A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our perception or our thought

—which are called elements of the set.

What are the Elements of a Set

Let us take an example: STUDENT MBA FA IST SEM CREATIVE B= { A,B,C,D,E}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } A={2,5,4,3,1}
B={b,g,w}
N={ natural }
Since a set is usually represented by the capital letter. Thus, A is the set and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are the elements of
the set or members of the set. The elements that are written in the set can be in any order but cannot be
repeated. All the set elements are represented in small letter in case of alphabets. Also, we can write it as 1 ∈
A, 2 ∈ A etc. The cardinal number of the set is 5. Some commonly used sets are as follows:

 N: Set of all natural numbers

 Z: Set of all integers
 Q: Set of all rational numbers
 R: Set of all real numbers
 Z+: Set of all positive integers

Order of Sets
The order of a set defines the number of elements a set is having. It describes the size of a set. The order of set
is also known as the cardinality.
The size of set whether it is is a finite set or an infinite set, said to be set of finite order or infinite order,
respectively.

Representation of Sets
The sets are represented in curly braces, {}. For example, {2,3,4} or {a,b,c} or {Bat, Ball, Wickets}. The
elements in the sets are depicted in either the Statement form, Roster Form or Set Builder Form.

Statement Form
In statement form, the well-defined descriptions of a member of a set are written and enclosed in the curly
brackets.
For example, the set of even numbers less than 15.
A={SET OF ALL STUDENTS OF MBA FA I ST SEM}
In statement form, it can be written as {1,2,3,4,..14}.
SECOND CLASS={ }

Roster Form
In Roster form, all the elements of a set are listed.
For example, the set of natural numbers less than 5.
Natural Number = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,……….
Natural Number less than 5 = 1, 2, 3, 4
Therefore, the set is N = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }

Roster notation
Roster or enumeration notation defines a set by listing its elements between curly brackets,
separated by commas:[17][18][19][20]
A = {4, 2, 1, 3}
B = {blue, white, red}.
In a set, all that matters is whether each element is in it or not, so the ordering of the
elements in roster notation is irrelevant (in contrast, in a sequence, a tuple, or
a permutation of a set, the ordering of the terms matters). For example, {2, 4, 6} and {4, 6,
4, 2} represent the same set.[21][16][22]
For sets with many elements, especially those following an implicit pattern, the list of
members can be abbreviated using an ellipsis '...'.[23][24] For instance, the set of the first
thousand positive integers may be specified in roster notation as
{1, 2, 3, ..., 1000}.
Infinite sets in roster notation[edit]
An infinite set is a set with an endless list of elements. To describe an infinite set in
roster notation, an ellipsis is placed at the end of the list, or at both ends, to indicate that
the list continues forever. For example, the set of nonnegative integers is
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...},
and the set of all integers is
{..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.

Set Builder Form

Students of mba FA ist sem ={ x: name of students}

The general form is, A = { x : property }
Example: Write the following sets in set builder form: A={2, 4, 6, 8}
Solution:
2=2x1
4=2x2
6=2x3
8=2x4
So, the set builder form is A = {x: x=2n, n ∈ N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4}
Also, Venn Diagrams are the simple and best way for visualized representation of sets.

Types of Sets
We have several types of sets in Maths. They are empty set, finite and infinite sets, proper set, equal sets, etc.
Let us go through the classification of sets here.

Empty Set

A={}
A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or void set or null set. It is denoted by {} or Ø.
A set of apples in the basket of grapes is an example of an empty set because in a grapes basket there are no
apples present.

Singleton Set
A set which contains a single element is called a singleton set.
Example: There is only one apple in a basket of grapes. A={0} ,B={3}

Finite set
A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called a finite set.
Example: A set of natural numbers up to 10.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
Class mba FA={120}

Infinite set
A set which is not finite is called an infinite set.
Example: A set of all natural numbers.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9……}

Equivalent set
If the number of elements is the same for two different sets, then they are called equivalent sets. The order of
sets does not matter here. It is represented as:
n(A) = n(B)
4(A)=4(B)
where A and B are two different sets with the same number of elements.
Example: If A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {Red, Blue, Green, Black}
In set A, there are four elements and in set B also there are four elements. Therefore, set A and set B are
equivalent.

