1

MODERN PHYSICS
1) State Planck’s quantum hypothesis.
Max Planck postulated the following assumptions.
i) the atomic oscillator in a body cannot have any arbitrary amount of energy. They have only
discrete units of energy En = n hν where n is quantum number that can take only positive integer
values n = 1, 2, 3, ... ; ν is the frequency of the oscillator and h is Planck’s constant h = 6.62 x 10
--34
Joules-sec. This equation shows that the oscillator energy is quantized.
ii) The atoms absorb or emit energy when they move from one quantum state to the other in
indivisible discrete units. The amount of radiation energy in each unit is called a ‘ quantum ‘ of
energy of radiation of that frequency. Each quantum carries an energy E = hν
The energy of each quantum is the smallest quantity of energy of radiation of that frequency. The
energy of an oscillator changes only by multiples of hν. The hypothesis that radiation energy is
emitted or absorbed in a discontinuous manner and in the form of quantum is called ‘Planck’s
hypothesis’ .

2) State the de-Broglie concept of matter waves

Electromagnetic radiation displays a dual character, behaving as a wave and a particle. Louis de
Broglie in 1923 extended the wave-particle dualism to all fundamental particles such as electrons,
protons, neutrons, atoms and molecules etc..
According to de Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle is associated with a wave which is
known as de Broglie wave or a matter wave. These waves are associated with particles like
electrons , protons, neutrons etc. The wavelength of the matter wave is given by
 = h / p = h / mv
where m is the mass of the particle, v its velocity and p its momentum. h is called Planck’s
constant given by 6.63x 10 – 34 J-sec.
Considering the Planck’s quantum theory of radiation, the energy of a photon (quantum) is given
by E = h  = h c / ……………………………………………..(1)
where c is the velocity of light,  is the frequency and  its wavelength. The radiation interacts with
matter in the form of photons or quanta. Thus the radiation behaves like a particle..
According to Einstein’s mass-energy relation E = m c2 ………………..(2)
From eqns (1) and (2) , mc2 = h c / or  = h / mc = h / p
p is the momentum associated with the photon. If we consider the case of a material particle of
mass m and moving with a velocity v i.e., momentum mv, then the wavelength associated with this
particle is
 = h / p = h/ mv ___
If E is the kinetic energy of the material particle , then E = mv / 2 = p / 2m or p =  2mE
2 2

Therefore the de Broglie wavelength of a material particle moving with momentum p is given by
_____
 = h /  2mE
In the case of electrons accelerated by a potential V volts from rest to velocity v , the E = Ve or
________
= h /  2 m0Ve
Because of the smallness of h, we observe the wave nature only for particles of atomic or nuclear
size . For ordinary objects the de Broglie wavelength is very small and so it is not possible to observe
wave nature of these macroscopic objects __.
For electrons, the de-Broglie wavelength = 12.26 /  V oA
.
3) Write a note on de-Broglie concept of matter waves
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Electromagnetic radiation displays a dual character, behaving as a wave and a particle.
Louis de Broglie in 1923 extended the wave-particle dualism to all fundamental particles such as
electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms and molecules etc..
According to de Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle is associated with a wave which is known
as de Broglie wave or a matter wave. These waves are associated with particles like electrons ,
protons, neutrons etc. The wavelength of the matter wave is given by
 = h / p = h / mv
where ‘m’ is the mass of the particle, v its velocity and p its momentum. h is called Planck’s constant
given by 6.63x 10 – 34 J-sec
Because of the smallness of h, we observe wave nature for only particles of atomic or nuclear size.
For ordinary objects the de Broglie wavelength is very small and so it is not possible to observe
wave nature of these macroscopic objects.
Properties of de-Broglie waves or matter waves
i) Matter waves consists of group of waves or a wave packet each having the wavelength  , is
associated with the particle. This group travels with the particle velocity v
ii) Each wave of the group of matter waves travels with a velocity known as phase velocity of the
wave vphase = c2 / v is greater than c
iii) Lighter is the particle, greater is its wavelength. Smaller is the velocity, greater is the
wavelength associated with it. When v = 0 then  =  which means that the wave
becomes indeterminate. This shows that matter waves are generated by the motion of the
particles.
iv) The wave and particle aspects of a moving body can never appear together in the same
experiment
v) The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of the particle because the
wave is spread out in space.

