Epicontinental Bimodal High-K, calc- Disseminated Extensive outer 6 km-long alteration Corbett (1992);
Volcanics Lyell (0.97% (anomalous) Cambrian arc - rifted felsic alkaline felsic Py-Cpy, Cpy Sr-Chl-Cb and system; local advanced Crawford et al.
(Tasmania) Cu) (530– arc flows and Bn and inner Sr-Qz-Py argillic alteration; (1992); Large
500 Ma) volcaniclastics, massive Py- pipe, local possible hybrid system (1992a, b) Large et
minor andesites Cpy±Bn-Sph- pyrophyllite with a magmatic input; al. (1996); Corbett
(footwall), Gn with and strongly Au- (2007) Cu (2001); Large et al.
LREE-rich minor Cc siliceous assciation, very low (2001); Seymour et
andesites/basalts (advanced base metals; upper part al. (2007)
and sediments argillic) of the system at the
(hanging wall) transition between calc-
aklaline felsics and rift-
related mafics
Hellyer 16.5 2.55 42.0 21.5 0.12 1/3 Middle Epicontinental Bimodal Greywacke, Massive Pervasive, distal Proximal Chl alteration; Corbett (1992);
(0.4% (anomalous) Cambrian arc - rifted felsic transitional to sulfides and Sr-Qz, formed in a brine pool?; Crawford et al.
Cu, (530– arc calc-alkaline stockworks proximal Zn-Cu-Au-As (1992); Gemmell and
7.2% 500 Ma) andesite and (Py > Sph > discordant association Large (1992); Khin
Pb, minor dacites Gn > Cpy Chl- Cb-Sr, Zaw et al (1996);
13.9% and mixed with minor central Large (1992); Waters
Zn) volcaniclastics Aspy, Td, Tn, siliceous core and Wallace (1992);
(footwall), Po and Gemmell and Fulton
basalts and electrum) (2001); Large et al.
shales (hanging (2001); Solomon and
wall) Gaspar (2001);
Seymour et al. (2007)
Bathurst Caribou 64.7 1.89 122.3 6.4 0.30 1/3 Ordovician Back-arc Siliciclastic- Shale, siltstone Massive, Stratabound - Calc-alkaline rocks; Goodfellow (2003);
(Canada) (0.5% (anomalous) (470– continental felsic and felsic tuff bedded and Chl-Qz-Ab, Evolved Pb isotope Goodfellow and
Cu, 465 Ma) rift/Nascent (footwall), calc- brecciated discordant signature; Refractory McCutcheon
4.3% back-arc alkaline felsics sulfides with Chl-Sr-Qz gold (As-rich pyrite); (2003);
Zn, and tholeiitic stringers Onset of felsic McClenaghan et al.
1.6% basalts (hanging (Py > Sph > volcanism; More than (2003, 2004)
Pb) wall) Gn > Cpy > four times the average
Mt > Po > grade for the district
Aspy)
Canoe 20.7 2.28 47.2 3 (0.7% 0.76 1/3 Ordovician Back-arc Siliciclastic- Shale, siltstone Transported, Regional - Onset of felsic Walker and McDonald
Landing Cu, (anomalous) (470– continental felsic and dacites sheet-like alteration volcanism; Au-As (1995); Goodfellow
Lake 1.7% 465 Ma) rift/Nascent (footwall and massive sul- background association; More than and McCutcheon
Zn, 0.6 back-arc hanging wall), fides (Py> > (transported five times the average (2003); van Staal et
Pb) alkali basalts Po > Sph > sulfides) grade for the district; al. (2003);
(hanging wall) Gn > Cpy and Oldest in the camp? McClenaghan et al.
Aspy) (2004)
South Urals Balta Tau 3.5 4.50 15.8 8.1 (3% 0.56 1/3 Early to Mid- Mature Bimodal Bimodal, Extensive Qz-Chl-Sr-Py - "Baimak-type" with Koroteev et al.
(Russia, Cu, (anomalous) dle Devonian submarine mafic tholeiitic and footwall enveloppe extensive stockworks (1997); Herrington
Kazakhstan) 5.1% (400– arc/arc calc-alkaline, stockworks arond the and disseminations; et al. (1999);
Zn) 390 Ma) rifting basalts- ande- and dissemi- stockworks, Gold- rich barite lenses; Holland (2004);
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539
District/ Deposit Tonnage Gold Gold Total Gold- Matching Age Inferred Lithotectonic Host rocks Mineralization Alteration Specific geologic Selected references
Camp (Mt)a grade tonnage base to- base criterias geodynamic typeb attributesc
(Country) (g/t)a (metric metals metals setting
t)a (wt.%)a ratio

sites and felsics, nations, local kaolinite subvolcanic sills and Herrington et al.
subvolcanic local massive possible magmatic (2005a, b)
intrusions (foot- sulfide lenses input; Direct
wall), andesite (Py> > Cpy > association with cala-
and chert Sph > Tn > Gn aklaine rhyodacites;
(hanging wall) with minor Td, Au-Ag-As-Cu-Cd
Bn, Cc, Aspy, association
sulfosalts, elec-
trum and gold)
Yubileinoe 107.0 2.50 267.5 3.2 0.78 1/3 Early to Submarine Bimodal Bimodal, Massive Chl-rich - "Urals-type" with Koroteev et al.
(1.9% (anomalous) Middle volcanic arc mafic tholeiitic basalts sulfides proximal massive sulfide lenses; (1997); Herrington
Cu, Devonian and andesites (Py> > Sph- alteration, at the contact between et al. (2005a, b)
0.1% (400– (footwall), chert Cpy) extensive mafics and felsics; Au-
Pb, 390 Ma) and volcaniclas- outer Qz-Chl- Zn association; large
1.2% tics (haging Sr halo tonnage
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

