UNIT-3

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

well as the social components

Product) of a few different nations

have touched the greatest heights of scientific and
technological development but at what cost? The air we breathe, the
water we drink, and the food we eat have all badly polluted

this growth continues in the same way we will be facing a doom‘s day
as suggested by the world‘s famous report ―The limits to growth‖

brings benefits to all, not only for the present generation but also for
future generation

of WHO) Sustainable development is defined as “meeting the

needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generation to meet their own needs”.

Principles of Sustainable development

 Improving the quality of human life

 Economic growth for all
 Environmental development

Objectives of sustainable development

 To protect our biodiversity

 To increase forest cover
 To prevent pollution
 To reduce waste
 Design ecofriendly technology
 To control population growth

Key aspects for sustainable development:

1) Inter – generational equity:

We should minimize any adverse impacts on resources and
environment for future generations
We should handover a safe, healthy, and resourceful environment to
our future generations
This is possible only if we stop over exploitation of resources, reduce
waste discharge and emissions and maintain ecological balance.

2) Intra – generational equity:

The development process should seek to minimize the wealth gaps
within and between nations
The technology should address to the problems of developing
countries, producing drought tolerant varieties for uncertain climates,
vaccines for infectious diseases, clean fuel for domestic and industrial
use.
This will support the economic growth of poor countries, narrowing the
wealth gap and lead to sustainability

MEASURE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Using appropriate technology:-

-It is one which is locally adaptable, eco-friendly and resource efficient

and culturally suitable.
-This concept of Nature – often taken as model is called ―design with
Nature‖.
-The technology should use less of resources and should produce
minimum waste.

Adoption 3 R’s (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle):-

-The 3-R approach advocating minimization of resource use, using

them again, recycling the materials goes a long way in achieving the
goals of sustainability.
-It reduces pressure on our resources as well as reduces waste
generation and pollution.

Promoting Environmental Education & Awareness:-

-Making environmental education the center of all learning process

will, greatly help in changing the thinking and attitude of people
towards our earth and the environment.

Resource Utilization as per carrying capacity:-

-In order to attain sustainability it is very important that consumption

should not exceed regeneration and changes should not allow to
occur beyond the tolerance capacity of the system.
Urbanization

Urbanization is the movement of human population from rural areas to

urban areas for the want of better education, communication, health,
employment, etc.

Causes of urbanization

People move from rural areas to urban areas because cities offer
more favorable conditions for the resolution of environmental and
social problems than rural areas. A few specific reasons for
urbanization are summarized below:
(i) People move into cities to seek jobs and income.
(ii) With good governance, cities can deliver education,
health care and other services more efficiently than rural
areas.
(iii) Cities provide opportunities for women‘s empowerment
and social mobilization.
(iv) Density of urban life relieves pressure on areas of
biodiversity and natural habitats.
(v) It is through cities that foreign money flows into a
country (whether the source is tourism or trade).
(vi) Restaurants, movie theaters, theme parks and other
varieties of entertainment are available in cities.
Drawbacks of Urbanization

Often people who leave rural areas to find better jobs in the city
have no choice but to settle in slums, where they lack access to
decent housing, drinking water, sanitation, health care and
education.
 Crimes: Chances of robbery, murder, assault, etc.,
increases with unplanned urbanization.
 Poverty: Poverty is growing faster in urban than in rural
areas. One billion people live in urban slums, which are
typically overcrowded polluted and dangerous. Urban
areas are not self-sustaining. They survive only by
importing food, water, energy, etc. However, they also
produce large quantities of waste.
 Urban Heat Island: As urban and industrial areas are
developed, the majority of the sun‘s energy is absorbed by
 urban structures and asphalt. Thus, during warm daylight
hours, less evaporative cooling in cities allows surface
temperatures to rise higher than in rural areas. Additional
city heat is given off by vehicles and factories as well as by
domestic and industrial cooling and heating units. This
effect causes the city to become 1 to 6°C warmer than
surrounding landscapes. Impacts also include
intensification of carbon dioxide emissions and reducing
soil moisture. The urban heat island has become a growing
concern and is increasing over the years.

Urbanization is also responsible for pollution (air, water, noise, etc.)

and traffic congestion.

Urban Problems Related to Energy

Urban center use enormous quantities of energy. In the past, urban

housing required relatively smaller amounts of energy than we use at
present. Traditional housing in India required very little temperature
adjustments as the material used, such as wood and bricks, handled
temperature changes better than the current concrete, glass and steel
of ultra-modern building.

The urban growth is so fast that it is becoming difficult to

accommodate all the industrial, commercial and residential facilities
within a limited municipal boundary. As a result there is spreading of
the cities into the sub-urban or rural areas too, this phenomenon is
known as ―urban sprawl‖.

In developing countries, urban growth is very fast and pollution is

uncontrollable and unplanned growth. When compared to rural people,
an urban person consumes a lot of energy and materials and
generates a lot of waste. This is because urban people have a higher
standard of life and their life style demands more energy inputs.

Examples for energy demanding activities

1. Residential and commercial lightings.

2. Transportation means including, motor cycle, car and public
transport for moving from residence to work place.
3. Industries using large proportional energy.
4. Modern life-style using a large number of electrical gadgets (fan,
fridge, washing machine, A/C, water heater, etc.) in everyday life.
5. Control and prevention of pollution, need more energy dependent
technologies.
The two sources of energy are renewable and non-renewable energy
sources. Optimal usage shall be the ideal mode for energy
conservation. For an integrated management system we should have
renewable energy as well as non-renewable energy sources.

At local level, biomass energy tapping, use of solar cooker, solar water
heaters and solar photovoltaic cells must be encouraged. This shall be
utilised besides the conventional energy from fossil fuels, hydel,
thermal and nuclear power resources.

Thus due to high population growth and high energy demanding

activities, the urban problems related to energy are much more
magnified as compared to the rural population.

WATER CONSERVATION:

Water being one of the most precious and indispensable resources

needs to be conserved.

The following strategies can be adopted for conservation for water:

1) Decreasing run off losses: This can be achieved by

Contour cultivation on small furrows and ridges across the slopes
trap rainwater and allow more time for infiltration
Conservation bench terracing involves construction of a series of
benches for catching the runoff water
Water spreading is done by channeling or lagoon travelling

that there is temporary storage of water

Chemical wetting agents or conditioners like Gypsum when
applied to soils improves soil permeability and reduce runoff
Surface crop residues Tillage, mulch, animal residues
Water storage structures like farm ponds, dug wells
2) Reducing evaporation losses:

water availability
-polymer of starch and acrylonitrile called super slurper absorbs
water 4000 times its weight
3) Storing water in soil:

Leaving the soil fallow for one season water can be made available for
the next season for crop growth
4) Reducing irrigation losses:

irrigation
5) Reuse of water:
-irrigation

washing cars
6) Preventing wastage of water:

any leakage from pipes

7) Increasing block pricing:

use of water

RAIN WATER HARVESTING:

Objectives

emands of water

Rain water harvesting techniques:

Rainwater harvesting means collecting rainwater and

storing/conserving it for a later use.

Various Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

There are two main methods of rainwater harvesting:
Storage of Rainwater on the Surface for Future Use: In this
method, traditional water-harvesting structures like artificial lakes,
ponds, etc., are used as such or after proper revival.
Recharge of Ground Water: The structures used for recharge of
ground water are as follows:
(a) Hand Pumps The water should pass through a filter bed before
percolation in existing hand pumps. They are used for
recharging aquifers.
(b) Pits They are 1–2 m wide and 3 m deep. They are also back
filled with gravel and coarse sand to aid filtration before
percolation to the ground. They are used for recharging a shallow
aquifer.
(c) Dug Wells The rain water, after filtration, is put into existing
dug wells for storage.
(d) Roof-Top and Road-Rop Collection of Rainwater In urban
areas, these methods are very useful to recharge aquifers.

How to Harvest the Rainwater?

Rainwater harvesting systems consists of the following components:

 Catchment- Used to collect and store the captured rainwater.