5) State and explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

The concept of dual particle and wave nature of matter leads to another important principle called
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle. In wave mechanics the particle is described in terms of a wave
packet and the particle may be found any where with in the wave packet at a given time.
The particle is located within the region x, the spread in the wave packet. Therefore there is an
uncertainty x in the position of the particle. Further the wave packet is constituted by waves having
a range of wavelengths. As the momentum of the particle is related to the wavelength ( p = h /
) , there arises an uncertainty in momentum p. The spread in wavelength  is related to the
spread in dimension x. The two uncertainties are interrelated because the spread in momentum
depends on the spread in the length of the wave packet.

The narrower the wave packet, the more precisely a particle position can be specified. . However,
the wavelength of the wave in a narrow packet is not well defined. This means that the particle’s
momentum p = h / is not a precise quantity. On the other hand, the uncertainty in the location of the
particle is more in a wide wave packet but has a clearly well defined wavelength. The momentum
that corresponds to this wavelength is therefore a precise quantity
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Thus the certainty in position involves uncertainty in momentum and conversely
certainty in momentum involves uncertainty in position. Thus we have the uncertainty principle
proposed by Heisenberg in 1927. It is one of the most significant physical laws.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: It states that it is impossible to make simultaneous
determination of the position and momentum of a particle precisely and that the product of the
uncertainties in determining the position and momentum of a particle is approximately equal
to Planck’s constant h/2.
Thus if x is the uncertainty in the determination of the position , and p is the uncertainty in
the momentum, then according to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
x . p  h/ 2 ( h = 6.63x10 –34 J-sec )
Similarly, if we wish to measure the energy E emitted during the time interval t in an atomic
process, then
E .t  h/ 2 = 1.05 x 10 --34 J.sec
Thus, it is impossible to make a simultaneous determination of the energy and the time precisely and
the product of the uncertainties in energy and time is greater than or equal to h

6) Derive time independent and time-dependent Schrodinger wave equation

Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation :
According to de Broglie theory, a moving particle of mass m is always associated with a wave whose
wavelength is given by  = h /mv. If the particle has wave properties, it is expected that there should
be some sort of wave equation which describes the behaviour of the particle. Consider a system of
stationary waves associated with a particle. Let x,y,z be the coordinates of the particle and  , the
wave displacement for the de Broglie wave at any time t. The classical differential equation of a wave
motion is
  t = v2(   x +   y +   z ) = v 2 2 ………………(1)
where 2 = x + x + x is a Laplacian operator and v is the velocity of the particle The
solution of Eqn (1) gives as a periodic displacement in terms of time t
( x,y,z,t ) = 0 (x,y,z ) e – i  t .............................. (2)
where 0 (x,y,z ) is the spatial dependent part and e –i t
is the time dependent part of the wave
function . 0 (x,y,z ) gives the amplitude at the point considered and = 2  υ is the angular frequency
of the matter wave
Eqn (2) can be expressed as ( r , t ) = 0 ( r ) e – i  t
In a time independent Schrodinger eqn, the P.E of a particle does not depend explicitly on time. It
means that the forces that act upon the particle and thereby the potential energy V changes with
position of the particle only. In such cases,. time parameter t is eliminated from the equation and the
resultant equation is called time independent wave equation
Differentiating twice with respect to t
   t 2 = -- 2 0 ( r ) e – i  t = -- 2 
Substituting the value of    t  in Eqn (1) , we have
  x +   y +   z + (2 / v 2)  = 0 ……………………(3)
But  = 2  υ = 2  v/ Hence  /v = 2 /  ………………….(4)
Substituting the value of  / v = 2 /  in Eqn (3) , we have
  x +   y +   z + (42 / 2)  = 0 ………………..(5)
From de-Broglie relation ,a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v is associated with wave
whose wavelength  = h / mv
Eqn (5) can be written as   x +   y +   z + (42 m2v2  / h2) = 0
or  + (42 / h2) m2 v2  = 0 ………………………………..(6)
If E and V are the total and potential energy of the particle respectively, then its
K.E = ½ mv2 = E –V
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2 2
m v = 2m (E -V )
Substituting this in Eqn (6)
 + (42 / h2) 2m (E -V )  = 0
or  + ( 82 m / h2) (E -V )  = 0 ………………………………..(7)
Eqn (7) is known as Schrodinger time independent wave equation.
Substituting h = h/ 2 . Eqn (7) is  + (2 m / h2) (E -V )  = 0
.
For a free particle , potential energy V = 0. Hence the Schrodinger’s time independent wave
equation for a free particle can be expressed as
 + ( 82 mE / h2 )  = 0
Schrodinger time - dependent wave equation:
In time dependent Schrodinger wave Eqn., the P.E of a moving particle is both a function of time as
well as the position of the particle. The Schrodinger time dependent wave equation may be obtained
from Schrodinger time independent wave Eqn by eliminating E.
Differentiating ( r , t ) = 0 ( r ) e – i  t with respect to t
( / t ) = -- i  0 ( r ) e – i  t = -- i ( 2  υ )  = -- ( 2  i υ )
or ( / t) = -- ( 2  i E / h)  = -- ( i E / h )  (since E = h υ )
or E = -- (h / i ) ( /t) = (i h /i ) ( /t ) = i h ( /t )
2