Zn) wall)
Gai 205.0 1.10 225.5 2 (1.4% 0.55 1/3 Early to Submarine Bimodal Bimodal tholeiitic Several massive Chl-rich - "Urals-type" with Korotev et al. (1997);
Cu, (anomalous) Middle volcanic arc mafic andesites and sulfides lenses proximal massive sulfide lenses; Prokin et Buslaev
0.1% Devonian dacites- (Py> > Cpy- alteration, at the contact between (1999); Herrington
Pb, (400– rhyodacites Sph with Bn, zones of Qz- mafics and felsics; Au- et al. (2005a, b);
0.5% 390 Ma) (footwall), chert Tn, Gn. Sr, extensive Zn association; very Vikentyev et al.
Zn) and volcaniclas- tellurides) outer Qz-Chl- large tonnage and low (2006)
tics with basalts/ Sr halo grade
andesites (hang-
ing wall)
Rockhampton Mount 50.0 4.99 249.5 0.9 5.54 3/3 (world- Devonian Island arc Bimodal Felsic Discordant mas- Discordant - Large discordant Cornelius (1969);
(Australia) Morgan (0.7% class (386– mafic volcaniclastics, sive sulfides, distal Qz-Sr- orebody; Felsic Taube (1986);
Cu, gold-rich) 382 Ma) tuffaceous stringers, dis- Chl-Py, and dominated sequence; In Arnold and Sillitoe
0.1% mudstones and seminations proximal Qz- a roof pendant in a (1989); (1992);
Zn, siltstones with and Qz veins Py (sugary 380 Ma subvolcanic Messenger et al.
0.1% cherts, felsic (Py> > Po- Qz) tonalite; Superimposed (1998); Huston
Pb) porphyries Cpy-Mt- Sph systems or hybrid-type? (2000); Ulrich et al.
with gold and (2002)
tellurides)
Karkaralinski Abyz 9.1 4.35 40.1 5 (1.4% 0.87 2/3 (gold- Devonian Contiental Bimodal Massive to Massive and Semi- - Minor felsics; Andesite- Bespaev et al. (1996),
(Karaganda Cu, rich) (375 Ma) margin arc? mafic volcaniclastic disseminated conformable dominated host Franklin et al.
region, 3.6% mafic to sulfides (Py > Qz-Sr and sequence; Au-As-Sb (2005)
Kazakhstan) Zn) intermediate Sph > Cpy > proximal Qz association?
volcanic rocks, Gn > Tn-Td (tennantite-tetrahedrite)
sandstones and with gold,
minor felsic electrum and
intrusives tellurides)
Iberian Pyrite La Zarza 164.0 1.80 295.2 4.8 0.38 1/3 Carboniferous Epicontinental Siliciclastic- Calc-alkaline Stratabound Stratabound to - Very large deposit; Au- Strauss et al. (1981);
Belt (Spain- (1.2% (350 Ma) rift felsic dacitic massive sul- discordant rich siliceous ore; Au- Mosier et al. (1983);
Portugal) Cu, volcaniclastics fides (Py> > footwall Qz-Sr As (Aspy) association; Leistel et al. (1998a,
2.5% and domes Sph-Cpy-Gn and Qz- Chl, Rhyodacites and dacites b); Strauss and Beck
Zn, (footwall), vol- Aspy with mi- local (domes); Replacement (1990); Marcoux
1.1% caniclastic sand- nor electrum), silicification style; relativelly young (1998); Franklin et
Pb) stone and shale siliceous Qz- al. (2005); Tornos
(hanging wall) Py±Aspy ore (2006)
Lomero- 4.3 4.50 19.5 3.5 1.29 2/3 (gold- Carboniferous Epicontinental Siliciclastic- Calc-alkaline felsic Stratabound Intense Chl Small deposit; Very rich; Strauss et al. (1981);
Poyatos (0.9% rich) (350 Ma) rift felsic volcaniclastics coarse-grained alteration and Replacement style ore; Carvalho et al.
Cu, and shales (foot- massive silicification, silicification; (1999); Franklin et
1.6% wall), felsic brec- sulfides (Py > barite-rich Associated with dacites al. (2005); Tornos
Zn, 1% cia and andesite Sph > Cpy- gangue and rhyolites; Baritic (2006)
Pb) (hanging wall) Td-Te-Gn) gangue
Juneau- Greens 20.1 3.88 77.9 17.8 0.22 2/3 Late-Triassic Continental Pelitic mafic Calc-alkaline, Massive and Distal Cb-Chl - Very large deposit; Pb- Newberry and Brew
Admiralty Creek (0.2% (gold-rich) (220 Ma) margin rift massive to disseminated and proximal Ag-Zn-rich; Barite ore; (1997); Newberry et
district Cu, or intra-arc volcaniclastic sulfide lenses discordant Qz- Rare example of gold- al. (1997); Taylor et
(Alaska, 10.9% rift? mafic rocks (Py > Sph > Sr Cb and Qz- rich VMS in mafic- al. (1999); Franklin
U.S.A) Zn, (basalts), Gn> > Cpy > Py-Sr (footwall) dominated environment et al. (2005);
523
Table 1 (continued)
524

District/ Deposit Tonnage Gold Gold Total Gold- Matching Age Inferred Lithotectonic Host rocks Mineralization Alteration Specific geologic Selected references
Camp (Mt)a grade tonnage base to- base criterias geodynamic typeb attributesc
(Country) (g/t)a (metric metals metals setting
t)a (wt.%)a ratio

6.7% ultramafic sills Bn > A spy- - SEDEX-style Szumigala et al.

Pb) and argillites, Td-Fr with environment (hybrid?); (2007); Taylor et al.
conglomerates sulfosalts and Carbonate alteration (2008)
and limestone electrum)
Stewart Eskay 3.3 45.97 153.9 9.3 4.94 3/3 (world Jurassic Continental Bimodal Tholeiitic Stratiform Semi- - Extremelly rich in gold; Sherlock et al. (1996);
Creek (0.8% class gold- (175 Ma) margin rift/ felsic intermediate to clastic, semi- conformable to Au-Ag-Sb-As Barrett and Sherlock
(Canada) Cu, rich) back-arc felsic massive to discordant association ("epithermal (1996); Childe
5.6% volcaniclastics, massive sul- distal Qz-Sr- suite"); Shallow?, Low- (1996); MacDonald
Zn, flows and lobes fide-sulfosalt Chl-Kfp, temperature; et al. (1996); Roth
2.9% (footwall), argil- lenses, string- proximal Qz- Epithermal- al. (2000); and Taylor (2000);
Pb) lite/mudstones ers (Sb > Re- Sr- Chl-Py Franklin et al. (2005) Roth et al. (2000);
and basalts Aspy- Td > style setting; Tholeiitic Franklin et al. (2005)
(hanging wall) Py-Sph-Cpy felsic rocks
with electrum)
Rapu Rapu Hixbar 1.4 3.81 5.2 3.3 1.16 2/3 Jurassic? Rifted mature Bimodal Tholeiitic ande- Several small Stratabound - Mafic-dominated Sherlock et al. (2003);
Island (1.2% (auriferous) arc or young mafic/ sites and calc- massive (Qz-Sr-Py, environment; Cpy-Bn- Franklin et al. (2005)
(Philippines) Cu, back- arc Pelitic alkaline dacites sulfide lenses proximal Sherlock et al. (2003);
2.1% extensional mafic (footwall), (Py> > Cpy > auriferous Franklin et al. (2005)
Zn) basin quartzofeld- Sph with disseminated Cv-Td suite of ore
spathic sedi- minor Cv, Bn, Py halo, strong minerals; isolated
mentary rocks Td) Na, Ca, K, Mg LREE-enriched calc-
and tholeiitic leaching - acid alkaline dacites;
mafics (haging alteration?) possibly acid-leaching
wall)
Macuchi La Plata 0.8 4.80 4.0 9 (4.1% 0.53 1/3 Early Tertiary Ensimatic Bimodal Transitional Footwall Proximal Qz- - "High-sulfidation ore Chiaradia and
(Western Cu, (auriferous) oceanic felsic/ basalts and stockwork, Py-Sr±Chl and assemblage but lack of Fontboté (2000;
Cordillera, 4.2% island-arc bimodal massive to dissemnated distal Chl-Ab intense acid alteration; 2001); Franklin et
Ecuador) Zn, mafic volcaniclastic and massive (footwall) and possible magmatic al. (2005); Chiaradia
0.7% andesites sulfide lenses hematite input; intraoceanic et al. (2008)
Pb) (footwall), (Py> > Cpy > alteration in island arc setting
jasper, tholeiitic Sph > Bn > the hanging (constructional stage)
basalts and Gn with minor wall contrasting with other
basaltic-andesite Tn, digenite VMS deposits of the
breccia (hanging and native Andes
wall) gold and barite
in the gangue)
Mercedes 0.4 11.50 5.1 4.7 2.45 2/3 Early Tertiary Ensimatic Bimodal Transitional Breccia-type Proximal Qz-Sr- - "High-sulfidation ore Stoll (1962);
(Macuchi) (4.7% (auriferous) oceanic felsic/ basaltic to stockworks Py and distal assemblage but lack of Chiaradia and
Cu) island-arc bimodal basaltic andesite and massive Qz-Chl intense acid alteration; Fontboté (2000;
mafic volcanic and sulfide lenses possible magmatic 2001); Franklin et al.
volcaniclastic (Py> > Cpy > input; intraoceanic (2005)
rocks, minor Sph > Bn with island arc setting
felsic sandstone accessory (constructional stage)
and dacites covellite, contrasting with other
(footwall and digenite, Gn VMS deposits of the
hanging wall) and native Andes
gold)
Hokuroku Nurukawa 1.0 6.80 6.8 12.5 0.54 1/3 Miocene (10- Aborted Bimodal Calc-alkaline Massive Semi- - Advanced argillic-style Cathles et al. (1983);
(Japan) (0.7% (auriferous) 13 Ma) submarine felsic felsic lobes and sulfides, conformable (aluminous) alteration; Dudas et al. (1983);
Cu, back-arc rift volcaniclastic bedded Sr-Chl (distal) Magmatic input; Nishitani et al.
7.9% (footwall) and siliceous ores and mixed-lay- located outside the (1986); Yamada et
Zn, mudstones and and er clays with main Hokuroku basin; al. (1987, 1988);
3.9% basalts (hanging stockworks montmorillon- Au-Cu-As association Marumo (1989);
Pb) wall) (Py > Sph > ite, and discor- Sasaki et al. (1995);
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539
Table 1 (continued)
District/ Deposit Tonnage Gold Gold Total Gold- Matching Age Inferred Lithotectonic Host rocks Mineralization Alteration Specific geologic Selected references
Camp (Mt)a grade tonnage base to- base criterias geodynamic typeb attributesc
(Country) (g/t)a (metric metals metals setting
t)a (wt.%)a ratio

Cpy > Gn± dant proximal Hannington et al.