 Conveyance system – It is used to transport the harvested
water from the catchment to the recharge zone.
 Filter – Used for filtering the collected rainwater and removing
pollutants.
 Tanks and the recharge structures: Used to store the filtered
water which is ready to use.
The process of rainwater harvesting involves the collection and the
storage of rainwater with the help of artificially designed systems that
run off naturally or man-made catchment areas like- the rooftop,
compounds, rock surface, hill slopes, artificially repaired impervious or
semi-pervious land surface.
These days, the central ground water board along with the civic
authorities is encouraging artificial recharge of ground water
through rain water harvesting.
 Roof top rain water

Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting

The benefits of the rainwater harvesting system are listed below.

 Less cost.
 Helps in reducing the water bill.
 Decreases the demand for water.
 Reduces the need for imported water.
 Promotes both water and energy conservation.
 Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.
 Does not require a filtration system for landscape irrigation.
 This technology is relatively simple, easy to install and operate.
 It reduces soil erosion, storm water runoff, flooding, and
pollution of surface water with fertilizers, pesticides, metals and
other sediments.
 It is an excellent source of water for landscape irrigation with no
chemicals, dissolved salts and free from all minerals.
Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting
In addition to the great advantages, the rainwater harvesting system
has a few disadvantages like unpredictable rainfall, unavailability of
the proper storage system, etc.
Listed below are a few more disadvantages of the rainwater
harvesting process.

 Regular maintenance is required.

 Requires some technical skills for installation.
 Limited and no rainfall can limit the supply of rainwater.
 If not installed correctly, it may attract mosquitoes and other
waterborne diseases.
 One of the significant drawbacks of the rainwater harvesting
system is storage limits.

Watershed Management or Drainage basin or catchment basins

Watershed is a geographic area of land that collects, stores, and releases water.

The area collects water from rain, snow, etc. This collected water is
stored in lakes and ponds. The stored water is then released through
streams, rivers, etc. Thus, a watershed means a land from where water
drains into a particular stream, lake, river and even the ocean. Drainage
basin or catchment basins are other terms used interchangeably with
watershed.

A watershed is a natural system.

All lands, humans, wildlife and their
activities are part of one or the
other watershed. When a
watershed is kept in good
condition, it provides sustainable
benefits to humans, wildlife, etc.

Watershed management refers to

the conservation, protection and
restoration of a watershed to secure
water—both in quantity and quality
for drinking, sanitation and agriculture in a sustained manner.
Objectives of Watershed Management:
 Pollution control
 Minimizing over-exploitation of resources
 Water storage, flood control, checking sedimentation
 Wildlife preservation
 Erosion control and prevention of soil
 Recharging groundwater to provide regular water supply

Components of Watershed Management Programmes:

 Soil and water conservation
 Plantation
 Agronomical practices
 Livestock management
 Renewable energy
 Institutional developments

Action Plan for Watershed Management Watershed management

can be done through MCD:

(i) Mapping of the watershed area, planting trees and grass for
enhancing seeping of water to the ground and for preventing
water contamination, torrents and landslides. Thus,
plantation helps in the recharging of groundwater.
(ii) Constructing a series of long trenches and mounds
along hill contours to hold rainwater and allowing it to
percolate into the ground.
(iii) Making dams for preventing large amounts of water from
rushing down the hillside. This helps in recharging of an
underground aquifer. Moreover, streams and rivers flow for
the whole year.
Need of Watershed Management: MUD
M: Misuse (i) The misuse of Himalayan slopes are increasing.
Our water regimes are threatened resulting in the depletion
of water resources.
U: Unsustainable (ii) The society is becoming unsustainable.
D: Damage (iii) The damage to irrigation systems and reservoirs
are increasing. Every year, during the ‗rainy season‘, costs for
controlling floods is increasing.
Advantages of Watershed Management
The main benefits of watershed management are summarized
below:
(i) Watershed management reduces water shortage during
summers by facilitating recharge of groundwater.
(ii) It provides wildlife and fish, food, habitat, and resting
areas, etc., for sustainable survival.
(iii) It protects stream and river banks from erosion.
(iv) By retaining water and releasing it during summers,
watershed management reduces chances and associated
damages of floods.
(v) It provides good quality water and food for human use.

WASTELAND RECLAMATION

Land is a precious resource because it is used for agriculture,

pastures and grazing fields, housing, agroforestry, roads,
industrial areas, forestry, etc.
Wasteland is a land which is
(i) abandoned,
(ii) degraded and thus ecologically unstable,
(iii) incapable of producing material or service of value,
(iv) eroded,
(v) unfit for cultivation, unproductive, unfit for grazing as
greenery cannot be sustained, and
(vi) Saline, waterlogged, not being utilized to its potentials.
(A) Classification of Wastelands
Wasteland is broadly classified into the following two types:
(i) Cultivable Wastelands The lands are cultivable but not
cultivated for more than five years due to various reasons such as
being declared as notified forest area or state or private
occupation.
Examples: Waterlogged marshy lands, saline lands, degraded
forests, degraded pas- tures (or degraded grasslands), shifting
cultivation land, gullied land, strip land, etc.
(ii) Uncultivable or Barren Wastelands
These wastelands cannot be brought under cultivation or
economic use except at a very high cost.
Examples: Barren rocky lands, areas covered by snow or glaciers,
steep sloping areas.
(B) Drawbacks of Wastelands Formation Formation of
 wastelands result in the deterioration of ecological balance. The
various components of the ecosystem directly or indirectly
dependent on that particular wasteland are adversely affected.

(C) Wasteland Reclamation

Wasteland reclamation is the process of converting sterile, barren
wasteland into something that is fertile and suitable for habitation
and cultivation.

(D) Wasteland-Reclamation Practices

Some of the important wasteland-reclamation practices are briefly
described below:
a) Changing Agricultural Practices: Jhoom or shifting cultivation
should be replaced by crop rotation, mixed cropping or
developing plantation crops which would improve fertility of
land and support a large population.
i) Mulching: It means providing protective cover to stop the
shifting of sand. A mulch is a protective layer formed by the
stubble, i.e., the basal parts of herbaceous plants, especially
cereals, attached to the soil after harvest. Dry stems of
maize, tobacco, and cotton are used as mulch. For mulching,
artificial protective covering can also be used. Mulches act as
wind barriers; so soil erosion due to wind is reduced. By
addition of organic matter, mulches reduce evaporation and
increase soil moisture. Even mulching is useful against
water erosion.

ii) Managing Topography Water running down the hill erodes

soil. The faster it runs, the more soil it carries off the fields.
Soil erosion and wasteland formation can be minimized by
the following methods:
• Strip Farming In alternating strips along the contours,
different kinds of crops are planted. When one crop is
harvested, the other is still present to protect the soil and
keep water from running straight downhill.
• Contour Ploughing The ploughing of land is done across
the hill, and not in up and down style as in contour
ploughing, the ridges created by cultivation make little
dams that trap water and allow it to seep into the soil rather
than running off.
• Tied Ridges This method involves a series of ridges running
at right angles to each other, so that water run-off is
blocked in every direction and is encouraged to soak into
the soil. Tied ridges are very useful in very heavy rainfall
 areas.
• Terracing means shaping the earth in the form of levelled
terraces to hold soil and water. The edges of the terraces
are planted with soil-anchoring plant species. This method
makes it possible to farm very steep hillsides. However, this
method is costly, requires expensive machinery or much
hand labour.
b) Leaching: By providing adequate drainage to flood-prone and
irrigated lands, salinity can be prevented.
By leaching with more water, salt-affected lands can be
recovered, especially in the areas where groundwater table is
not high.
c) Afforestation: It means growing forests over culturable
wastelands for the first time. Previously there were no forests
there due to lack of seeds or other adverse factors.
Reforestation It means growing the forests over the lands where
they were existing earlier; and had destroyed or degraded by forest
fires, overgrazing, excessive felling, shifting cultivation, floods,
waterlogging, soil erosion, etc.
d) Protecting the River Banks: By providing stone, wooden
or concrete pitching or by plantation of trees/vegetation along
the river banks, it is possible to protect river banks against
caving and cutting.
Controlling Formation of Gullies The gullies get widened due to
excess run-off water. This can be checked by constructing dams,
diversion drains, bounds, etc.
e) Protecting Soil Erosion by Providing Ground Cover: After
harvesting, the crop residues are left on the ground. They resist
wind and water from creating erosion. The ground cover
reduces soil temperature and evaporation in the hot season. It
thus protects the ground organisms which are helpful in
aerating and rebuilding the soil.
f) Ecological Succession: This is a natural process of
establishment or re- establishment of an ecosystem. In ecological
succession, the slow-growing native grasses assist in reclaiming
the minerally deficient soils in mining and industrial wastelands.
g) Drainage: It is required for waterlogged soil reclamation
where excess water is removed by artificial drainage.

