UNIT III

Sensing and Actuation

Definition of Sensor
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment. The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure or any number of other
environmental phenomena.

Sensor features or Characteristics

The static accuracy of a sensor indicates how much the sensor signal correctly represents the
measured quantity after it stabilizes (i.e. beyond the transient period.)

Important static characteristics of sensors include sensitivity, resolution, linearity, zero drift
and full-scale drift, range, repeatability and reproducibility.

• Sensitivity is a measure of the change in output of the sensor relative to a unit change in
the input (the measured quantity.) Example: The speakers you purchase for your home
entertainment may have a rated sensitivity of 89 dB Signal Pressure Level per Watt per
meter.
• Resolution is the smallest amount of change in the input that can be detected and
accurately indicated by the sensor. Example: What is the resolution of an ordinary ruler?
Of a Vernier Calipers?
• Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the
output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions. Its degree of
resemblance to a straight line describes the linearity.
• Drift is the deviation from a specific reading of the sensor when the sensor is kept at that
value for a prolonged period of time. The zero drift refers to the change in sensor output
if the input is kept steady at a level that (initially) yields a zero reading. Similarly, the full
-scale drift is the drift if the input is maintained at a value which originally yields a full
scale deflection. Reasons for drift may be extraneous, such as changes in ambient
pressure, humidity, temperature etc., or due to changes in the constituents of the sensor
itself, such as aging, wear etc.
• The range of a sensor is determined by the allowed lower and upper limits of its input or
output. Usually, the range is determined by the accuracy required.
• Repeatability is defined as the deviation between measurements in a sequence when the
object under test is the same and approaches its value from the same direction each time.
The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so as not to allow
 significant long-term drift. Repeatability is usually specified as a percentage of the sensor
range.
• Reproducibility is the same as repeatability, except it also incorporates long time lapses
between subsequent measurements. The sensor has to be operation between
measurements, but must be calibrated. Reproducibility is specified as a percentage of the
sensor range per unit of time.

The dynamic characteristics of a sensor represent the time response of the sensor system.
Knowledge of these is essential to fruitfully use a sensor. Important common dynamic responses
of sensors include rise time, delay time, peak time, settling time percentage error and
steady-state error. These are defined following figure 2.7 which shall be used to represent them
graphically.

Figure: Sensor Response Characteristics

• Rise time is the time it takes a sensor to pass between 10% to 90% of the steady state
response.
• Delay time is the time it takes to reach 50% of the steady state value for the first time.
• Peak time is the time it takes to reach the maximum reading for the first time for a given
excitement.
• Settling time is the time it takes the sensor to settle down to within a certain percentage
of the steady state value (say � 1%).
• The percentage overshoot is a measure of the peak minus the steady state value,
expressed as a percentage of the ssv.
• Steady-state error is the deviation of the actual steady-state value from the desired
value. It can be corrected by calibration.
Two other terms are used to describe sensor behavior, and shall be described here. These are
accuracy and precision.

The accuracy of a system is the difference between the actual and the measured value. The
distinction between accuracy and resolution is important. While resolution is the smallest change
in measurement value that can be indicated, the accuracy is determined by the actual indication
of the sensor and the real value of the measured entity. Thus while resolution depends solely on
the sensor hardware, the accuracy is a function of the sensor hardware as well as the
measurement environment and other extraneous factors that modify the sensor behavior.

The precision is a statistical measure. It is usually indicated by the standard deviation (or
variance) of a set of readings of the sensor for the same input. The distinction between accuracy
and precision is clarified by the following figure.

Figure: Illustration of Accuracy and Precision. The center of the target represents the desired
'true' value.

Resolution
Resolution is the smallest amount of change in the input that can be detected and accurately
indicated by the sensor. There are four types
 • Spatial Resolution
• Spectral Resolution
• Temporal
• Radiometric

Spatial Resolution

“A measure of the smallest angular or linear separation between two objects that can be resolved
by the sensor”.
• Resolving power is the ability to perceive two adjacent objects as being distinct
– size
– distance
– shape
– color
– contrast characteristics
– sensor characteristics

Spectral Resolution

• The width and number of spectral intervals in the electromagnetic spectrum to which a
remote sensing instrument is sensitive
• Allows characterization based on geophysical parameters (chemistry, mineralogy, etc.)

Temporal Resolution

The frequency of data acquisition over an area

• Depend on:

– the orbital parameters of the satellite

– latitude of the target

– swath width of the sensor

– pointing ability of the sensor

Multi-temporal imagery is important for – infrequent observational opportunities (e.g., when

clouds often obscure the surface)

– short-lived phenomenon (floods, oil spills etc.)

– rapid-response (fires, hurricanes)

– detecting changing properties of a feature to distinguish it from otherwise similar features

Radiometric Resolution
Number of digital levels that a sensor can use to express variability of brightness within the data

• Determines the information content of the image

• The more levels, the more detail can be Expressed

Determined by the number of bits of within which the digital information is encoded

22 = 4 levels

28 = 256 levels

212 = 4096 levels

Classes
The general classes include electrical, electrochemical, optical, mass sensitive, and acoustic.
Among these classes, electrochemical and optical sensors are prevalent, and have been used
elsewhere and well demonstrated.

• Passive & Active

• Analog & digital

• Scalar & vector

1. Passive Sensor –

Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer (The accelerometer works on the
movement or the vibration of the body.), soil moisture (The Soil Moisture Sensor uses
capacitance to measure dielectric permittivity of the surrounding medium.), water level (when
the sensor is put into a certain depth in the liquid to be calculated, the pressure on the sensor's
front surface is converted into the water level height) and temperature sensors (the voltage across
the terminals of the diode).

2. Active Sensor –

Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.

3. Analog Sensor –

The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input parameter. Ex-
Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.

4. Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors. Along with
the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion. Example – Passive
infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).

5. Scalar sensor –

Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor is a function
of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input parameters.

Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.

6. Vector sensor –

The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation of input
parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector sensors.

Types of sensors –

• Electrical sensor
• Light sensor
• Touch sensor
• Range sensing
• Mechanical sensor
• Pneumatic sensor
• Optical sensor
• Speed Sensor
• Temperature Sensor
• PIR Sensor
• Ultrasonic Sensor
1. Temperature: Beginning with the most common type of sensor, the temperate sensor records
the amount of heat in a given setting. It can be a machine, a room, a car, a lab, etc. This
information can be used to take the desired action, like changing the temperature to optimal
settings. The same can be automated according to some specific environmental conditions and
settings.

2. Moisture: Where temperature sensors record the heat, moisture sensors record the amount of
humidity. They have a wide array of applications in the environment, food supply chains,
medicinal labs, agriculture, etc. Moisture sensors either have a hair tension moisture element or a
psychrometer to record the moisture content.

3. Light: Light sensors record and assess the ambient light settings in a defined area and
recommend actions to change the same. In your smartphone, when the brightness is adjusted
according to the exposure to light, the light sensor and the electrical actuator play their part. In
the modern homes that have automated light settings, these sensors are used.

4. Motion: Motion sensors are usually installed in security systems and help detect unauthorized
activity. Upon sensing activity either by changes in the heat or weight, the sensor activates an
alarm system sending notifications to the right people. Motion IoT sensors use radar, infrared, or
ultrasonic waves to detect activity in their vicinity.

5. Noise: Noise sensors, as the name suggests, record the noise levels in the given environment.
It can be an entire city, a room, a car, etc. In IoT, these sensors are used to build safe working and
living environments for people. They are also used to send warning notifications to the right
people when noise levels go beyond the stipulated threshold limit.

6. Proximity: Motion sensors and proximity sensors can be kept in the same basket, as the
majority of their functions are similar. These sensors record activity nearby with the help of
electromagnetic waves, including infrared. They are used in cars, parking lots, retail stores,
stadiums, airports, and in several other places to notify the people about their proximity to
different components.

7. Level: From granular materials to semi-solid liquids, level sensors detect the quantity or level
of different substances. Manufacturing industries, particularly beverage, water treatment, and
waste management organizations, have the best use of level sensors.

8. Accelerometers: Accelerometers are an impressive type of IoT sensor used to record and
measure an object’s acceleration. These types of sensors record the rate of change of an object’s
speed in relation to time. Plus, they have the added advantage of recording changes in gravity.
They can be popularly used in driving fleets and smart pedometers or to detect movement in a
stationary object, helping to identify theft.

9. Gas: Gas sensors are used to detect changes in air quality. These sensors are built to detect the
presence of toxic, combustible, and other hazardous gasses in a given area. Most of the time, we
see the installation of this type of sensor in mining, oil, gas, and energy organizations. However,
they are also installed in smart homes and buildings to detect levels of CO2, carbon monoxide,
particulate matter, etc.

10. Optical: Optical sensors have several use cases but have become an important part of
driverless cars. These sensors are used to detect signals and signs to provide information about
the surrounding environment. In a driverless car, these sensors are used to detect objects and
signs on the road, send the signals to the central control unit and dictate a change in behavior if
required.

11. Gyroscope: These sensors are used to measure the velocity of a moving object. Velocity
refers to the speed and rotation of an object around its axis. Gyroscope sensors are commonly
used in car navigation systems and in stability control systems.

12. Chemical: We can put chemical sensors and gas sensors in the same category. With these
sensors, we can expect measurements and detection of several types of chemicals. To build IoT
solutions in a factory setting, these sensors can play an important role in ensuring workers' safety
and that of the environment.

Sensors measure and record the elements they are built to do based on their sensitivity, drift,
linearity, resolution, range, precision, and accuracy. The IoT sensors built with these
characteristics can provide accurate information.
Actuation (Actuators in IoT)
An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the mechanism of the
system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the
actuators according to the actions needed to perform.

A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a
given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and
make the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.

The following diagram shows what actuators do; the controller directs the actuator based on the
sensor data to do the work.
Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy
and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a
mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types given
below.

Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators –

A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated
by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory
motion, according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic
actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.

Advantages :

• Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
• Used in welding, clamping, etc.
• Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :

• Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
• It is expensive.
• It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.

2. Pneumatic Actuators –

A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to
convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like
human fingers by using compressed air.
Advantages :

• They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a
safer option than chemicals.
• They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
• It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
Disadvantages :

• Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.

• The air compressor should be running continuously.
• Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.
3. Electrical Actuators –

An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts electrical
energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based electric
bell.

Advantages :

• It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.

• It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
• It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
Disadvantages :

• It is expensive.
• It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are –

Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –

These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or Magnetic
Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a thermal/magnetic
actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.

Mechanical Actuators –

A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear motion. It
involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example – A crankshaft.

• Soft Actuators
• Shape Memory Polymers
• Light Activated Polymers
With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in commercial and
domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.
Purpose of Sensors and Actuators in IoT
Sensors and actuators often work in tandem, but they are essentially opposite devices.

• A sensor monitors conditions and signals when changes occur.

• An actuator receives a signal and performs an action, often in the form of movement in a
mechanical machine.

What is the purpose of Sensors in IoT?

Sensors play a critical role in the IoT ecosystem. They enable the collection and transmission of
real-time data, which is used to monitor and control various systems, optimize operations, and
improve decision-making.

What is the purpose of actuators in IoT?

In short, it is the part of any machine that makes movement possible. In IoT, an actuator is
responsible for the physical movement of an object. It can be a device that can move things and
is powered using different sources such as the battery, electric, or manually-generated energy.