Td-Bn with zeolite-kaolin- (1999); Huston
electrum) ite-Qz (2000); Ishiyama et
al. (2001); Yamada
and Yoshida (2004)
Wetar Island Kali 2.2 5.50 12.1 1.1 5.00 2/3 Pliocene (4- Rifted arc Bimodal Basaltic andesite Massive and Distal chlorite, Au-Ag-As-Sb Sewell and Wheatley
(Indonesia) Kuning (0.1% (auriferous) 5 Ma) mafic and calc fragmental discordant association; early (1994a and b);
Cu, alkaline dacite sulfides proximal illite- (auriferous?) arsenian Sillitoe (1994);
1% (massive to (arsenian Py> smectite and pyrite; calc-alkaline Sillitoe et al. (1996);
Pb) brecciated) > Cpy), Sph, intense dacites; continental/ Franklin et al.
(footwall), Cv, Tn, Td, silicification sedimentary component (2005); Scotney et
sandstone, Bn veins, local kaolinite, in the volcanics; argillic al. (2005)
mudstone, auriferous pyrophyllite, and advanced argillic
rhyolite barite sands, alunite alteration, auriferous
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

epiclastics and free gold and baritic sands/barite

limestone electrum,
(hanging wall) enargite
Lerokis 2.9 3.50 10.2 1.1 3.00 2/3 Pliocene (4- Rifted arc Bimodal Basaltic andesite Massive and Distal chlorite, Au-Ag-As-Sb Sewell and Wheatley
(0.1% (auriferous) 5 Ma) mafic and calc fragmental discordant association; early (1994a and b);
Cu, alkaline dacite sulfides proximal (auriferous?) arsenian Sillitoe (1994);
1% (massive to (arsenian Py> illite-smectite pyrite; calc-alkaline Sillitoe et al. (1996);
Pb) brecciated) > Cpy), Sph, and intense dacites; continental/ Franklin et al.
(footwall), Cv, Tn, Td, silicification sedimentary component (2005); Scotney et
sandstone, Bn veins, local in the volcanics; argillic al. (2005)
mudstone, auriferous kaolinite, and advanced argillic
rhyolite barite sands, pyrophyllite, alteration, auriferous
epiclastics and free gold and alunite baritic sands/barite
limestone electrum,
(hanging wall) enargite

Modified from Dubé et al. (2007a); Franklin et al. (2005); Hannington et al. (1999), and Huston (2000). This list is not exhaustive, only selected examples that meet at least one criteria and that can
be considered anomalously gold-rich or auriferous compared to the other VMS deposits of their host district are presented here and further discussed in text. The numbers in bold refer to the
matching criteria for classifying the deposit as an auriferous VMS (i.e., Au grade >3.46 g/t and/or gold-to-base metals ratio >1), as an anomalous VMS i.e., (>31 t of Au), or as a gold-rich VMS (i.
e., Au grade >3.46 g/t and/or gold-to-base metals ratio >1 AND >31 t of Au)
a
Tonnages and grades may not be National Instrument 43-101 compliant
b
Lithotectonic types as defined in Franklin et al. (2005)
c
Refers to selected attributes that are characteristic of each deposit compared to the "average" deposit for the host district or to ordinary VMS
DBL Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde, Ab albite, Ac actinolite, Ag argentite, And andalusite, Aspy arsenopyrite, Bn bornite, Bo biotite, Cb carbonate, Cc chalcocite, Chl chlorite, Co cordierite, Cpy
chalcopyrite, Cv covellite, Ep epidote, Fr freibergite, Gh gahnite, Gn galena, Gt garnet, Hb hornblende, Kfp K-feldspar, Ky kyanite, Mo molybdenite, Mt magnetite, Py pyrite, Qz quartz, Re realgar,
Ru rutile, Sb stibnite, Sph sphalerite, Sr sericite, St staurolite, Td tetrahedrite, Tn tennantite
525
526 Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

1998a, b; Thiéblemont et al. 1998; Tornos 2006). The 2008). The Bousquet Formation and its deposits are thought
Paleoproterozoic Skellefte District (Allen et al. 1996), the to have been formed in a volcanic complex at the periphery
Cambrian Mount Read Volcanics (Corbett 1992; Crawford of the Blake River Group (Lafrance et al. 2003), possibly in
et al. 1992; Large et al. 2001), the Ordovician Bathurst an area characterized by thicker crust basement and closer
Mining Camp (Lentz 1996; Yang and Scott 2003), the to an inferred arc (immature or early arc-rift stage: Mercier-
Devonian South Urals (Herrington et al. 2005b), and the Langevin et al. 2007c). Recent dating in the Noranda and
Miocene Hokuroku District (Dudas et al. 1983), which Bousquet camps indicates that Horne and Quemont
contain numerous auriferous and/or anomalous VMS, are similarly formed during an episode of early rifting and
similarly characterized by voluminous transitional to calc- felsic volcanism at Noranda at about 2,702–2,701 Ma
alkaline felsic volcanic rocks (Table 1). (McNicoll et al. 2008). Rifting gradually migrated eastward
The transitional to calc-alkaline felsic volcanic rocks of to the Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde Camp by 2,698–
Precambrian age have been considered to be of a very limited 2,697 Ma, at which time Horne and Quemont had already
prospectivity for VMS deposits in the literature (e.g., Lesher formed and the relatively gold-poor Cu–Zn deposits of the
et al. 1986; Hart et al. 2004) based on the preferential Noranda Central Camp were being deposited in the more
association between VMS deposits and tholeiitic sequences mature mafic-dominated extensional setting. The inferred
in the Superior Province of Canada. However, the associ- geological setting of the gold-rich VMS deposits of the
ation between significant Archean gold-rich VMS deposits Blake River Group is not unique. The gold-rich Nurukawa
and HREE-depleted, transitional to calc-alkaline felsic deposit in Japan is located northeast of the main Hokuroku
volcanic rocks formed in high-pressure settings (e.g., Basin that hosts many of the Kuroko VMS deposits of the
incipient arc rifting or back-arc rifting over a relatively Green Tuff Belt or Kuroko Belt (e.g., Ohmoto 1983;
thick arc–back-arc lithosphere) demonstrates the potential of Ohmoto and Takahashi 1983; Tanimura et al. 1983). The
such sequences (Mercier-Langevin et al. 2007c). It also Nurukawa deposit is coeval with the other VMS deposits of
suggests that this particular geodynamic setting and the the district but was possibly formed in a shallower setting
associated petrogenetic processes are related to the elevated (Yamada et al. 1988), outside the main Hokuroku Basin
gold content of the associated VMS deposits of Archean age where magmatic fluids or volatiles of a volcanic origin are
and perhaps of younger ages as well. Even though not all thought to have directly contributed to the gold enrichment
gold-rich VMS deposits highlighted in this study are directly of the deposit (Sasaki et al. 1995; Ishiyama et al. 2001).
associated to transitional to calc-alkaline rocks, most appear The Nurukawa deposit, especially the number 5 orebody,
to be associated with an abrupt change in magmatic affinity with its gold-bearing stockwork and bedded siliceous ores,
in response to changes from arc volcanism to arc rifting to bears a strong resemblance to parts of the LaRonde-
back-arc volcanism (e.g., Eskay Creek, British Columbia; Bousquet 2 complex (Dubé et al. 2007b; Mercier-
Hokuroku District, Japan). While a link to the formation of Langevin et al. 2007a). Other gold-rich and auriferous
specific gold-rich deposits remains uncertain, these step deposits are not associated with major felsic volcanic
changes in magmatic evolution and corresponding changes complexes (e.g., Greens Creek in Alaska, Abyz in Kazakh-
in host rock composition appear to have been favorable for stan, La Plata and Mercedes in Ecuador, Iron King in
the formation of the most auriferous and gold-rich deposits. Arizona; Table 1). The Late Triassic Greens Creek deposit
A better assessment of the lithogeochemistry of the volcanic in Alaska is the only significant deposit of the Admiralty
sequence hosting gold-rich VMS deposits could help District (Newberry et al. 1997; Freitag 2000), but it is located
highlight specific magmatic processes (and geodynamic in the Alexander Terrane that hosts the giant Windy Craggy
settings) associated with the mineralizing systems. Cu–Co–Au deposit (Peter and Scott 1999; Appendix) and
In a number of cases, the auriferous deposits are located numerous base and precious metals occurrences. The Greens
in distinctly different volcanic and/or structural settings Creek deposit has been interpreted to be a VMS-SEDEX
from other deposits in the district. The Horne and Quemont hybrid (Taylor et al. 1999, 2008) formed on a rift basin
gold-rich deposits that are separated in time and space from margin in a transitional setting between near arc (shallow
the Noranda Cu–Zn VMS are among the best examples; water) and intra-arc rift (deep water) environments (Nelson
both deposits are located in the southern part of the and Colpron 2007; Taylor et al. 2008). The Iron Dyke
Noranda Central Camp in fault-bounded structural blocks deposit in Oregon is hosted in a succession of arc-related,
separated from the slightly younger Cu–Zn deposits. The low-K tholeiitic felsic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks
gold-rich VMS deposits of the Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde that are overlain by epiclastic sedimentary rocks and is
Camp are part of the Bousquet Formation, which is thought to have been formed in a basin or rift setting adjacent
approximately coeval with the volcanic rocks that host the to a sub-aerial magmatic arc (Bussey and LeAnderson 1994).
Cu–Zn VMS of the Noranda Central Camp (Lafrance et al. Similarly, the La Plata and Mercedes deposits located
2005; Mercier-Langevin et al. 2007d; McNicoll et al. in the Western Cordillera in Ecuador were formed in
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539 527