In areas where waterlogging happens after heavy rains,

surface drainage is facilitated to remove the excess water.
 Subsurface drainage is better because chances of evaporation of
water leading to accumulation of salt almost become nil in this
method.
RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE, ITS PROBLEMS
AND CONCERNS:

Various development projects often lead to displacement of native or

tribal people who are poor and very often not educated. Their
rehabilitation is a major socio economic issue.

Problems and concerns:

Displacement problems due to dams:

economic impacts due to large scale displacement of local people

from their ancestral home and loss of their traditional profession or
occupation.
India due to big dam construction, more than 20 million people
are estimated to have been directly or indirectly affected by these
dams

about 250 villages.

angal dam was constructed during 1950‘s and till now
it has not been possible to rehabilitate even half of the displaced
persons.

Displacement due to mining:

es displacement
of the native people.

operation and the native people are displaced.

occurring in mined areas like subsidence of land that often leads to

shifting of people.

residents due to underground fires and they are asked to vacate the
area.
spent
for shifting the population while the cost of extinguishing the fire would
be around 8,000 crore.

Displacement due to creation of national parks:

welcome step for conservation of natural resources.

entry of local people is restricted.

The major issues related to displacement and rehabilitation is

already poor

are not familiar with market policies and trends

songs, dances and activities vanish with their displacement

REHABILITATION AND RESETTLEMENT CONCERNS

The objective of the Ministry of Rehabilitation and Resettlement

(Government of India) is to transfer the benefits, in lieu of the losses
occurred to displaced people due to involuntarily displacement.

This objective may be ensured by implementing the following policies:

(i) To keep them intact in a family or community in which
they were settled prior to being displaced.
(ii) To provide them essential infrastructure such as health,
schooling and credit in resettlement sites
(iii) To govern the displacement process by laws for avoiding
possible problems, to create new rights for them that will
enable them to directly share the benefits of the
development project and to provide adequate
compensation.
(iv) To relocate them to a locality of their preference
(v) To provide them increasing incomes through opportunities of
employment and livelihood, to provide them opportunities
for the enhancement of capabilities and to improve their
standard of living
(vi) To give them proper participation and choice for their
resettlement and rehabilitation
(vii) To provide them social infrastructure and community services
Environmental Ethics: Issues and Possible Solutions

The work ‗ethic‘ is derived from the Greek work ‗ethos‘ which means the
character of a person as described by his or her actions.

Ethics deals with moral duty and obligations. It gives rise to a set of
values, which are used to judge whether one‘s behavior or conduct is
right or wrong.

Trust, honesty, justice, trustworthiness, competence and accountability

are the basis of ethics.
Issues In early 1970s, the world started realizing the dangers of
human actions on the environment. The main reasons of such
concerns were the following issues whose effects were changing the
global environment: ―ACNE‖.
A (i) Reduced purification of atmosphere because of increased
deforestation.

C (ii) Increased CO2 concentration and presence of harmful

elements in atmosphere due to enhanced burning of
fossil fuels
N (iii) Depletion of natural resources at a rapid rate due to
consumption by increasing population
E (iv) Deteriorating quality of environment
because of urbanization, industrialization,
deforestation, consumerism, etc.

These issues result in the following serious consequences: Greenhouse

effect, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, etc.
(A) Possible Solutions: Awareness of consequences like global
warming, etc., has led the society to adopt environmental ethics.
These environmental ethics give equal importance to growth and
sustainability.

Environmental ethics can provide us the guidelines for putting our

beliefs into action and help us decide what to do when faced with
crucial situations. Some important ethical guide lives known as earth
ethics (or) Environmental Ethics are as follows:

- You should love and honor the earth since it has blessed you with
life.
-You should keep each day sacred to earth and celebrate the
changing of its seasons.
-You should not hold yourself above other living things
- You should be grateful to the plants and animals which nourish you
by giving you food.
- You should limit your off-springs because too many people will
overburden the earth.
-You should not waste your resources
-You should not steal from future generations their right to live in clean
and safe planet by polluting it.
-You should consume the materials in moderate amounts. So that all
may share the earth is precious treasure of resources.

Climate Change

Climate is the average weather of an area. It is general weather

conditions, seasonal variations and extremes of weather in a region.
Such conditions which average over a long period- at least 30 yrs is
called climate.

Weather is the reflection of atmospheric humidity, temperature and

rainfall. Climate is the average weather pattern over longer duration in
a place. Climate change is reflected from the following facts:

 Since the late 19th century, the earth has warmed by 0.3 to
0.6°C on an average.
 By the year 2100,
(a) Temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5°C
(b) Global mean sea levels would rise by 15 to 95 cm
Causes of climate change on a global scale are linked with changes in
the amount of heat that is either let into the earth system or let out of
the earth system.

Depending on proximity to oceans and altitude and amounts of sunlight

received by different regions of the world, climate differs from place to
place.

For example, hot climates are due to greater concentrations of

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which reduce the amount of
heat that is let out of the atmosphere.

Ill effects of climate change are linked to

(i) cyclones,
(ii) floods,
(iii) dry or wet spells of rain fall
(iv) cold and hot spells of temperature.
A) Impacts of Climate Change
(i) Positive Impacts Reduced deaths from cold and higher
agricultural output in northern regions (at least for a while) are few
positive impacts of global warming.
(ii) Negative Impacts
(a) Submergence of low-lying islands (especially in the Pacific),
vast saline inundations in countries like Bangladesh, etc.,
are linked to rise in sea level. (Global warming is responsible
for melting of ice caps and glaciers, which lead to rise in
sea level.)
(b) The tourism industry will suffer in parts of southern
Europe because of change of climate towards hotter than
ever before (prediction by the European Acacia Project).
(c) Damaging changes in wildlife behaviour like failure of
Scottish seabirds to raise young during the 2004 breeding
season.
(d) The poorest of the poor are most likely to be hit by the
impacts of climate change.
B) Solutions of Climate-change Problems: Some of the simple
solutions are
(i) Reduce the emission of greenhouse gases
(ii) Use renewable energy resources
(iii) Use energy efficient technologies

Example 1 What are the important mitigation technologies and

commercially available latest technologies for tackling the
climate change as per FoUrth Assessment Report of
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?

Solutions As per the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, the

important mitigation technologies and practices presently
commercially available are described below:
(i) Industry
• Recovery of heat and power
• Recycling of material
• Green technology
• Efficient equipment, etc.
(ii) Buildings
• Passive and active solar design for cooling and heating
• Efficient electrical appliances
• Improved cooking stoves
• Efficient lighting and day lighting, etc.
(iii) Transport
• Use of public transport systems
• Cycling, walking, etc., non motorised transport
 • Use of best fuel-efficient vehicles
• Biofuels
• Proper transport planning, etc.
(iv) Energy supply
• Renewable energy
• Improved efficiency in supply and distribution, etc.

(v) Agriculture
• Improved nitrogen fertilizer application techniques to
reduce N2O emissions,
• Improved rice-cultivation techniques and livestock-and-
manure management to reduce CH4 emissions,
• Dedicated energy corps to replace fossil-fuel use,
• Improved crop and grazing-land management, etc.,
to increase soil carbon storage,
(vi) Waste
• Recycling and waste minimization
• Compositing of organic waste
• Waste incineration with energy recovery
• Waste-water treatment, etc.
• Landfill methane recovery
(vii) Forests
• Reduced deforestation
• Forest management
• Afforestation
• Reforestation
• Harvested wood-product management
• Use of forestry products for bio-energy to replace use of
fossil fuel, etc.