Substituting the value of E in the Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation, we get
 + (2 m / h2 )  i h ( /t) --V  = 0
 = -- (2 m / h2 )  i h ( /t ) --V = 0
-( h2/ 2m ) + V = i h( /t) …… Schrodinger time-dependent Eqn … .(8)
Eqn (8) can be written as
(-- h2/ 2m ) + V = i h( /t)
or H  = E …………………………………………..(9)
where H = (-- h2/ 2m ) + V is called the Hamiltonian operator and E = i h ( /t)
Eqn (9) represents the motion of a material particle in terms of Hamiltonian operator

7) Write the physical significance the wave function 

Schrodinger introduced a quantity ( x, t) that he called a ’wave function’. The varying quantity
that describes a matter wave is called the ‘wave function’ (x ,t)
The wave function  ( x , t ) = 0 e - i  t has no direct physical meaning since ( x , t ) is a
complex quantity.. The physical interpretation of the wave function was given the German physicist
Max Born. The square of the absolute value of the wave function 2 or  (  is the
complex conjugate of  ) is called the probability density. The product  is a measure of
the probability of finding the particle at that point at that time .
P (x) =  = 2
Even though the wave function  (x,t) is usually complex, the probability density will always
be a real number ( positive or zero ). A large value of 2 means a strong possibility of the
particle’s presence while a small value of 2 means a slight possibility of its presence. As long
as 2  0, there is a definite chance of the presence of the particle.dx gives probability that
the particle will be found between x and x+dx
+
  dV = 1 is called the normalization condition. It means that the particle
-- exists some where at all times in the universe
+
If   dV = 0, then the particle does not exist
−
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Besides being normalisable, the wave function should have the following properties:.
i)  must be single valued since  can have only one value at a particular place
and time
ii)  and its partial derivatives  /x, /y and  /z must be continuous
iii)  must be finite for all values of x,y and z

8) Give the quantum mechanical treatment of a particle in a box and hence obtain
the expressions for energy eigen values and eigen functions of the particles .
Let us consider the application of Schrodinger’s equation for a particle that is confined to a certain
region of space instead of being able to move freely ( free particle but confined to certain region of
space )
Consider a particle of mass m that can move only along the x-axis and bounces back and forth
between the walls of a box. We shall assume that the walls of the box are infinitely hard, so the
particle does not lose energy each time it strikes a wall .