association with oceanic arc-related tholeiitic volcanism in extent that is much larger than the deposit itself (e.g.,
an intra-arc extensional environment (Chiaradia et al. 2008). Knuckey et al. 1982). The Horne system is also character-
In the South Urals, the polymetallic Baimak-type deposits (e. ized by relatively large zones of silica alteration that are
g., Balta Tau; Table 1) are clearly enriched in gold compared locally anomalous in gold (Cattalani et al. 1993).
to the Cyprus and Urals-type deposits and are related with Stockwork, vein style, and disseminations of auriferous
the calc-alkaline andesite-dacite volcanism characterizing sulfides commonly represent significant parts of the ore in
the more mature island-arc stage of the South Urals gold-rich VMS deposits, suggesting that subsea-floor
evolution (Prokin and Buslaev 1999; Herrington et al. replacement processes are important in controlling the
2005b). These examples illustrate the common association enrichment of gold. Gibson et al. (1999) and Hannington
between gold-rich VMS forming systems and (early) arc et al. (1999) noted that deposits formed in volcaniclastic-
rifting. These examples also suggest that shallow water dominated environments are commonly slightly richer in
settings are favorable for the generation of gold-enriched gold than their counterparts formed in volcanic-dominated
VMS deposits. A shallow-water setting has been demon- environments. Examples include the LaRonde Penna,
strated for a number of deposits and inferred for some older Bousquet 2-Dumagami, Bousquet 1, Westwood-
deposits. This common association between gold enrich- Warrenmac, and Horne and Quemont deposits of the
ments in VMS and shallow-water settings suggests that Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde and Noranda camps in the
gold-rich VMS deposits are, in many cases, VMS- Abitibi Greenstone Belt, the deposits of the Mount Read
epithermal hybrids as previously proposed (e.g., Sillitoe et Volcanics in Tasmania, the Boliden deposit in Sweden, the
al. 1996; Hannington et al. 1999; Galley et al. 2007b). Nurukawa Zone 5 in Japan, the Mount Morgan deposit in
Shallow-water settings are in agreement with the inferred Australia, the Separate Gold Zones at Lalor in Canada, and
geodynamic setting proposed for most auriferous and gold- the Balta Tau deposit in Russia (Table 1) as well as the
rich VMS deposits (i.e., early arc–back-arc rifting). As for Johnson River and Iron Dyke deposits located in Alaska
sub-aerial epithermal deposits, VMS deposits formed in and Oregon, respectively. Other deposits are characterized
shallow water settings would probably be more prone to be by barite-rich tops that can contain significant amount of
eroded than their counterparts formed in deep water settings, gold. Examples include Kali Kuning and Lerokis in
perhaps explaining the relatively limited number of aurifer- Indonesia, Balta Tau in the South Urals, Lomero-Poyatos
ous and gold-rich VMS deposits in the geologic record. in the Iberian Pyrite Belt and Iron Dyke in Oregon.
Another distinguishing feature of many gold-rich VMS Deposits dominantly formed by seafloor exhalative activity
deposits is the nature of their associated hydrothermal are often characterized by large amounts of gold but have a
alteration. A number of gold-rich and auriferous VMS relatively low gold grade (e.g., Caribou in the Bathurst
deposits worldwide are associated with zones of advanced Mining Camp, La Zarza in the Iberian Pyrite Belt, Flin Flon
argillic alteration and intense silicification and their in Manitoba; Table 1).
metamorphosed equivalents (Sillitoe et al. 1996). Although Gold-rich and auriferous VMS also commonly possess
advanced argillic or aluminous alteration assemblages are a complex ore mineral paragenesis, with the common
found in some gold-poor or ordinary VMS deposits (e.g., occurrence of arsenopyrite, arsenian pyrite, tennantite and
Mattabi deposit in Sturgeon Lake, Ontario, Canada; tetrahedrite, bornite and complex sulfosalts and tellurides,
Franklin et al. 1975; Undu deposit in Fiji; Colley and Rice and trace element signatures that include enrichments in
1975; Sillitoe et al. 1996; some Kuroko deposits; Marumo the epithermal suite (Ag, As, Sb, Hg) or interpreted
1989), a high proportion of the most gold-rich VMS exhibit magmatic associations (e.g., Bi, Te) (Hannington et al.
this style of alteration (Table 1). Moreover, the aluminous 1999). The gold occurs in two principal metallogenic
alteration or intense silicification is also common around associations: Au–Cu and Au–Zn (Huston 2000). Both are
subordinate gold-rich zones in some otherwise “gold-poor” represented in Table 1 and Appendix and can occur
VMS deposits (e.g., Einarsson zones at Kristineberg in the together in the same district (e.g., Au–Cu at Boliden and
Skellefte District; Areback et al. 2005; Barrett et al. 2005). Au–Zn–Pb–Ag at Petiknas North and Holmtjarn in the
Other important auriferous VMS deposits or gold-rich Skellefte District in Sweden). The two metallogenic
zones are associated with potassium feldspar alteration associations can even coexist in a single deposit (e.g.,
(e.g., Eskay Creek in British Columbia; Barrett and Au–Cu in the 20 North lens and Au–Zn–Pb–Ag in the 20
Sherlock 1996, and Que River in Tasmania; McGoldrick South lens at LaRonde Penna: Dubé et al. 2004, 2007a).
and Large 1992; Offler and Whitford 1992). The alteration Importantly, there is no correlation between the metal-
assemblages at Horne are not exceptional, but the quartz- logenic association and the gold grade or total gold content
sericite-chlorite alteration affects a much larger volume of of the deposits.
rock than the pipe-like alteration zones at other Cu–Zn Gold in anomalous, auriferous and gold-rich VMS is
deposits of the Noranda Central Camp with an overall present in four main mineralogical forms: (1) native gold,
528 Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

7
15,29
13 113 64
22
53 56 106
23,24 85,90
40,45 10 66,67 37 34 83
74 31,36,58 20 69,76,78,86,87,89,91,101 47
9
53 1-6 35,60, 11
18,41 16,62 82 71,77,102,108 97 70,75,81,88,92,96
33,39,48 50 14,30 55
17,42 84 79,94,98,99, 21
112 49,59 72 28,52
100,105,107,110
38
109
103 104
65 43 61
Cenozoic
Mesozoic 80 25,26,63
93
Paleozoic
Precambrian 12,32
Proterozoic 95
Archean 19,27 44