Case Study

Climate Change, Perspectives from India

Climate change is the biggest development challenge for the

planet. There is not much difference between managing a
local forest and the global climate—we need a framework
which encourages cooperation. Then a country can have both
growth and less carbon emissions. To tackle the impact of
climate change on food security in India, it has been suggested
to practice soil and water conservation. Small-scale industries
emit substantial greenhouse gases and have the potential for
saving huge amounts of energy.

C) Environment Security and Climate Change

The security of the entire global community is increasingly exposed to risk
by humans through air, water and/or land pollution. Economic activities
cause environmental changes that lead to conflict.

It is important for all countries to cooperate in order to reduce the

effects of environmental degradation. Everyone should contribute by
limiting greenhouse gas emission, conserving natural resources, and
developing and sharing energy-efficient technologies.
Global Warming: The Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse Effect Definition

“Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiations from the
sun are absorbed by the greenhouse gases and not reflected
back into space. This insulates the surface of the earth and
prevents it from freezing.”

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow
plants. The sun‘s radiations warm the plants and the air inside the
greenhouse. The heat trapped inside can‘t escape out and warms the
greenhouse which is essential for the growth of the plants. Same is
the case in the earth‘s atmosphere.
During the day the sun heats up the earth‘s atmosphere. At night,
when the earth cools down the heat is radiated back into the
atmosphere. During this process, the heat is absorbed by the
greenhouse gases in the earth‘s atmosphere. This is what makes the
surface of the earth warmer that makes the survival of living beings on
earth possible.
However, due to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the
temperature of the earth has increased considerably. This has led to
several drastic effects.

Greenhouse Gases
“Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared
radiations and create a greenhouse effect. For eg., carbondioxide
and chlorofluorocarbons.”
The major contributors to the greenhouse gases are factories,
automobiles, deforestation, etc. The increased number of factories
and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the
atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations escape
from the earth and increase the surface temperature of the earth. This
then leads to global warming.
Causes of Greenhouse Effect
The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in
transportation and to produce electricity. Burning of fossil fuels
releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in population, the utilization
of fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Deforestation
Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to
the cutting of trees, there is a considerable increase in the greenhouse
gases which increases the earth‘s temperature.

Farming
Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the
greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.

Industrial Waste and Landfills

The industries and factories produce harmful gases which are
released in the atmosphere.
Landfills also release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the
greenhouse gases.

Effects of Greenhouse Effect

The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:
Global Warming
It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature
of the Earth‘s atmosphere. The main cause for this environmental
issue is the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide and methane released by the burning of fossil fuels, emissions
from the vehicles, industries and other human activities.
Impact of global warming and greenhoUse effect

(i)Consequences of Global Warming

(a) Melting of polar ice caps, and increase of sea/ocean levels
(b) Flooding of low-lying land
(c) Less water vapour in the atmosphere leading to more drought
(d) Causes extremes of weather hurricanes, flooding and
droughts, difficulties in growing crops and survival
problems
More industrialized countries are responsible for causing high
levels of CO2 in the atmosphere and less industrialized countries
are also contributing by destruction of the rainforest.
(ii)Remedial Measures
(a) Enhance energy efficiency during use by adding insulation to
your walls, and by using CFL bulbs, etc.
(b) Reduce transport sector emissions by less and smart driving.
(c) Promote renewable energy (like solar energy) usage.
(d) Remove subsidies on fossil fuels.
(e) Favor sustainable agriculture.
(f) Recover methane emissions through waste management.
(g) Promote afforestation and reforestations—a single tree will
absorb approximately one ton of CO2 during its lifetime.
(h) Reduce energy consumption by using energy-efficient home
appliances.
(i) Avoid methane production from biomass decay through
controlled combustion.
(j) Enhance energy efficiency during generation, transmission and
distribution.
(k) Reduce waste, prefer reusable products, recycle paper,
plastic, metals, etc.
(l) Eat locally grown fruits and vegetables and not the imported
ones. The latter requires the burning of fossil fuels for
transport.
Depletion of Ozone Layer
Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the
sun. It is found in the upper regions of the stratosphere. The depletion
of the ozone layer results in the entry of the harmful UV rays to the
earth‘s surface that might lead to skin cancer and can also change
the climate drastically.
The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural
greenhouse gases including chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide,
methane, etc.
Ozone-Layer Depletion (Ozone Hole)
(A) Ozone: Ozone (O3) is an allotropic form of oxygen (O2). It is
a pale blue gas. It helps in sustaining life on earth by filtering out
the sun‘s harmful ultraviolet radiation.
(B) Ozone Layer: The total amount of ozone in an overhead
column of the atmosphere is measured in dobson unit (after the
atmospheric ozone pioneer GMB Dobson). One Dobson Unit (DU)
indicates that a 0.01 mm thick ozone layer would be formed if
ozone is compressed into one layer at 0°C and 1 atm pressure.
Across the globe, in the stratosphere, the average thickness of the
ozone layer is about 3 mm at 0°C and 1 atm pressure (or about
300 DU). The stratospheric pool of ozone is known as the
ozonosphere.
(C) Ozone Hole: When the level of ozone in the
stratosphere falls below 200 DU, it is considered to represent
the beginnings of an ozone hole.
(D) Causes of Ozone-Hole Formation: The gradual thinning of
the ozone layer and ozone-hole formation occurs by the
destruction of ozone due to its reactions with nitric oxide,
chlorine, hydroxyl radicals, etc., in the stratosphere.
Flying of supersonic aircrafts, nuclear explosions and various
chemical/ photochemical reactions in the atmosphere generate
nitric oxide. Burning of biomass generates hydroxyl radicals.
Volcanic activity releases chlorine in the atmosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), fluorochloro methane (freons),
difluorodichloro methane (CF2Cl2) and fluorochloroform (CFCl3)
release chlorine by ultraviolet radiation induced homolytic
cleavage in the atmosphere.
It is estimated that about 6.5% of the total ozone-layer depletion is
due to chlorine radicals from various CFCs.
 The chemical reactions leading to the destruction of ozone layer
by CFCs are given below:

As Cl atoms are regenerated in step (c), a long-chain process is

followed which keeps on consuming ozone. It is estimated that
each atom of chlorine can destroy one lakh ozone molecules
when they diffuse to the stratospheric level.

(E) Problems Associated with Ozone-Layer Depletion: The

ozone layer absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet radiations
coming from the sun in the region (220–330) nm.

In the absence of an ozone layer, these ultraviolet radiations could

cause the following problems:
(i) Swelling of skin and skin cancer; skin aging, burning
sensation
(ii) Death of phytoplanktons in marine environment (the sole
producers) leading the entire ecosystem to collapse
(iii) Reduction in the body‘s ability to fight off disease, as UV
suppresses the immune system; premature aging.
(iv) Inhibition and alteration of DNA replication and formation of
DNA adduct; leukamia, breast cancer
(v) Visual impairment, dizziness, cataracts of eyes
(vi) Damage to plants; reduction in crop yields; faster
deterioration of paints, fabrics, plastics
(F) Remedial Measures to Control the Depletion of Ozone Layer
(i) Avoid any fire extinguisher that contains bromine-based
halons. Preferably use water, carbon dioxide or dry
chemical fire extinguishers.
(ii) Spread awareness about the restricted use of CFCs for the
healthy survival of mankind.
 (iii) Avoid purchasing and using refrigerators, air conditioners,
etc., which use CFCs, freons, etc., as coolants.
(iv) Avoid purchasing and using pressurised aerosol cans which
use CFCs, freons, etc., as propellants.
(v) Ban atmospheric nuclear explosions, as they emit NO and
deplete the ozone layer.
(vi) Reduce the air traffic of supersonic aircrafts that fly at
the ozonosphere altitude, as they release large amounts of
NO and deplete the ozone layer.
(vii) Facilitate advanced research to plug the ozone holes that
have already been formed.