Equal sets
The two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements, the order of elements do not
matter.
Example: A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {4,3,2,1} c={3,2,1,4}
A=B

Disjoint Sets
The two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if the set does not contain any common element.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3,4} and set B = {5,6,7,8} are disjoint sets, because there is no common element
between them.

Subsets
A set ‘A’ is said to be a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of B, denoted as A ⊆ B. Even the
null set is considered to be the subset of another set. In general, a subset is a part of another set.
Example: A = {1,2,3}
Then B= {1,2} ⊆ A.
Similarly, other subsets of set A are: {1},{2},{3},{1,2},{2,3},{1,3},{1,2,3} ,{}.
Note: The set is also a subset of itself.
If A is not a subset of B, then it is denoted as A⊄B.

Proper Subset
If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then A is called the proper subset of B and it can be written as A⊂B.
Example: If A = {7,2,5} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} then it is not a proper subset of B = {2,5,7}
But, A = {2,5} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} and is a proper subset also.

Superset
Set A is said to be the superset of B if all the elements of set B are the elements of set A. It is represented as A
⊃ B.
For example, if set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and set B = {1, 3, 4}, then set A is the superset of B.

Universal Set
A set which contains all the sets relevant to a certain condition is called the universal set. It is the set of all
possible values.
Example: If A = {1,2,3} and B {2,3,4,5}, C={a,b,c,d} then universal set here will be:
U = {1,2,3,4,5,a,b,c,d}

Operations on Sets
In set theory, the operations of the sets are carried when two or more sets combine to form a single set under
some of the given conditions. The basic operations on sets are:

 Union of sets
 Intersection of sets
 A complement of a set
 Cartesian product of sets.
 Set difference
Basically, we work more on union and intersection of sets operations, using Venn diagrams.

Union of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A union B is the set that contains all
the elements of set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∪ B.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A union B is:
A+B=C=A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

A U B= (A) +(B)

AUB=(A)+(B)-(A∩B)

Intersection of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A intersection B is the set that contains only
the common elements between set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∩ B.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A intersection B is:
A ∩ B = { } or Ø
Since A and B do not have any elements in common, so their intersection will give
null set.

Complement of Sets
The complement of any set, say P, is the set of all elements in the universal set that are not in set P. It is
denoted by P’.
Properties of Complement sets p = UNFOLD
P’ = FOLDED
TRUE= (TRUE)’ =(( TRUE)’)’= TRUE
=(A ∩ B) U (PASS IN ETHICS) U (FAIL IN B M)

Set P = {1,2,3} , P’={ 4,5,6}

1. P ∪ P′ = U
2. P ∩ P′ = Φ
3. Law of double complement : (P′ )′ = P
4. Laws of empty/null set(Φ) and universal set(U), Φ′ = U and U′ = Φ.

Cartesian Product of sets

If set A and set B are two sets then the cartesian product of set A and set B is a set of all ordered pairs (a,b),
such that a is an element of A and b is an element of B. It is denoted by A × B.

X={1,2}
Y={A,B,C,D}
XxY={1.2},{1,B}
We can represent it in set-builder form, such as:
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
Example: set A = {B, G, W} and set B = {Bat, Ball}, then;
A × B = {(1,Bat),(1,Ball),(2,Bat),(2,Ball),(3,Bat),(3,Ball)}

Difference of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then set A difference set B is a set which has elements of A but no elements of
B. It is denoted as A – B.
Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4}
A – B = {1}
B-A={4}

Sets Formulas
Some of the most important set formulas are:

For any three sets A, B and C

n ( A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B) – n ( A ∩ B)

If A ∩ B = ∅, then n ( A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B)

n( A – B) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(A)

n( B – A) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(B)

n( A – B) + n ( A ∩ B) + n( B – A) = n ( A ∪ B )

n ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n ( A ∩ B) – n ( B ∩ C) – n ( C ∩ A) + n ( A ∩ B ∩ C)

( A ∪ B UC) = (A) + (B) +(C) –(A∩ B∩ C)

What is a Function?
A function relates an input to an output.

y(ouput)=m(slope)x+a
Sales = f(advertisement)+a
Sale= f(price)
A b one to one

3 a many to one

A 1
2 one to many
3
4

1 a
2 b many to many
3 c
4 d

It is like a machine that has an input and an output.

