1.

3 DATA COMMUNICATION

1- Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or

information
2- In case of computer networks this exchange is done between
two devices over a transmission medium.
3- This process involves a communication system which is made
up of hardware and software. The hardware part involves the
sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices
through which the data passes. The software part involves
certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it
is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.

1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends

upon the following four fundamental characteristics:
3
1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct
destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data
accurately, without introducing any errors. The data may get
corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a
timely manner without any delay; such a data delivery is called
real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter
may affect the timeliness of data being transmitted.

1.3.2 Components of Data Communication

A Data Communication system has five components as

shown in the diagram below:
Fig. Components of a Data Communication System
1. Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to
the receiver.
2. Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data
(message).
3. Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the
data (message).
4. Transmission Medium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver.
It can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
5. Protocol
It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and
receiver to communicate data.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without
which the communicating entities are like two persons trying
to talk to each other in a different language without know the
other language.

STANDARDS IN NETWORKING
Standards are necessary in networking to ensure
interconnectivity and interoperability between various
networking hardware and software components.
Without standards we would have proprietary products
creating isolated islands of users which cannot interconnect.

1.7.1 Concept of Standard

Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and

vendors to ensure national and international
interconnectivity.
Data communications standards are classified into two
categories:
1. De facto Standard
o These are the standards that have been traditionally
used and mean by fact or by convention
o These standards are not approved by any organized
body but are adopted by widespread use.
2. De jure standard
o It means by law or by regulation.
o These standards are legislated and approved by
an body that is officially recognized.

1.7.2 Standard Organizations in field of Networking

9
oStandards are created by standards creation committees,
forums, and government regulatory agencies.
oExamples of Standard Creation Committees :
1. International Organization for Standardization(ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union –
Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)
o Examples of Forums
1. ATM Forum
2. MPLS Forum
3. Frame Relay Forum
o Examples of Regulatory Agencies:
1. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)

Line Configuration in Computer Networks

A network is two or more devices connected through a link. A link is a

communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another. Devices can
be a computer,
printer, or any other device that is capable to send and receive data. For
visualization purposes, imagine any link as a line drawn between two points.

For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same
link at the same time. There are two possible types of connections:

Point-to-Point Connection
Multipoint Connection

Point-to-Point Connection:

A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.

The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect
the two ends, but other options such as microwave or satellite links are also
possible.
Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most
conventional networks
topologies.
It is also the simplest to establish and understand.
Example: Point-to-Point connection between the remote control and Television for
changing the channels.

Advantages of Point-to-Point Connection:

High Bandwidth:
Security:
Reliability
Distance
Cost-Effective
Easy to manage

Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Connection:

Cost
Scalability
Maintenance

Multipoint Connection :

It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection, two or more devices

share a single link.
If more than two devices share the link then the channel is considered a ‘shared
channel’. With shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line
configuration:

Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, it’s called
Spatially shared line configuration.

Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link, then it’s called
Temporally shared or Time Shared Line configuration.

Advantages of Multipoint Connection:

Cost Effective
Scalability
Flexibility
Increased Efficiency
Increased Security

Disadvantages of Multipoint Connection:

Limited Bandwidth
Latency
Relaibility
Complexity
Interference

TOPOLOGY FROM PRESENTATION

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex)

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as
a communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow
communication to occur between individual devices that are interconnected.

There are three types of transmission mode:-

1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.
The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input,
the monitor can only give the output.

Advantages:

Easiest and most reliable

Most Cost Effective mode
Used where feedback and response are not required

Disadvantages:

Only one-way communication is possible.

Not suitable for applications that require bidirectional communication.

Half-Duplex Mode –

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in
both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent
in both directions.

Advantages:

Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication.

Is less expensive than full-duplex mode.

Disadvantages:

Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode

Lots of Interruption.

3. Full-Duplex Mode –

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In

full_duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity
of the link with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two
ways:

Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
sending and the other for receiving.
Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantages:

Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication.

It is the most efficient mode of communication.

Disadvantages:

Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode.

It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes.

Categories of network:

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and
applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly

of four types:

LAN(Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically

within a range of 10 meters.
Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use
is known as Personal Area Network.
Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are
the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

Wired Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by

simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range
network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the
USB.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

WAN(Wide Area Network)

A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries.
A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

OSI Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves
through a physical medium to the software application in another computer.
OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model
for the inter-computer communications.
OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers are given below:

Physical Layer (it provides a physical medium through which bits are transmitted)
Data-Link Layer (it is used for error free transfer of data frames)
Network Layer (it is responsible for moving the packet from source to the
destination)
Transport Layer (it provides reliable message delivery from process to process)
Session Layer (it is used to establish, manage and terminate the sessions)
Presentation Layer (it is responsible for translational, compression encryption)
Application Layer (the layer provides services to the user)

TCP/IP model

The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers
of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single
layer called the application layer.
TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.

The TCP/IP model consists of five layers:

application layer
transport layer
network layer
data link layer
physical layer.