The particle position at any instant is given by 0 x  L and the box is supposed to have walls of
infinite height at x = 0 and x = L. The walls of the box are infinite in height and rigid that the particle
cannot penetrate or escape from the box. Since the particle is a free particle, the potential energy of
the particle can be assumed to be zero between x = 0 and x = L. and infinite at x = 0 and x = L.. This
situation is called ‘particle in a box’.
In terms of the boundary conditions imposed by the problem, the potential energy function V is
V = 0 for 0  x  L
Since the barrier or wall is infinitely tall, the particle cannot penetrate a wall. In such a case, the
particle can rattle back rebounding from the wall. In quantum terms, the wave function (x) is zero
at the walls and at all points beyond the walls signifying that the probability of finding the particle in
those locations is zero.
 (x) = 0 for x  0 and x  L
Now we have to find out the magnitude of  between x = 0 and x = L within the box.. The
Schrodinger’s Eqn in one dimension is
d / dx2 + ( 82 m / h2) (E - V )  = 0 ……………………………..(1)
Within the box, the potential energy V = 0 and the Schrodinger’s Eqn becomes
d / dx2 + (82 m / h2) E  = 0 or d / dx2 + ( 2m / h2) E  = 0………………(2)
This is of the form d / dx2 + k2  = 0 and the general solution of this equation is
A sin kx + B cos kx
where A and B are the constants which are to be evaluated using the boundary conditions imposed in
the problem . The value of k2 = 82 m E / h2 and k = 2mE/ h.
The solution to Eqn (2) is ____ ____
 (x) = A sin ( 2mE / h )x + B cos ( 2mE / h )x …………………..(3)
This solution is subject to the boundary conditions imposed in the problem;
(x) = 0 for x = 0 and for x = L
When x = 0 ,the first term on RHS is zero and the second term reduces to B since cos 0 =1. This
yields B = 0 . Thus Eqn (3) reduces to
____
 (x) = A Sin ( 2mE / h )x
( x) will be zero at x = L and the term on RHS will be zero only when
____
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( 2mE/ h ) L = n  n =1,2,3 … (4)
This result comes about because the sine of the angles  2, 3 ,4 are all zero
Eigen values and eigen functions of particle in a box:
From Eqn (4) , it is clear that the energy of the particle can have only certain values. These eigen
values constitute the energy of the particle of the system.
The energy eigen values of the particle in a box are
En = n2 2 h2 / 2mL2 = n2 h2 / 8mL2 n = 1,2,3,….. ………..(5)
Since n can take only integer values, the energy is quantized.. The lowest energy state E0 corresponds
to n =1.
So E0 = 2 h2 / 2mL2 or E0 = ( h2 / 8mL2 ). This is called zero point energy
The allowed values of the energy states are E1= 4E0, E2 = 9E0, E3 =16 E0 and so on
En depends on the values on n. Each value of En is called ‘energy eigen value’ or proper value. Since
the energy is purely kinetic energy, that means only certain speeds are permitted for a particle
The wave function of a particle in a box whose energy is En is
_____
n = A sin ( 2mEn / h ) x …………………………….(6)
Substituting for En from Eqn (5)
_______________
n = A sin (2m n2 2 h2 / 2mL2 ) / h ) x = A sin (n x / L) ………..(7)
n are called the ‘eigen functions’ corresponding to the energy eigen values En.
These wave functions meet all the requirements i) for each quantum number n, the wave function n
is single valued function of x and ii)n and dn /dx are continuous. Applying the normalization
condition between x = 0 and1, we have
+ L L
 n2 dx =  A2 sin 2 (n x /L) dx = A2  (½)  ( 1 -- Cos 2 (n x /L) dx
- 0 0
L
= (A /2)  x – (L / 2 n) Sin 2(n x /L) = (A2 /2 )(L) = A2 L / 2
2
0

It is certain that the particle is somewhere inside the box. Hence for a normalized wave function
______
____ L L ____
  dx =   dx = 1 or A2L / 2 = 1 or A =  2 /L
0 0

The normalized wave functions of the particle in a box are

___
n =  2/L sin (nx /L ) n = 1,2,3, ……..
The normalized wave functions 1, 2, 3… with the probability densities12, 2 2, 32 are
shown in Fig 2
n │n│
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While n may be negative as well as positive,n  is always positive and since n is
2

normalized, its value at a given x is equal to the probability density P of finding the particle there. In
every case n2 = 0 at x = 0 and x = L, the boundaries of the box.
We see that the lowest permitted energy of the particle is not zero but that corresponds to n=1.
This lowest energy is called the zero point energy of the particle in the potential well

9) Distinguish between Maxwell-Boltzman, Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac

statistics
Maxwell-Boltzman Bose – Einstein statistics Fermi – Dirac statistics

Deals with a system of Deals with a system of identical Deals with a system of identical
identical particles that are particles that cannot be particles that cannot be
sufficiently far apart to be distinguished from one another distinguished from one another
distinguishable
Deals with classical Deals with Bosons such as Deals with Fermions such as
particles like molecules of photons,  - particles, Electrons, protons , neutrons
a gas and neutrinos
Particles of any spin Particles of integral spin Particles of half-integral spin
0 h, 1h , 2 h , 3 h,…. ½ h, (3/2) h, (5/2) h…
No limit on the number of Does not obey Pauli Exclusion Obeys Pauli Exclusion
particles per state Principle. No limit on the principle. Not more than one
number of particles per state. particle per quantum state.
The wave functions are Wave functions are
symmetric to interchange antisymmetric to interchange
of a pair of particles of pair of particles

fMB = A e --E / kT fBE = 1/ (A e E / kT -- 1 ) f FD = 1 / e ( E -- E ) / kT

F + 1