And the output is related somehow to the input.

Y=f(x)

"f(x) = ... " is the classic way of writing a function.

f(x)
And there are other ways, as you will see!
Input, Relationship, Output
We will see many ways to think about functions, but there are always three
main parts:

 The input
 The relationship
 The output

Example: "Multiply by 2" is a very simple function.

Here are the three parts:

Input Relationship Output

0 ×2 0
1 ×2 2
7 ×2 14
10 ×2 20
... ... ...

For an input of 50, what is the output?

Some Examples of Functions

 x2 (squaring) is a function
 x3+1 is also a function
 Sine, Cosine and Tangent are functions used in trigonometry
 and there are lots more!
 SINE= 0, 30 , 45 ,60 ,90

But we are not going to look at specific functions ...

... instead we will look at the general idea of a function.

Names
First, it is useful to give a function a name.

The most common name is "f", but we can have other names like "g" ... or
even "marmalade" if we want.
But let's use "f":

We say "f of x equals x squared"

what goes into the function is put inside parentheses () after the name of
the function:

So f(x) shows us the function is called "f", and "x" goes in

And we usually see what a function does with the input:

f(x) = x2 shows us that function "f" takes "x" and squares it.

Example: with f(x) = x2:

 an input of 4
 becomes an output of 16.

In fact we can write f(4) = 16.

The "x" is Just a Place-Holder!

Don't get too concerned about "x", it is just there to show us where the
input goes and what happens to it.

It could be anything!

So this function:

f(x) = 1 - x + x2

Is the same function as:

 f(q) = 1 - q + q2
  h(A) = 1 - A + A2
 w(θ) = 1 - θ + θ2

The variable (x, q, A, etc) is just there so we know where to put the values:

f(2) = 1 - 2 + 22 = 3

Sometimes There is No Function Name

Sometimes a function has no name, and we see something like:

y = x2

But there is still:

 an input (x)
 a relationship (squaring)
 and an output (y)

Relating
At the top we said that a function was like a machine. But a function doesn't
really have belts or cogs or any moving parts - and it doesn't actually
destroy what we put into it!

A function relates an input to an output.

Saying "f(4) = 16" is like saying 4 is somehow related to 16. Or 4 → 16

Example: this tree grows 20 cm every year, so the height of the tree
is related to its age using the function h:

h(age) = age × 20
So, if the age is 10 years, the height is:

h(10) = 10 × 20 = 200 cm

Here are some example values:

age h(age) = age × 20

0 0
1 20
3.2 64
15 300
... ...

What Types of Things Do Functions Process?

"Numbers" seems an obvious answer, but ...

... which numbers?

For example, the tree-height function h(age) =

age×20 makes no sense for an age less than zero.
... it could also be letters ("A"→"B"), or ID codes
("A6309"→"Pass") or stranger things.

So we need something more powerful, and that is where sets come in:

A set is a collection of things.

Here are some examples:

 Set of even numbers: {..., -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, ...}

 Set of clothes: {"hat","shirt",...}
 Set of prime numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...}
 Positive multiples of 3 that are less than 10: {3, 6, 9}

Each individual thing in the set (such as "4" or "hat") is called a member,
or element.
So, a function takes elements of a set, and gives back elements of a set.

A Function is Special
But a function has special rules:

 It must work for every possible input value

 And it has only one relationship for each input value

This can be said in one definition:

Formal Definition of a Function

A function relates each element of a set

with exactly one element of another set
(possibly the same set).

The Two Important Things!

1. "...each element..." means that every element in X is related to
some element in Y.

We say that the function covers X (relates every element of it).

(But some elements of Y might not be related to at all, which is

fine.)
2. "...exactly one..." means that a function is single valued. It will
not give back 2 or more results for the same input.

So "f(2) = 7 or 9" is not right!

"One-to-many" is not allowed, but "many-to-one" is allowed:
 (one-to-many) (many-to-one)
This is NOT OK in a function But this is OK in a function

When a relationship does not follow those two rules then it is not a
function ... it is still a relationship, just not a function.

Example: The relationship x → x2

Could also be written as a table:

X: x Y: x2
3 9
1 1
0 0
4 16
-4 16
... ...

It is a function, because:

 Every element in X is related to Y

 No element in X has two or more relationships

So it follows the rules.