ACID RAIN

Acid rain, also called acid precipitation or acid

deposition, precipitation possessing a pH of about 5.2 or below
primarily produced from the emission of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and nitrogen oxides (NOx; the combination of NO and NO2) from
human activities, mostly the combustion of fossil fuels. Acid rain
contributes to the corrosion of surfaces exposed to air pollution and is
responsible for the deterioration of limestone and marble buildings and
monuments.

Chemistry of acid deposition

Normal rainwater is weakly acidic because of the absorption of carbon

dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere—a process that produces carbonic
acid—and from organic acids generated from biological activity. In
addition, volcanic activity can produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric
acid (HNO3), and hydrochloric acid (HCl) depending on the emissions
associated with specific volcanoes. Other natural sources of
acidification include the production of nitrogen oxides from the
conversion of atmospheric molecular nitrogen (N2) by lightning and the
conversion of organic nitrogen by wildfires. However, the geographic
extent of any given natural source of acidification is small, and in most
cases it lowers the pH of precipitation to no more than about 5.2.

Anthropogenic activities, particularly the burning of fossil

fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and the smelting of metal ores, are the
major causes of acid deposition. In the atmosphere, sulfuric and nitric
acids are generated when SO2 and NOx, respectively, react with
water. The simplest reactions are:

SO2 + H2O → H2SO4 ←→ H+ + HSO4 ←→ 2H+ + SO42

NO2 + H2O → HNO3 ←→ H+ + NO3

These reactions in the aqueous phase (for example, in cloud water)

create wet deposition products.

Causes of Acid Rain

The causes of acid rain are Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which
get mixed with the wet components of rain. Sulphur and Nitrogen
particles which get mixed with water are found in two ways either man-
made i.e as the emissions that are given out from industries or by
natural causes like lightning strike in the atmosphere releasing
nitrogen oxides and volcanic eruptions releasing sulphur oxide.
pH 4.2-4.4= Acid rain
pH 5.6= Clean rain

As the pH is log [H+], so each pH unit represents a tenfold

change:

(i) A pH of 5 is ten times more acidic than a pH of 6.

(ii) A pH of 4 is hundred times more acidic than a pH of 6.
 1. Acidic gases (sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) released
into atmosphere from industries, vehicle‘s exhaust etc.
2. Acidic gases carried by the wind.
3. Acidic gases dissolve in rainwater to form acid rain.
4. Acid rain kills plant life, pollutes rivers and streams and erodes
stone work.

Effects of Acid Rain

 Acid rain is very harmful to agriculture, plants, and animals. It

washes away all nutrients which are required for the growth and
survival of plants. Acid rain affects agriculture by the way it
alters the composition of the soil.

 It causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.

 When acid rain falls down and flows into the rivers and ponds it
affects the aquatic ecosystem. It alters the chemical
composition of the water, to a form which is actually harmful to
the aquatic ecosystem to survive and causes water pollution.
 Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes, which further
results in leaching of heavy metals such as iron, lead and
copper into drinking water.
 It damages the buildings and monuments made up of stones
and metals.
Acid Rain and Taj Mahal

Tourist traffic is not allowed near the Taj Mahal in an effort to

control the deleterious effects of pollution. The degradation
of the Taj Mahal‘s marble facades has still not slowed down.
 This is due to acid rain generated from local foundries and an
oil refinery. The once brilliant white Taj Mahal has been losing
its luster, dulling into a sickly pale shade. Two common air
pollutants, SO2 and NOX, cause acid rain.
Nuclear Accidents and Holocaust
A) Nuclear Accidents
Nuclear accidents can occur at any stage of the nuclear fuel cycle.
They may also result from the failure of nuclear devices.

Types of nuclear accidents are discussed below:

1. Nuclear test: Nuclear explosions, carried out in underground,

because settling down the radioactive materials on the earth's surface
and radioactive particles, radioactive rays into the atmosphere.

2. Nuclear power plant accidents: The release of radiation occurs

during the accidents. The nuclear power plant located in the seismic
vulnerable area may cause nuclear accidents.

3. Improper disposal of radioactive waste: It is another source of

accident. Drums stored underground can rust and leak radioactive
materials into water, land and air.
4. Accident during transport: Trucks carrying radioactive wastes or
fuels are involved in frequent accidents.
5. Core melt down: The major accident at a nuclear power plant is a
core melt down.

Effect of Nuclear Radiation

1. Radiations may break chemical bonds such as DNA in cells. This

effect may be instantaneous, prolonged or delayed types. It may be
even carried to future generations.
2. Exposure at low dose of radiation (100-250 rads), people do not die,
but begin to suffer from fatigue, vomiting and loss of hair.
3. Exposure at higher dose of radiation (400-500 rads) affects bone
marrow, blood cells, natural resistance and blood to fail clot.
4. Exposure at very high dose of radiation (10,000 rads) kills the
organisms by damaging the tissues of heart, brain.

World major nuclear accidents

(i) Three Mile Island Accident: On March 28, 1979, a nuclear

accident occurred in US at the Three Mile Island nuclear power
plant. One of two reactors lost its coolant, which caused
overheating and partial meltdown of its uranium core. This resulted
 in release of intense radiation as well as radioisotopes.
Fortunately, the plume emitted into the atmosphere was quite
low for causing toxic effect.
(ii) Chernobyl Nuclear Accident: On April 26, 1986, a nuclear
accident occurred in Chernobyl, near Kiev, Ukraine. Explosion and
fire in the graphite core of one of four reactors released radioactive
material that spread over part of the Soviet Union, eastern Europe,
western Europe and Scandinavia. This is one of the world‘s worst
nuclear accidents involving 237 confirmed cases of chronic
radiation illness and 37 deaths. Hundreds of thousands of
Ukrainians, Russians and Belorussians had to abandon entire
cities within a 30 km zone of extreme contamination. About 3
million people, more that 2 million in Belarus alone are still living in
contaminated areas. Figures from the Ukraine Radiological
Institute suggest that over 2500 deaths were caused by the
Chernobyl nuclear disaster.
(iii) Tokaimura Nuclear Accident: On September 30, 1999, a
nuclear accident occurred in a nuclear plant in Tokaimura,
Japan. In a uranium-processing nuclear fuel plant, a chain
reaction went uncontrolled, resulting in emission of high levels of
radioactive gas into the air. Because of this accident, two workers
were seriously injured and one worker got killed.
Populations living in contaminated areas and persons who
helped with the clean- up of the accident were found to have
thyroid or other cancers. Among Ukrainian young children (up to
15 years of age), the average thyroid cancer rate was 4–6
incidents per million before the accident. After the incident, the
cancer rate rose to 45 incidents per million.

People were not told the truth until several years after the
accident. The lack of public information available after the
accident, the stress and trauma of evacuation and concerns of
the people affected and concerns about their children‘s health
resulted in significant increases in psychological health disorders
such as depression, anxiety, helplessness, social withdrawal,
mental stress and lack of hope for the future.

Nuclear Holocaust

Holocaust means large-scale destruction of human lives by intense heat

and fire.

It means destruction of biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclear

bombs. In a holocaust, a large number of living beings are totally
destroyed. Usually, these kinds of destructions are happened in a
nuclear war.

Holocaust: Great Destruction Resulting in the Extensive Loss of

Life:
Hiroshima–Nagasaki disaster is a nuclear holocaust. America was
involved in the development of an atom bomb while World War II was
at its peak. The bomb was made and was test fired on 16 July, 1945 in
a desert in Mexico. The 30 m tower on which the bomb was placed
completely melted. The blinding light that spread for a few minutes
turned the sun into a pale ball. Frightened to the core by the resulting
blast, scientists vehemently opposed using it on Japan or anywhere
in the world. US President Harry Truman was determined to win the
war against Japan. He ordered dropping of the bomb on Japan. The
uranium bomb named the Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima on
August 6, 1945. Within minutes, one lakh persons were burnt to death
like moths near a lamp. Just three days later, a plutonium bomb named
Fatman was dropped over Nagasaki. The whole area was burnt and
looked like a desert. Devastating shock waves, deadly gamma
radiations and enormous amount of heat created conditions where
any life cannot survive.