Distribution of gold-rich and auriferous VMS: 46

57 8
(Details available in Appendix 1) 54

>3.46 g/t Au and/or Au/b.m >1

>31 t Au
68,73,111
>3.46 g/t Au and >31 t Au
>3.46 g/t Au, >31 t Au and
a Au/total base metals ratio >1

Gold rich VMS [n=11] Anomalous VMS [n=50]

Au grade > 3.46 g/t
Au grade >3.46 g/t, gold-to-b.m. ratio >1 and >31 t of Au 64. Falun Bergslagen (Sweden)
28. Nurukawa Hokuroku (Japan) 65. Infierno (Cuba)
1. Horne Abitibi, Noranda (Canada) 29. Petiknas North Skellefte (Sweden) 66. Flin Flon Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada)
2. Quemont Abitibi, Noranda (Canada) 30. Suffield Eastern Townships (Canada) 67. Lalor Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada)
3. LaRonde Penna Abitibi, DBL (Canada) 31. Photo Lake Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 68. Hellyer Mount Read Volcanics (Tasmania)
4. Bousquet 2- Abitibi, DBL (Canada) 32. La Plata Macuchi (W. Cordillera, 69. Yubileinoe South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan)
5. Bousquet 1 Abitibi, DBL (Canada) 33. Lara Vancouver Island (Canada) 70. Ridder-Sokol Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan)
6. Westwood- Abitibi, DBL (Canada) 34. Lemoine Abitibi (Canada) 71. Canoe Landing Lake Bathurst (Canada)
7. Boliden Skellefte (Sweden) 35. Balta Tau South Urals (Russia, 72. Xiaotieshan Baiyinchiang (China)
8. Mount Morgan Rockhampton (Australia) 36. Big Island Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 73. Rosebery Mount Read Volcanics (Tasmania)
9. Eskay Creek Stewart (Canada) 37. Estrades Abitibi (Canada) 74. Myra Falls Group Buttle Lake (Canada)
38. Iron King Arizona (USA) 75. Belousov Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan)
Au grade >3.46 g/t and >31 t of Au 39. Twin J Vancouver Island (Canada) 76. Kunduzdy South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan)
40. Haines barite Alaska (USA) 77. Caribou Bathurst (Canada)
10. Greens Creek Juneau-Admiralty (Alaska, U.S.A) 41. Kamad-7 Barriere (Canada) 78. Uzelg'a South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan)
11. Abyz Karkaralinski (Karaganda, 42. Turner Albright Klamath Mnts. (USA) 79. La Zarza Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain-Portugal)
43. Nuqrah (Saudi Arabia) 80. Bisha Augaro-Bisha (Eritrea)
44. Laloki (Papua New Guinea) 81. Novo-Leninogorsk Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan)
45. Orange Point (USA) 82. Horne - No. 5 Zone Abitibi, Noranda (Canada)
46. Mount Chalmers Rockhampton (Australia) 83. Kozmuran Karaganda (Kazakhstan)
84. Jerome-United Verde Arizona (USA)
Auriferous VMS [n=52] Gold-to-base metals ratio >1 85. Safyanovka Mid Urals (Russia)
86. Uchaly South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan)
Au grade >3.46 g/t and gold-to-base metals ratio >1 47. Dolinnoe-Obruchev Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan) 87. Ozerno'e West South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan)
48. Copper Canyon Vancouver Island 88. Artem'yev Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan)
12. Mercedes (Macuchi) Macuchi (W. Cordillera, Ecuador) 49. Limni (Cyprus) 89. Gai South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan)
13. Johnson River Talkeetna Mtns. (USA) 50. Bend Wisconsin (USA) 90. Degtyarka Mid Urals (Russia)
14. Barrett USA 51. Ellamar Prince Wm. Sound (USA) 91. Podolsk South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan)
15. Holmtjarn Skellefte (Sweden) 52. Tsuchihata Green Tuff belt (Japan) 92. Tishin Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan)
16. Iron Dyke Oregon (USA) 53. Maybrun Uchi (Canada) 93. El Alacran (Columbia)
17. Gray Eagle Klamath Mnts. (USA) 54. Horseshoe Lights Yilgarn (Australia) 94. Masa Valverde Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain-Portugal)
18. Rea Gold Barriere (Canada) 55. Kure Asikoy (Turkey) 95. Tambo Grande 3 Tambo Grande (Peru)
19. Kali Kuning Wetar Island (Indonesia) 56. George Copper Stewart (Canada) 96. Orlovskoye Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan)
20. Rambler Main Rambler (Canada) 57. Red Dome Hodgkinson (Australia) 97. Madneuli Caucasus (Georgia)
21. Lomero-Poyatos Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain-Portugal) 58. Linda Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 98. Lousal Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain-Portugal)
22. Dot Lake, K-Zones Lynn Lake (Canada) 59. Kalavasos-Mousoulos (Cyprus) 99. Tharsis Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain-Portugal)
23. Dyce Siding-Sylvia Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 60. Bakr-Uzyak South Urals (Russia, 100. Moinho (Aljustel) Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain-Portugal)
24. Vamp Lake Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 61. Al Ajal Taww (Oman) 101. Sibai South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan)
25. Hixbar Rapu Rapu Island (Philippines) 62. Ram/Sunshine(Cu,Co) Idaho Cobalt Belt (USA) 102. Heath Steele Bathurst (Canada)
26. Mankayan Baguio (Philippines) 63. Sulat (Philippines) 103. San Nicolas Zacatecas (Mexico)
27. Lerokis Wetar Island (Indonesia) 104. Lalachang (Cu,Mo) Qinling (China)
105. Fetais (Aljustel) Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain-Portugal)
106. Ruttan Rusty Lake (Canada)
107. Aznalcollar Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain-Portugal)
108. Brunswick #12 Bathurst (Canada)
109. Gacun Three River fold Belt (China)
110. Rio Tinto Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain-Portugal)
111. Mount Lyell Mount Read Volcanics (Tasmania)
112. Ducktown Tenessee (USA)
113. Windy Craggy Alsek River (Canada)

Fig. 9 Geographical distribution of ancient anomalous, auriferous, and gold-rich VMS deposits highlighted in this study and listed in Appendix.
Generalized geology of the world from Chorlton (2007)
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539 529