(Notice how both 4 and -4 relate to 16, which is allowed.)

Example: This relationship is not a function:

It is a relationship, but it is not a function, for these reasons:

 Value "3" in X has no relation in Y

 Value "4" in X has no relation in Y
 Value "5" is related to more than one value in Y

(But the fact that "6" in Y has no relationship does not matter)

Vertical Line Test

On a graph, the idea of single valued means that no vertical line ever
crosses more than one value.

If it crosses more than once it is still a valid curve, but is not a function.

Some types of functions have stricter rules, to find out more you can
read Injective, Surjective and Bijective

Infinitely Many
My examples have just a few values, but functions usually work on sets with
infinitely many elements.

Example: y = x3

 The input set "X" is all Real Numbers

 The output set "Y" is also all the Real Numbers

We can't show ALL the values, so here are just a few examples:

X: x Y: x3
 -2 -8
-0.1 -0.001
0 0
1.1 1.331
3 27
and so on... and so on...

Domain, Codomain and Range

In our examples above

 the set "X" is called the Domain,

 the set "Y" is called the Codomain, and
 the set of elements that get pointed to in Y (the actual values
produced by the function) is called the Range.

We have a special page on Domain, Range and Codomain if you want to

know more.

So Many Names!
Functions have been used in mathematics for a very long time, and lots of
different names and ways of writing functions have come about.

Here are some common terms you should get familiar with:

Example: z = 2u3:
  "u" could be called the "independent variable"
 "z" could be called the "dependent variable" (it depends on the value
of u)

Example: f(4) = 16:

 "4" could be called the "argument"

 "16" could be called the "value of the function"

Example: h(year) = 20 × year:

 h() is the function

 "year" could be called the "argument", or the "variable"
 a fixed value like "20" can be called a parameter

We often call a function "f(x)" when in fact the function is really "f"

Ordered Pairs
And here is another way to think about functions:

Write the input and output of a function as an "ordered pair", such as (4,16).

They are called ordered pairs because the input always comes first, and the
output second:

(input, output)

So it looks like this:

( x, f(x) )

Example:
 (4,16) means that the function takes in "4" and gives out "16"

Set of Ordered Pairs

A function can then be defined as a set of ordered pairs:

Example: {(2,4), (3,5), (7,3)} is a function that says

"2 is related to 4", "3 is related to 5" and "7 is related 3".

Also, notice that:

 the domain is {2,3,7} (the input values)

 and the range is {4,5,3} (the output values)

But the function has to be single valued, so we also say

"if it contains (a, b) and (a, c), then b must equal c"

Which is just a way of saying that an input of "a" cannot produce two
different results.

Example: {(2,4), (2,5), (7,3)} is not a function because {2,4} and {2,5}
means that 2 could be related to 4 or 5.

In other words it is not a function because it is not single valued

A Benefit of Ordered Pairs

We can graph them...

... because they are also coordinates!

So a set of coordinates is also a function (if they follow the rules above, that
is)

A Function Can be in Pieces

We can create functions that behave differently depending on the input
value

Example: A function with two pieces:

 when x is less than 0, it gives 5,

 when x is 0 or more it gives x2

Here are some example values:

x y
-3 5
-1 5
0 0
2 4
4 16
... ...

Read more at Piecewise Functions.

Explicit vs Implicit
One last topic: the terms "explicit" and "implicit".

Explicit is when the function shows us how to go directly from x to y, such

as:

y = x3 − 3

When we know x, we can find y

That is the classic y = f(x) style that we often work with.

Implicit is when it is not given directly such as:

x2 − 3xy + y3 = 0
 When we know x, how do we find y?

It may be hard (or impossible!) to go directly from x to y.

"Implicit" comes from "implied", in other words shown indirectly.

Graphing
 The Function Grapher can only handle explicit functions,
 The Equation Grapher can handle both types (but takes a little longer,
and sometimes gets it wrong).

Conclusion
 a function relates inputs to outputs
 a function takes elements from a set (the domain) and relates them
to elements in a set (the codomain).
 all the outputs (the actual values related to) are together called
the range
 a function is a special type of relation where:

o every element in the domain is included, and

o any input produces only one output (not this or that)
 an input and its matching output are together called an ordered pair
 so a function can also be seen as a set of ordered pairs