It is estimated that by December 1945, as many as 1,40,000 had died in

Hiroshima by the uranium bomb and its associated effects. In Nagasaki,
roughly 74,000 people died of the plutonium bomb and its after
effects. In both cities, around 2,14,000 people in total, most of them
were civilians, were killed. In Nagasaki alone, up to 60,000 people
were injured. The radius of total destruction was about 1.6 km,
followed by fire across the northern portion of the city to 3.2 km
south of the bomb.

Radiation poisoning and necrosis caused illness and death after the
bombing in about 1% of Hiroshima residents who survived the initial
explosion. In the years between 1950 and 1990, It is estimated that
hundreds of deaths are attributable to radiation exposure among
atomic-bomb survivors from both Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Effect of Nuclear Holocaust

1. Nuclear winter
Nuclear bombardment will cause combustion of wood, plastics,
petroleum, forest etc. Large quantity of black soot will be carried to the
stratosphere. Black soot will absorb all radiations and will not allow the
radiation to reach the earth. Therefore, cooling will result. Due to this
cooling effect, water evaporation will also reduce. In stratosphere
there won't be significant moisture to rain-out the thick soot. Thus, due
to nuclear explosions, a process known as opposite to global warming
will occur. This is called nuclear winter.

Effect of nuclear winter

(a) Lowers the global temperature, even in summer the temperature

will be at around freezing temperature.

(b) Crop productivity will be reduced causing famines and human

sufferings.

2. It ignites all combustible material; destroy all the living beings,

material crushing and destruction of homes.

Control measures

1. Suitable precautions are to be taken and training must be given to

people for handling these materials to avoid accident.
2. Constant monitoring of the radiation level has to be carried out, limit
exposure to the workers.
3. Regular checks and control measures are done by Atomic Energy
Regulatory Board under the Department of Atomic Energy.

Consumerism and Waste Products

Consumerism is a process and habit of the chronic purchasing of new

goods and services, with less attention to their true need, durability, origin of
the product or the environmental impacts during manufacture and
disposal.

Model of Paul Ehrlich and John Hodlren (1972) :

Population X Consumerism X Waste generation = Environmental

degradation
(No. of persons) x per capita use of resources x waste
generated per unit of resource use = Overall environmental
degradation
In More Developed Countries (MDCs), population is less and
resources are in abundance. Lifestyle is luxurious and per capita
consumption of resources is very high. More consumption of
resources results in more waste generation and greater
environmental degradation.
In Less Developed Countries (LDCs), population is large. Adequate
resources are not available for all, so per capita consumption is less.
However, overall consumption is high. Thus, environmental impact is
same or slightly less in comparison to MDCs.

For example, the population of India is 3.4 times more than that of
USA but its overall resource use and waste generation is less than
1/8th that of USA.
A) Creators of Consumerist Culture
(i) Artificial Beauty: Millions of people use soaps, detergents,
hair dyes, skin-care creams and other cosmetic items to enhance
their beauty artificially. Manufacturers have been able to create
demands for these cosmetic items and the public is busy
spending their money for this temporary beauty enhancement.
Fashion Manufacturers of clothes, textiles, shoes and apparel
keep changing fashions to accelerate the speed of
consumerism through advertisements.
(ii) Greed of Industry: To make more profits, industry and
large businesses want to sell more products. Generally,
products are made for a one-time use. Through regular
advertising a ―throwaway society‖ has been created. This society
prefers disposable items discarding notions of inherent value,
longevity and the environmental consequences of manufacture
and disposal of the product. In the developed world, 200 billion
paper cups, bottles, cans and plastic cartons are thrown away
each year.
(iii) More Money, Less Time: Family ties, friendship,
everything becomes mediated through the spending of money
on goods and gifts and services. A generation is growing up
without knowing what quality goods are. Relations are
promoted only as a vehicle of giving and taking gifts.
(iv) Mega Shows: Manufacturers of items of consumerism (like
automobiles, televisions, radios, refrigerators, air conditioners,
dishwashers, cosmetics) sponsor megashows. They kindle
passion and unquenchable desire for latest items through prizes
and other incentives.
(v) Advertising: Advertising is designed to create both a
desire to follow fashions, and the resultant personal self-reward
system based on acquisition. Thus, a consumerist culture is not
based on natural demand, but on a created demand.
 (vi) Politics Consumerism is encouraged politically so that
population remains satisfied by material needs and politicians
can do whatever they wish for.

B) Drawbacks of Consumerism
Consumerism

i. causes more pollution, creates more waste products, causes

wasteful use of material and energy,
ii. helps lowest-wage, environ- mentally unregulated over- seas
manufacturers,
iii. promotes social unrest,
iv. promotes riots, and other criminalities, and
v. Leads to societal suicide.

C) Measures to Prevent Excess Consumerism

Some of the measures to prevent excess consumerism include the

following:

i. Pigouvian Taxes For encouraging industrial ecology and waste

reduction, manufacturers are taxed for some or all the cost of
recycling or waste disposal.

ii. Ecolabelling It involves the marking of products to indicate

that they are environmentally friendly. Ecolabelling assesses
environmental impact and communicates this to the consumer. It
also encourages manufacturers to reduce the impacts of their
products. Ecomark is used in India for ecolabelling.
iii. Green Marketing It involves communicating green image of the
better, environmental friendly products to the consumer. It helps
in conserving the environment and achieving better marketing
niche. People also happily buy green products like refrigerators
that do not leak ozone-layer-depleting chlorofluoro carbons
(CFC‘s) and consumes less electricity.
iv. Self-awareness and Self-control

Having fewer things means enjoying what you have more and
actually getting to use it. It also helps in fewer distractions from
the essentials such as food, family, nature, study, and friends.
ACTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Environment Protection as a Common Goal for All

Paul Bigelow Sears once said, ―How far must suffering and misery go before
we see that even in the day of vast cities and powerful machines, the Earth
is our mother and that if we destroy her, we destroy ourselves.‖

So, we should act today for a better tomorrow. Adopt a strategy (like
outlined below) for environmental protection. Government, industry,
public and law must have only one goal, viz. environment protection.

Industry: Replace non-renewable inputs in energy with renewable

ones.

Government: Educate and involve all in environmental protection

drive. They must act together to fight corruption in government and
ruthless exploitation by the industry.

Public: Consume less, share more, control population and reduce

pressure on natural resources.

Law: Take help from law, if needed, for protection of our environment.

Role of Government and legal aspects in Environmental

Protection
A) Government Increased government intervention is a must for
solving environmental problems because of the following
reasons:
(i) The world is facing very serious environmental problems
like loss of biodiversity, global warming, water pollution,
air pollution, etc.
(ii) The world is facing increased probabilities of natural
disasters due to global warming.
(iii) The health of millions of people is at risk if companies are
left free to sell their products, vehicles, etc., just for profits.
This is because we are exposed to thousands of chemicals a
year, many of which interact in ways that are not yet fully
understood.
B) Legal Aspects The Ministry of Environment and Forests
(MoEF) in India is the apex administrative body for

 undertaking conservation and survey of fauna, flora, forests and

wild life;
 formulating the environmental policy framework in the country;
 planning, promotion, co-ordination and overseeing the
implementation of environmental and forestry programmes;
and
 Regulating and ensuring environmental protection.

The responsibility for prevention and control of industrial pollution is

primarily executed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) at
the central level which is a statutory authority, attached to the MoEF.
The State Pollution Control Boards and the State Departments of
Environment are the designated agencies to perform the function at
the state level. The administrative framework in India for protection of
the environments is shown in Fig.
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
It is the umbrella legislation which authorizes the Central
Government to
(i) protect and improve environmental quality,
(ii) control and reduce pollution from all sources, and
(iii) restrict or prohibit the selling and/or operation of any
industrial facility on environmental grounds.