(2) electrum, (3) tellurides, and (4) “invisible” or refractory than 2 g/t Au). A significant number have grades between 2
gold. Native gold is common in many deposits (e.g., Horne, and 3.46 g/t (geometric mean plus one standard deviation
Bousquet 1, Bousquet 2-Dumagami, Boliden, Hellyer, from the geometric mean). In some deposits, both the gold
Johnson River, and Kali Kuning) as very fine grains in grade and total base metals grade are high. We suggest that
silicates, sulfides, and sulfosalts, filling fractures or cleav- the geometric mean plus one geometric standard deviation
ages or at grain boundaries. Native gold is also common as can be used to discriminate subclasses of VMS deposits
minute inclusions in sulfides and sulfosalts. Electrum is worldwide and within individual districts based on their
also very common and represents the main residence site gold content. In our analysis, VMS deposits that contain
for gold in a number of deposits (Huston 2000). Its more than 3.46 g/t Au are auriferous, regardless of their
composition varies significantly from a deposit to another base metals content. Many of these deposits have gold
and within single deposits or lenses. It can be gold-rich grades (in g/t) higher than the combined content of base
(e.g., Bousquet 2-Dumagami, Balta Tau and La Plata), metals in weight percent, as previously noted by Poulsen
silver-rich (e.g., LaRonde Penna, Eskay Creek, Greens and Hannington (1996) (Figs. 7 and 8) and are considered
Creek and Nurukawa), and even mercury-rich (electrum- auriferous as well. However, some deposits with lower gold
amalgam; e.g., Boliden, La Zarza, Eskay Creek). Aurifer- grades nevertheless contain significant amounts of gold
ous tellurides (mainly calaverite, petzite, sylvanite, and because of their large size. Our analysis shows that deposits
krenerite) are also quite common, especially in older with 31 t of gold or more (~1 Moz) exceed the geometric
deposits or high-grade zones (e.g., Bousquet 1, Bousquet mean plus one geometric standard deviation and are clearly
2-Dumagami, Horne, Mount Morgan, and some deposits of anomalous (Fig. 8). Deposits with a grade of more than
the Southern Urals). Gold is “invisible” or refractory in 3.46 g/t Au and 31 t Au or more are considered gold-rich.
many VMS deposits, especially in anomalous deposits Consideration of the geometric mean for smaller popula-
(e.g., deposits of the Bathurst Mining Camp; McClenaghan tions in individual districts or mining camps can also help
et al. 2009). Most of the invisible gold is located in primary to identify those deposits with statistically significant gold
arsenian pyrite, arsenopyrite, and pyrite. Varying amounts enrichments (e.g., Fig. 5), even if they have gold grades
of primary invisible gold can be liberated to form native that are far below the global mean value.
gold, electrum, and tellurides through zone refining and The identification of truly anomalous, auriferous, and
during regional metamorphic and tectonic events. gold-rich deposits helps to identify the geological param-
Some of the characteristics that appear to distinguish eters that may be responsible for atypical gold enrichments
gold-rich and auriferous VMS from other VMS deposits in VMS. There is a distinct provinciality controlling the
can be mapped in the field and used as vectoring tools. At distribution of some gold-rich deposits that strongly
the district scale, the gold-rich deposits occupy a strati- suggests a regional geological control on the enrichment
graphic position and volcanic setting that commonly differs in gold in some VMS districts. As previously noted by
from other deposits of the district (e.g., outside a basin or Hannington et al. (1999), the most gold-rich deposits in a
main structure that hosts the majority of the deposits; in the district almost always have one or more attributes, apart
stratigraphically oldest or youngest positions; associated from their high gold contents, that distinguish them from
with locally thickened packages of felsic rocks which may other “gold-poor” or ordinary VMS in the same district.
be related to a step change in the geodynamic and Most of the gold found in the VMS environment is
magmatic evolution of local volcanic complexes). At the contained in a small number of deposits that are geologi-
deposit scale, uncommon alteration assemblages and trace cally distinct from other deposits in the same district and
element signatures may be recognized (e.g., advanced these differences may be valuable guides for exploration of
argillic, aluminous, strongly siliceous, or potassium feld- other gold-rich VMS.
spar alteration).
Acknowledgements This study is part of the Targeted Geoscience
Initiative-3 Program, Abitibi Project of the Geological Survey of
Conclusions Canada. It is also a contribution to the IGCP-502 project. The authors
wish to express their sincere appreciation to H. Poulsen for his help
and guidance with mineral deposits statistics and classification and to
Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits are a significant R. Allen, F. Tornos, and J. Walker for sharing their knowledge of the
repository of gold, with several being world-class gold Skellefte District, the Iberian Pyrite Belt, and the Bathurst Mining
deposits. A number of VMS deposits are mined mainly for Camp, respectively. Thanks to A. Galley, W. Goodfellow, J. Franklin,
their gold content, with average gold grade in g/t higher and I. Jonasson for insightful comments on VMS deposits and
constructive comments on a preliminary version of the manuscript. An
than the combined content of base metals in weight percent earlier version of this manuscript was substantially improved by
(e.g., Fig. 7). However, the majority of VMS deposits are comments and suggestions from D. Huston, S. McClenaghan, and J.
characterized by a relatively low gold grade (averaging less Peter.
 530

Appendix

Table 2 Listing of the auriferous, gold-rich and world-class gold-rich VMS deposits based on the criteria proposed in this study

Deposit District/Camp (Country) Tonnage (Mt) Gold grade Gold tonnage Total base metals (wt.%) Gold-to-base Matching criteria
(g/t) (metric t) metals ratio

Gold-rich VMS [n=11] (Au grade >3.46 g/t and/or gold-to-base metals ratio >1 and >31 metric tonnes of Au)
Deposits with Au grade >3.46 g/t, gold-to-base metals ratio >1 and >31 metric tonnes of Au [n=9]
Horne Abitibi, Noranda (Canada) 53.7 6.10 327.6 2.2 (2.2% Cu) 2.77 3/3 (gold-rich)
Quemont Abitibi, Noranda (Canada) 16.7 5.50 91.6 3.0 (1.2% Cu, 1.8% Zn) 1.83 3/3 (gold-rich)
LaRonde Penna Abitibi, DBL(4) (Canada) 58.8 4.31 253 2.5 (0.3% Cu, 2.2% Zn) 1.72 3/3 (gold-rich)
Bousquet 2-Dumagami Abitibi, DBL(4) (Canada) 15.5 7.25 112.2 0.9 (0.5% Cu, 0.4% Zn) 8.06 3/3 (gold-rich)
Bousquet 1 Abitibi, DBL(4) (Canada) 9.3 5.45 50.5 0.3 (0.3% Cu) 18.2 3/3 (gold-rich)
Westwood-Warrenmac Abitibi, DBL(4) (Canada) 14.2 7.60 107.9 (>1) 3/3 (gold-rich)
Boliden Skellefte (Sweden) 8.3 15.50 128.7 2.7 (1.5% Cu, 0.9% Zn, 0.3% Pb) 5.74 3/3 (gold-rich)
Mount Morgan Rockhampton (Australia) 50.0 4.99 249.5 0.9 (0.7% Cu, 0.1% Zn, 0.1% Pb) 5.54 3/3 (gold-rich)
Eskay Creek Stewart (Canada) 3.3 45.97 153.9 9.3 (0.8% Cu, 5.6% Zn, 2.9% Pb) 4.94 3/3 (gold-rich)
Deposits with Au grade >3.46 g/t and >31 metric tonnes of Au [n=2]
Greens Creek Juneau-Admiralty district (Alaska, U.S.A) 20.1 3.88 77.9 17.8 (0.2% Cu, 10.9% Zn, 6.7% Pb) 0.22 2/3 (gold-rich)
Abyz Karkaralinski (Karaganda region, Kazakhstan) 9.1 4.35 40.1 5 (1.4% Cu, 3.6% Zn) 0.87 2/3 (gold-rich)
Auriferous VMS [n=52] (Au grade >3.46 g/t and/or gold-to-base metals ratio >1)
Deposits with Au grade >3.46 g/t and gold-to-base metals ratio >1 [n=16]
Mercedes (Macuchi) Macuchi (Western Cordillera, Ecuador) 0.4 11.50 5.1 4.7 (4.7% Cu) 2.45 2/3 (auriferous)
Johnson River Talkeetna Mtns. (USA) 0.1 11.00 1.1 10.4(0.8% Cu, 1.2% Pb, 8.4% Zn) 1.07 2/3 (auriferous)
Barrett USA 0.4 7.90 3.1 3.8 (1.8% Cu, 2% Zn) 2.11 2/3 (auriferous)
Holmtjarn Skellefte (Sweden) 0.5 7.40 3.7 4.8 (0.4% Cu, 4% Zn, 0.4% Pb) 1.54 2/3 (auriferous)
Iron Dyke Oregon (USA) 0.6 6.41 3.6 2.8 (2.8% Cu) 1.54 2/3 (auriferous)
Gray Eagle Klamath Mnts. (USA) 1.3 6.20 8.1 3.8 (3.8% Cu) 2.26 2/3 (auriferous)
Rea Gold Barriere (Canada) 0.4 6.10 2.3 4.8 (0.3% Cu, 2.2% Pb, 2.3% Zn) 1.26 2/3 (auriferous)
Kali Kuning Wetar Island (Indonesia) 2.2 5.50 12.1 1.1 (0.1% Cu, 1% Pb) 5.00 2/3 (auriferous)
Rambler Main Rambler (Canada) 0.6 5.10 2.9 3.5 (1.3% Cu, 2.2% Zn) 1.47 2/3 (auriferous)
Lomero-Poyatos Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain- Portugal) 4.3 4.50 19.5 3.5 (0.9% Cu, 1.6% Zn, 1% Pb) 1.29 2/3 (auriferous)
Dot Lake, K-Zones Lynn Lake (Canada) 1.1 4.36 4.6 >1 2/3 (auriferous)
Dyce Siding-Sylvia Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 0.6 4.00 2.5 3.4 (1.5% Cu, 1.9% Zn) 1.18 2/3 (auriferous)
Vamp Lake Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 0.7 3.98 2.9 3.2 (1.3% Cu, 1.9% Zn) 1.23 2/3 (auriferous)
Hixbar Rapu Rapu Island (Philippines) 1.4 3.81 5.2 3.3 (1.2% Cu, 2.1% Zn) 1.16 2/3 (auriferous)
Mankayan Baguio (Philippines) 7.2 3.74 26.8 2.6 (2.6% Cu) 1.46 2/3 (auriferous)
Lerokis Wetar Island (Indonesia) 2.9 3.50 10.2 1.1 (0.1% Cu, 1% Pb) 3.00 2/3 (auriferous)
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539
Table 2 (continued)

Deposit District/Camp (Country) Tonnage (Mt) Gold grade Gold tonnage Total base metals (wt.%) Gold-to-base Matching criteria
(g/t) (metric t) metals ratio

Deposits with Au grade >3.46 g/t [n=19]

Nurukawa Hokuroku (Japan) 1.0 6.80 6.8 12.5 (0.7% Cu, 7.9% Zn, 3.9% Pb) 0.54 1/3 (auriferous)
Petiknas North Skellefte (Sweden) 1.3 5.60 7.3 7.8 (1.3% Cu, 5.6% Zn 0.9% Pb) 0.72 1/3 (auriferous)
Suffield Eastern Township (Canada) 0.2 4.94 1.0 5.1 (0.8% Cu, 4.3% Zn) 0.97 1/3 (auriferous)
Photo Lake Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 0.7 4.87 3.4 11 (4.6% Cu, 6.4% Zn) 0.45 1/3 (auriferous)
La Plata Macuchi (Western Cordillera, Ecuador) 0.8 4.80 4.0 9 (4.1% Cu, 4.2% Zn, 0.7% Pb) 0.53 1/3 (auriferous)
Lara Vancouver Island (Canada) 0.5 4.73 2.5 8.1 (1% Cu, 1.2% Pb, 5.9% Zn) 0.58 1/3 (auriferous)
Lemoine Abitibi (Canada) 0.8 4.54 3.4 13.8 (4.2% Cu, 9.6% Zn) 0.33 1/3 (auriferous)
Balta Tau South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 3.5 4.50 15.8 8.1 (3% Cu, 5.1% Zn) 0.56 1/3 (auriferous)
Big Island Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 0.2 4.50 1.0 15 (1% Cu, 14% Zn) 0.30 1/3 (auriferous)
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

Estrades Abitibi (Canada) 2.7 4.42 11.8 9.2 (0.9% Cu, 0.9% Pb, 7.4% Zn) 0.48 1/3 (auriferous)
Iron King Arizona (USA) 5.0 4.22 21.0 10 (0.2% Cu, 2.5% Pb, 7.3% Zn) 0.42 1/3 (auriferous)
Twin J Vancouver Island (Canada) 0.6 4.17 2.5 5.1 (0.8% Cu, 0.4% Pb, 3.9% Zn) 0.83 1/3 (auriferous)
Haines barite Alaska (USA) 0.8 4.10 3.1 6 (1% Cu, 2% Pb, 3% Zn) 0.68 1/3 (auriferous)
Kamad-7 Barriere (Canada) 0.4 4.00 1.5 11.4 (0.5% Cu, 4.8% Pb, 6.1% Zn) 0.35 1/3 (auriferous)
Turner Albright Klamath Mnts. (USA) 3.3 3.80 12.5 4.8 (1.5% Cu, 3.3% Zn) 0.79 1/3 (auriferous)
Nuqrah (Saudi Arabia) 1.4 3.80 5.3 8.2 (0.8% Cu, 1.7% Pb, 5.7% Zn) 0.47 1/3 (auriferous)
Laloki (Papua New Guinea) 0.4 3.75 1.4 6.4 (3.9% Cu, 2.5% Zn) 0.58 1/3 (auriferous)
Orange Point (USA) 1.0 3.50 3.5 24.4 (5.2% Cu, 0.2% Pb, 19% Zn) 0.14 1/3 (auriferous)
Mount Chalmers Rockhampton (Australia) 1.2 3.48 4.2 4.7 (2% Cu, 0.8% Pb, 1.9% Zn) 0.74 1/3 (auriferous)
Deposits with gold-to-base metals ratio >1 [n=17]
Dolinnoe-Obruchev Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan) 22.0 2.86 63.0 1.5 (0.4% Cu, 1% Pb, 0.1%) 1.93 2/3 (auriferous)
Copper Canyon Vancouver Island 32.4 1.17 37.9 0.8 (0.8% Cu) 1.56 2/3 (auriferous)
Limni (Cyprus) 4.2 3.39 14.3 1.4 (1.4% Cu) 2.40 1/3 (auriferous)
Bend Wisconsin (USA) 3.7 3.25 12.0 1.5 (1.5% Cu) 2.18 1/3 (auriferous)
Ellamar Prince Wm. Sound 0.7 3.07 2.2 1.2 (1.2% Cu) 2.56 1/3 (auriferous)
Tsuchihata Green Tuff belt (Japan) 8.7 2.97 25.8 1.4 (1.4% Cu) 2.12 1/3 (auriferous)
Maybrun Uchi (Canada) 2.6 2.89 7.4 1.2 (1.2% Cu) 2.45 1/3 (auriferous)
Horseshoe Lights Yilgarn (Australia) 3.8 2.37 9.0 2 (2% Cu) 1.18 1/3 (auriferous)
Kure Asikoy (Turkey) 13.6 2.20 29.9 2.2 (2.2% Cu) 1.01 1/3 (auriferous)
George Copper Stewart (Canada) 0.6 2.06 1.3 2 (2% Cu) 1.03 1/3 (auriferous)
Red Dome Hodgkinson (Australia) 12.8 2.00 25.6 0.5 (0.5% Cu) 4.00 1/3 (auriferous)
Linda Flin Flon/Snow Lake 11.8 1.71 20.2 1.1 (0.3% Cu, 0.8% Zn) 1.56 1/3 (auriferous)
Kalavasos-Mousoulos (Cyprus) 6.9 1.71 11.8 1.5 (1% Cu, 0.5% Zn) 1.13 1/3 (auriferous)
Bakr-Uzyak South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 1.0 1.50 1.5 1.5 (1.5% Cu) 1.00 1/3 (auriferous)
Al Ajal Taww (Oman) 1.0 1.20 1.2 1.1 (0.8% Cu, 0.3% Zn) 1.18 1/3 (auriferous)
Ram/Sunshine (Cu,Co) Idaho Cobalt Belt (USA) 2.1 0.70 1.5 0.5 (0.5% Cu) 1.30 1/3 (auriferous)
Sulat (Philippines) 32.5 0.62 20.2 0.6 (0.6% Cu) 1.02 1/3 (auriferous)
Anomalous VMS [n=50] (≥31 metric tonnes of Au)
Falun Bergslagen (Sweden) 28.1 3.18 89.23 8.5 (3% Cu, 1.5% Pb, 4% Zn) 0.37 1/3 (anomalous)
531

Infierno (Cuba) 28.0 3.15 88.18 3.9 (1% Cu, 0.6% Pb, 2.3% Zn) 0.81 1/3 (anomalous)
Table 2 (continued)
532

Deposit District/Camp (Country) Tonnage (Mt) Gold grade Gold tonnage Total base metals (wt.%) Gold-to-base Matching criteria
(g/t) (metric t) metals ratio