According to the Act, the term ―environment‖ includes water, air and
land and the inter-relationship which exists among and between water, air,
land, human beings, other living creatures, microorganisms, plants and
property.

The main provisions of the Act are given below:

(i) The Central Government shall have the power to take all
such measures as it deems necessary or useful for the
purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the
environment and preventing, controlling and decreasing
environmental pollution.
(ii) No person carrying on any industry, operation or process
shall discharge or emit any environmental pollutants or
permit to do so in excess of such standards as may be
prescribed.
(iii) Where the discharge of any environmental pollutant in
excess of the prescribed standards occurs or is bound to
occur due to any accident or other unexpected act or
event, the person responsible for such discharge and the
person in charge of the place at which such discharge
occurs or is expected to occur, shall be bound to prevent
or reduce the environmental pollution caused as a result
of such discharge and shall also immediately inform the
fact of such occurrence or fear of such occurrence; and be
bound, if called upon, to render all assistance to such
authorities or agencies as may be advised.
(iv) No person shall handle or cause to be handled any
hazardous substance except in accordance with such
procedure and after complying with such safeguards as
may be prescribed.
(v) The Central Government or any officer empowered by it in
this behalf, shall have power to take, for the purpose of
analysis, samples of air, water, soil or other substance from
any premises, factory, etc., as may be prescribed.
 (vi) The Central Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, establish one or more environmental
laboratories; and recognize one or more laboratories or
institutes as environmental laboratories to carry out the
functions assigned to an environmental laboratory under
this Act.
(vii) Whoever fails to comply with or violate any of the provisions
of this Act, or the rules made or orders or directions issued
thereunder, shall, in respect of each such failure or violation,
be punishable with imprisonment or with fine or with both.

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

This is an act to provide for the prevention, control and reduction of
air pollution in the country so as to preserve the quality of air.

The salient features of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)

Act 1981 are given below:
(i) Act is applicable to the whole of India.
(ii) Under Section 19 of the Act, the State Government in
consultation with the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)
has the power to declare Air Pollution Control Area, in which
provisions of the Act shall be applicable.
(iii) As per provisions in Section 21(1) and (2), no person can
establish or operate any industrial plant without the
previous consent of the State Pollution Control Board.
(iv) Every application for consent shall be made in Form I and
shall be accompa- nied by a prescribed fee. Within a period
of four months after the receipt of application, the Board
shall complete the formalities to either refuse or grant
consent. During the course of processing consent for the
application, the Board may seek any information about the
industry after giving notice in Form II.
(v) Under Section 22, 22(A) operating any industrial plant so
as to cause emission of any air pollutant in excess of
standard laid down by the State Board is liable for legal
action by the Board.
(vi) Under Section 2(a), the term air pollutant is defined as any
solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the atmosphere
in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to
human beings or other living creatures or plants or property
or environment.

Power of State Government

Under Section 19, the State Government may, after consultation with
the State Board, by notification in the official gazette, declare, in such
manner as may be prescribed, any area or areas within the state as air
pollution control area or areas for the purposes of this Act.

Under Section 21.3, no person shall without the previous consent of

the State Pollution Control Board, establish or operate any industrial
plant in an Air Pollution Control Area.

Under Section 22.4, no person operating any industrial plant in any Air
Pollution Control Area shall discharge or cause or permit to be
discharged, the emission of any air pollutant in excess of the laid-down
standards by the State Pollution Control Boards.

Under Section 19.1, the State Government after consultation with the
State Pollution Control Board, may
 Prohibit burning of any material causing or likely to cause air
pollution in an Air Pollution Control Area
 Prohibit the use of any appliance or fuel causing or likely to
cause air pollution in an Air Pollution Control Area
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
(A) Objectives The objectives of the Wildlife Protection Act are
(i) to maintain essential ecological processes and life-supporting
systems.
(ii) to preserve biodiversity; and
(iii) to ensure protection and conservation of wildlife.

(B) Salient Features

(i) Under Section 3, the appointment of Director, Chief
Wildlife Warden and other officers is done by the Central
Government.
(ii) Under Section 6, Wildlife Advisory Board is constituted by
the State Government or the Union Territory
Administration. Under Section 7, the Wildlife Advisory
Board shall meet at least twice a year.
(iii) The duties of the Wildlife Advisory Board, under Section 8,
are to advise the State Government about
(a) The selection of areas to be declared as.
• National parks under Section 35,
• Sanctuaries under Section 18, etc.
(b) The formulation of the policy for protection and
conservation of wildlife and specified plants
(c) The measures to be taken for harmonizing the
protection and conservation of wildlife with the needs
of the tribals and other forest dwellers
 (iv) Under Section 44, the Act prohibits dealing in animal
articles without license.
(v) Under Section 38 A, the Central Government shall
constitute the Central Zoo Authority which has various roles
or functions as described in Section 38 C.

(C) Major Highlights of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

(i) It provides for protection to listed species of flora and fauna
and establishes a network of ecologically important
protected areas.
(ii) The act consists of 60 sections and VI schedules divided into
eight chapters.
(iii) It empowers the central and state governments to declare
any area a wildlife sanctuary, national park or closed area.
Industrial activities are banned in these protected areas.
(iv) It provides for authorities to
(a) administer and implement the Act;
(b) regulate the hunting of wild animals;
(c) protect specified plants, sanctuaries, national parks, etc.,
and
(d) restrict trade in wild animals or animals articles.
(v) The Act prohibits hunting of animals except with permission
of an authorized officer when an animal has become
dangerous to human life or property or as disabled or
diseased as to be beyond recovery.

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

In 1980, the Forest (Conservation) Act was enacted for
providing protection to forests and to regulate diversion of
forestlands for non-forestry purposes.

Salient Features
(i) Prior approval of the Central Government is essential for
de-reservation of forest lands and/or diversion of forest
lands for non-forestry purposes.
(ii) It is a regulatory act, not prohibitory.
(iii) The Forest (Conservation) Act is an interface between
conservation and development.
(iv) It permits sensible and regulated use of forestland for non
forestry purposes.

During 1950–80, the rate of diversion of forestland for

nonforestry purposes was 1.5 lakh hectares per annum. After
enactment of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, the rate came
down to about 35 thousand hectares per annum.
 At the time of granting approval under the Forest (Conservation)
Act, following conditions are insisting upon:

• Compensatory afforestation
• Treatment of catchment area
• Reclamation of mining area in phases
• Provisioning for safety zone area
• Rehabilitation of project affected families
• Plan for wildlife management, etc.

On the directions of the apex court in 2002, a new present value of the
forestland being diverted is being charged from the user agencies.
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
―As defined in the Act, water pollution means such contamination of
water or such alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties of
water or such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other
liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water (whether directly or indirectly)
as may, or is likely to, create a nuisance or render such water harmful or
injurious to public health or safety, or to domestic, commercial, industrial,
agricultural or other uses or to the life and health of animals or plants or of
aquatic organism.‖

i. The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted for
prevention and control of water pollution and maintaining or
restoring of wholesomeness of water.

The Central and State Pollution Control Boards have been

constituted under sections 3 and 4 of the later Act
respectively.
ii. Obligations on the part of industries and local bodies are
(a) To obtain prior consent to establish and operate
industry for new discharge of domestic sewage or trade
effluent under section 25 of the Act
(b) Board within four months will either refuse or grant
consent
iii. Power of State Board:
 To obtain information under Section 20
 Carry out any related work under Section 30
 Collect and analyze samples of streams/wells or trade effluent
under sections 17(2) and 52.

(a) To give direction for closure/prohibition or regulation

under Section 33A.
 (b) Enter and inspect any place, examine any
plants/records, etc., and seize if necessary under
Section 23.

ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

Regulatory measures in the form of legislation check

environmental degradation. They also lead to the enacting of
laws at the national or international levels to prevent pollution.
To protect the environment, the role of the judiciary lies in
formulation and enforcement of effective laws. The judiciary alone
cannot improve the environment unless the states and citizens
do their duties and obligations.
Some important issues in the enforcement of environmental legislations
are given here.

(i) Public Apathy: In contrast with conventional crimes such as

rape, murder, dacoity, etc., pollution is treated as a white-
collared crime. While conventional crimes are always taken
seriously, the crime of pollution is generally taken for granted.
(ii)Limitations of Regulating Agencies
Poaching It is a big national problem despite the existence of
the Wildlife Act. The Wildlife Department has no provision to
punish poachers and unauthorized hunters unless they are
caught red handed. In case they are caught, the standard
excuse given by armed poachers is that they carried guns for
self-defence from dangerous wild animals. Penalties by the
Wildlife Department are nominal cash fines. Rich offenders
continue poaching by paying such nominal cash fines to the
Wildlife Department.

Water Pollution The chairman of the state pollution control

board is the key person for the enforcement of the Water Act,
1974. He/she should be professionally qualified and appointed on a
full-time basis. However, several State Pollution Control Boards are
headed by part-time chairpersons without requisite
qualifications and experience. Often, the member secretaries of
the Pollution Control Boards are drawn either from the
administrative service or even from the forest service. They do not
have the required technical background in pollution control.
Thus, it becomes difficult for them to provide proper leadership
and guidance to their subordinates. The enforcement action in
such situations is obviously weak.
(iii)Legal Loopholes
(a) The legal provision for penal action against the polluters
requires that the State Pollution Control Board has to file a
case before the lower court for action against a polluting
unit. However, the lower courts are too busy to devote
enough time for environment-related litigations. As a
consequence, thousands of cases filed by the State
Pollution Control Boards are still pending for years
together. In some cases where decisions have been taken,
the polluters were given the benefit of doubt due to
absence of sufficient proof.
(b) For prevention of pollution, a provision is available for a
citizen to approach a court. For this, the citizen is required
to give a notice of not less than 60 days to the
government, of his/her intention to make a complaint. If
the government does not act on the notice, then only the
citizen can go to the court. For meaningful result, the court
must give directives to the government or the enforcing
authority to collect a sample and submit a report.

Thus, this exercise would give the culprit a period of at

least 60 days to clean up all traces of its offence and
prepare itself for sample collection.

(c) The Factories Act, 1948, is an important legislation which

provides for certain measures with respect to the industrial
safety, health of the workers and welfare measures.

However, safety standards and maintenance procedures

at various industries are not maintained. India has seen
and suffered Bhopal tragedy on the night of December 23,
1984 which is considered the worst industrial disaster in
history. The Bhopal tragedy was the result of a
combination of legal, organisational, technological, and
human errors. The accident occurred when toxic Methyl
IsoCyanate (MIC) gas was accidentally released into the
atmosphere. About 1 lakh people died and more than 2 lakh
people were severely disabled. Even after 26 years of the
accident, thousands of the poorest members of the
population of shanty towns are still suffering.
(iv) Lack of Knowledge While urban citizens cry for stopping
pollution and consumerism from one side, they watch television,
see advertisements, purchase new vehicles, gadgets, luxury items
and cosmetics whose ecological footprints are large. These urban
citizens unknowingly became creators of pollution.
(v) Lacuna in Implementation Pollution Control Boards cannot
take action against municipal corporations or other civic bodies
because they are not empowered to do so. These Pollution
Control Boards are empowered to stop industrial water pollution
but they cannot fight with rich industrialists. Thus, the public is
forced to suffer from use of polluted water.
Despite the various legislations, there is a depletion of forest
resources because of commercial exploitation. The present and
future generations are bound to suffer from deforestation-linked
flood, soil erosion, siltation of water bodies, loss of biological
and genetic diversity, etc.
(vi) Intellectual Indifference In the Environment Protection
Act, all power and authority is reserved in the hands of the
Central Government. For the efficient execution of the provisions
of the Act, this excessive centralisation is a major burdle.
(vii) Limitations of Environmental Risk Assessment Scientific
knowledge regarding the potential impacts of Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals
on human health and environment is not completely understood
because of the complexity of natural ecosystems and
limitations in experimental design.

For environmental protection, The Precautionary Principle is

applied in such circumstances where there are reasonable
grounds for concern that an activity is, or could, cause harm but
risk is uncertain.

The Precautionary principle directs that action should be taken to correct

a problem the moment there is evidence that harm may occur, not after
the harm has already occurred. For example, the German
Government in 70‘s ordered to reduce power plant emissions
when they realised that forests were suddenly dying because of the
acid rain.

Thus, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason

for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental
degradation from substances or activities which cause threats of
serious or irreversible damage.

(viii) Poverty Affordable food, shelter, clothing, medicine and

minimum education for their children are the high-priority
necessities of the poor. They do not have enough money to
practice environmental conservation strategies used by the rich.
They exploit the environment to generate income. For growing
crops, they encroach watershed areas. They live in slums as they
cannot afford proper sanitation and waste treatment. They can
only purchase cheaper products made in factories where proper
pollution control devices are lacking. Thus, survival activities of the
poor indirectly contribute to environmental degradation.

According to Polluter-Pays Principle, those who pollute the

environment must pay for the damages they have caused. This
principle will burden the poor in order to create a better
environment for the rich to enjoy. If enforced, this principle will
certainly widen the real income gap and can even be
interpreted as socially undesirable or morally unjust.

(a) Suppose forest encroachment is conducted by the poor

landless farmers.
According to the Polluter-Pays Principle, they will be liable
for causing flooding, soil sedimentation in irrigation and/or
hydropower dams.
However, the wealthy people or factory owners will benefit
from keeping the forests intact, namely in terms of water
supply or hydropower electricity, or as a recreation site.
Thus, according to the Beneficiary-Pays Principle, the rich
should pay for the cost of forest conservation.
(b) We know that for reducing air pollution, commuters
should use public transport instead of personal vehicles.
The poor commuters use public buses not for reducing
pollution but because they cannot afford personal vehicles.
In order to finance better quality buses which cause
minimum air pollution, the Polluter-Pays Principle requires
the poor commuters to pay a higher charge as they use
public buses.

The alternative Beneficiary-Pays Principle argues that

cleaner and less smoky buses should be financed by all
city residents and not just by bus commuters. This is
because everyone will enjoy the clean air.
What is Environmental Impact Assessments?

EIA full form is Environmental Impact Assessment. The meaning of EIA is that it
is a process through which an environmental impact of a proposed development
is evaluated. EIA is a tool used to assess the positive and negative
environmental, economic, and social impacts of a project. This is used
to predict the environmental impacts of a project in the pre-planning
stage itself so that decisions can be taken to reduce the adverse
impacts.

Impact analysis of the projects

Before starting a major project, it is essential to assess the present

environment without the project and the likely impact of the project on
environment after its completion. For analysis of the impacts experts
from various disciplines should be involved. The EIA should have the
following objective:

 Predict environmental impacts of project after its completion

 Find ways and means to reduce the negative impacts
 Shape the project to make it conductive to the local
environments
 Present the predictions and viable options to policy makers.

Before any development project is taken up, there should be an

analysis of the project by comparing its positive and negative impacts.

Positive impacts of developing new projects are:

1. Increase in the small scale industries

2. Increase in employment to the local people
3. Improved standards of living because of improved
infrastructures

Negative impacts of developing new projects are:

1. Deterioration in the quality of local environment (air, water and

soil).
2. Deforestation which may subsequently lead to soil erosion.
3. Natural flora and fauna is disturbed which disturbs the
ecosystem.
4. May lead to increased level of noise pollution.
For assessment of the large scale projects it is useful to list the
environmental parameters which are likely to be affected. Some of the
parameters are listed below:

Development Projects Environment Parameters

Air quality

Large scale industries (Power Land quality (land use, soil

plants, manufacturing and erosion, seismology, geology
processing units, construction
work etc. Water quality(Surface water and
ground water quality

Public health, noise pollution etc.

Natural flora and fauna (Ecology)

Socio-economic factors
(employment, rehabilitation etc.)

Thus the EIA statement should cover brief description of the positive
and negative aspects of any development project, the mitigation and
protection measure, consideration of alternatives and its summary with
conclusions.