Flin Flon Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 62.5 2.64 165.1 6.3 (2.2% Cu, 4.1% Zn) 0.42 1/3 (anomalous)
Lalor Flin Flon/Snow Lake (Canada) 28.6 2.78 79.6 6.1 (0.6% Cu, 5.5% Zn) 0.46 1/3 (anomalous)
Hellyer Mount Read Volcanics (Tasmania) 16.5 2.55 42.0 21.5 (0.4% Cu, 7.2% Pb, 1 .9% Zn) 0.12 1/3 (anomalous)
Yubileinoe South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 107.0 2.50 267.5 3.2 (1.9% Cu, 0.1% Pb, 1.2% Zn) 0.78 1/3 (anomalous)
Ridder-Sokol Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan) 125.0 2.50 312.5 6.3 (0.3% Cu, 2% Pb, 4% Zn) 0.40 1/3 (anomalous)
Canoe Landing Lake Bathurst (Canada) 20.7 2.28 47.2 3 (0.7% Cu, 1.7% Zn, 0.6 Pb) 0.79 1/3 (anomalous)
Xiaotieshan Baiyinchiang (China) 34.0 2.28 77.5 10 (1.3% Cu, 3.4% Pb, 5.3% Zn) 0.23 1/3 (anomalous)
Rosebery Mount Read Volcanics (Tasmania) 34.0 2.20 74.9 18.5 (0.6% Cu, 4.1% Pb, 13.8% Zn) 0.12 1/3 (anomalous)
Myra Falls Group Buttle Lake (Canada) 29.3 2.00 58.6 8.7 (1.8% Cu, 0.6% Pb, 6.3% Zn) 0.23 1/3 (anomalous)
Belousov Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan) 30.0 2.00 60.0 14.2 (2.6% Cu, 2.4% Pb, 9.2% Zn) 0.14 1/3 (anomalous)
Kunduzdy South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 26.3 1.95 51.3 2.6 (1.3% Cu, 1.3% Zn) 0.76 1/3 (anomalous)
Caribou Bathurst (Canada) 64.7 1.89 122.3 6.4 (0.5% Cu, 1.6% Pb, 4.3% Zn) 0.30 1/3 (anomalous)
Uzelg'a South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 69.0 1.80 124.2 4 (1.4% Cu, 0.1% Pb, 2.5% Zn) 0.45 1/3 (anomalous)
La Zarza Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain- Portugal) 164.0 1.80 295.2 4.8 (1.2% Cu, 1.1% Pb, 2.5% Zn) 0.38 1/3 (anomalous)
Novo-Leninogorsk Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan) 48.0 1.54 73.9 5.6 (0.2% Cu, 1.4% Pb, 4% Zn) 0.27 1/3 (anomalous)
Horne - No. 5 Zone Abitibi, Noranda (Canada) 144.0 1.40 201.6 1.9 (1% Cu, 0.9% Zn) 0.74 1/3 (anomalous)
Kozmuran Karaganda (Kazakhstan) 23.5 1.40 32.9 3.9 (3% Cu, 0.9% Zn) 0.36 1/3 (anomalous)
Jerome-United Verde Arizona (USA) 30.0 1.37 41.1 5 (4.8% Cu, 0.2% Zn) 0.27 1/3 (anomalous)
Safyanovka Mid-Urals (Russia) 25.2 1.32 33.3 3.9 (2.8% Cu, 1.1% Zn) 0.34 1/3 (anomalous)
Uchaly South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 113.0 1.26 142.4 4.9 (1.1% Cu, 0.1% Pb, 3.7% Zn) 0.26 1/3 (anomalous)
Ozerno'e West South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 51.0 1.20 61.2 2 (0.9% Cu, 1.1% Zn) 0.60 1/3 (anomalous)
Artem'yev Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan) 50.0 1.20 60.0 5.2 (1.4% Cu, 1.6% Pb, 2.2% Zn) 0.23 1/3 (anomalous)
Gai South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 205.0 1.10 225.5 2 (1.4% Cu, 0.1% Pb, 0.5% Zn) 0.56 1/3 (anomalous)
Degtyarka Mid Urals (Russia) 130.0 1.00 130.0 2.6 (1% Cu, 0.1% Pb, 1.5% Zn) 0.38 1/3 (anomalous)
Podolsk South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 80.8 1.00 80.8 3.6 (1.7% Cu, 0.1% Pb, 1.8% Zn) 0.28 1/3 (anomalous)
Tishin Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan) 60.0 0.90 54.0 6.7 (0.5% Cu, 0.9% Pb, 5.3% Zn) 0.13 1/3 (anomalous)
El Alacran (Columbia) 48.0 0.83 39.8 1.4 (1.4% Cu) 0.59 1/3 (anomalous)
Masa Valverde Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain- Portugal) 120.0 0.80 96.0 2.4 (0.5% Cu, 0.6% Pb, 1.3% Zn) 0.33 1/3 (anomalous)
Tambo Grande 3 Tambo Grande (Peru) 82.0 0.80 65.6 2.7 (1% Cu, 0.3% Pb, 1.4% Zn) 0.30 1/3 (anomalous)
Orlovskoye Rudny Altai (Kazakhstan) 40.0 0.80 32.0 5 (2.4% Cu, 0.5% Pb, 2.1% Zn) 0.16 1/3 (anomalous)
Madneuli Caucasus (Georgia) 102.6 0.73 74.9 3.1 (1.3% Cu, 1.8% Zn) 0.24 1/3 (anomalous)
Lousal Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain- Portugal) 50.0 0.70 35.0 2.9 (0.7% Cu, 0.6% Pb, 1.4% Zn) 0.24 1/3 (anomalous)
Tharsis Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain- Portugal) 110.0 0.70 77.0 3.8 (0.5% Cu, 0.6% Pb, 2.7% Zn) 0.18 1/3 (anomalous)
Moinho (Aljustel) Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain- Portugal) 70.0 0.70 49.0 6.7 (1.5% Cu, 1.3% Pb, 3.9% Zn) 0.10 1/3 (anomalous)
Sibai South Urals (Russia, Kazakhstan) 110.0 0.60 66.0 2 (1.6% Cu, 0.4% Zn) 0.29 1/3 (anomalous)
Heath Steele Bathurst (Canada) 69.9 0.54 37.7 4.6 (1% Cu, 0.9% Pb, 2.7% Zn) 0.12 1/3 (anomalous)
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539
Table 2 (continued)

Deposit District/Camp (Country) Tonnage (Mt) Gold grade Gold tonnage Total base metals (wt.%) Gold-to-base Matching criteria
(g/t) (metric t) metals ratio

San Nicolas Zacatecas (Mexico) 79.9 0.53 42.3 3.6 (1.3% Cu, 2.3% Zn) 0.15 1/3 (anomalous)
Lalachang (Cu,Mo) Qinling (China) 70.0 0.50 35.0 0.9 (0.9% Cu) 0.54 1/3 (anomalous)
Fetais (Aljustel) Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain- Portugal) 70.0 0.50 35.0 4.8 (0.5% Cu, 1.3% Pb, 3% Zn) 0.10 1/3 (anomalous)
Ruttan Rusty Lake (Canada) 82.8 0.49 40.6 3.1 (1.4% Cu, 0.1% Pb, 1.6% Zn) 0.16 1/3 (anomalous)
Aznalcollar Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain- Portugal) 90.0 0.48 43.2 3.2 (0.5% Cu, 0.9% Pb, 1.8% Zn) 0.15 1/3 (anomalous)
Brunswick #12 Bathurst (Canada) 229.8 0.46 105.7 11.2 (0.5% Cu, 3% Pb, 7.7% Zn) 0.04 1/3 (anomalous)
Gacun Three River fold Belt (China) 124.0 0.46 57.0 12 (0.7% Cu, 4.6% Pb, 6.7% Zn) 0.04 1/3 (anomalous)
Rio Tinto Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain- Portugal) 335.0 0.36 120.6 0.8 (0.4% Cu, 0.1% Pb, 0.3% Zn) 0.42 1/3 (anomalous)
Mount Lyell Mount Read Volcanics (Tasmania) 311.0 0.31 96.4 1 (0.97% Cu) 0.32 1/3 (anomalous)
Ducktown Tenessee (USA) 163.3 0.30 49.0 1.9 (1% Cu, 0.9% Zn) 0.16 1/3 (anomalous)
Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

Windy Craggy (Cu,Co) Alsek River (Canada) 297.4 0.22 65.4 1.7 (1.4% Cu, 0.3% Zn) 0.13 1/3 (anomalous)

Data taken from Franklin et al. (2005). Some modifications were made to this dataset. Modified from Dubé et al. (2007a); Franklin et al. (2005); Hannington et al. (1999), and Huston (2000).
Tonnages and grades may not be National Instrument 43-101 compliant. The numbers in bold refer to the matching criteria for classifying the deposit as an auriferous VMS (i.e., Au grade >3.46 g/
t and/or gold-to-base metals ratio ≥ 1), as an anomalous VMS i.e., (≥31 t of Au), or as a gold-rich VMS (i.e., Au grade >3.46 g/t and/or gold-to-base metals ratio ≥ 1 AND ≥ 31 t of Au)
DBL Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde
533
534 Miner Deposita (2011) 46:509–539

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