Transmission of Digital Data :

Interface and Modems

Digital Data Transmission:

Parallel Transmission:
■ Groups of n bits
■ Send one group at one time
■ Use n wires to send n bits

■ Advantage
– Speed

■ Disadvantage
– Cost (n wires to transmit n bits)
– Limited to short distances

Serial Transmission:

■ One bit at one time

■ Requires only one wire
■ Requires conversion devices at the interface
between
– The sender and the line (parallel to serial)
– The line and the receiver (serial to parallel)

■ Advantage
– Low cost

Synchronous:

– Bit streams is combined into longer “frame”

– A frame may consist of multiple bytes
– No gap between each byte is added into a transmission
link
– The receiver has to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding purpose
– Timing is important in synchronous transmission
– Byte synchronization is performed at the data link layer

Asynchronous:

– The timing of signal is unimportant

– Information is retrieved and translated upon
pattern
– Patterns : grouping bit streams into bytes
■ Each group (usually 8) is sent as a unit – The sending device sends each group
without
regard to a timer
DTE-DCE Interface
■ DTE : Data Terminal Equipment
■ DCE : Data Circuit-terminating Equipment

DTE-DCE Interface
■ Sending End
■ The DTE
– generates the data and passes them to a DCE
■ The DCE
– converts the signal to a format appropriate to a
transmission medium
– Sends it onto the network
■ Receiving End
– This process is reversed

DTE
■ Includes any unit that functions as a source or a destination for binary data
■ At the physical layer, it can be
– A terminal
– A computer
– A printer
– A fax machine, etc.
■ DTEs do not communicate with other DTEs.

DCE
■ Includes any functional units that transmits
or receives analog/digital signal through a
network
At the physical layer, ex. Modems
■ Sending and receiving DCEs must use the
modulating method (e.g. FSK)

Modems
■ Modulator/demodulator
■ Modulator
– Converts a digital signal into an analog signal
using ASK, FSK, PSK or QAM
■ Demodulator
– Converts an analog signal into a digital signal

Modems
■ Voice based dial up modems
■ Dial a phone number to connect to an ISP
■ operated on Analog phone lines
■ used same frequency as telephone calls
■ maximum data rate upto 56 Kbps
■ voice calls interrupt the internet connection

Cable Modems
■ Cable Modems has TWO interfaces
■ Cable Modem speed 10 or 100 MBPS
■ Cable Modem Termination System(CMTS)
■ Introduced in 1995
■ Standardised called
- Data Over Cable Services Interface
Specification(DOCSIS)
■ DOCSIS 1.0 provides Two way data service 27-56 Mbps Downstream 3MBps upstream

Types of Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between
the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which
data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified
into the following types:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links.
Features:

High Speed
Secure
Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Twisted Pair is of two types:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type of
cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:

⇢ Least expensive

⇢ Easy to install

⇢ High-speed capacity

Disadvantages:

⇢ Susceptible to external interference

⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Applications:

Used in telephone connections and LAN networks

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil
shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet
and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:

⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

⇢ Eliminates crosstalk

⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:

⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

⇢ More expensive

⇢ Bulky

Applications:

The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold
climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for
withstanding such temperatures or for shielding the interior components.

(ii) Coaxial Cable –

It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable
TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:

High Bandwidth
Better noise Immunity
Easy to install and expand
Inexpensive
Disadvantages:

Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

Applications:

Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable
television signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network
connections (like Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and
receivers to their antennas.

(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –

It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called
the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.

The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division

Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:

Increased capacity and bandwidth

Lightweight
Less signal attenuation
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
Difficult to install and maintain
High cost
Fragile
Applications:

Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.

Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
interior and exterior of automobiles.

2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features:

The signal is broadcasted through air

Less Secure
Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

(i) Radio waves –

These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios
and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to
be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional
to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used
for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

microwave transmission
Microwave Transmission

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz.
It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

Transmission media
Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal
decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal.
This type of distortion is examined from different signals having different
frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed, so they reach
at a different time which leads to the delay distortion.
Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is
added to it which creates the noise.
Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

Transmission media

Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal
decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal.
This type of distortion is examined from different signals having different
frequencies.
Each frequency component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a
different time which leads to the delay distortion.
Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is
added to it which creates the noise.

Performance of Transmission Medium:

The performance of Transmission medium can be measured with Throughput, Propagation

Speed, and Propagation Time.

Throughput:

The measurement of how many bits pass through a point in once second, is known as
throughput. The result shows how fast data passes.

Propagation Time:

The time required for a signal or bit to travel from one point to another is
Propagation Time. The signal travels from one point of the transmission medium to
another.

Calculate Propagation Time using the following formulae:

propogation time= distance/ propogation speed

Propagation Speed:

The distance a signal or bit travels through a transmission medium in one second.
For electromagnetic signals, the propagation medium depends on the medium and
frequency of the signal.

Wavelength:

Wavelength is a measure of distance a signal can travel in a period. It is the

distance between corresponding points.
The units of wavelength are meter, centimeters, etc.

The Wavelength depends on frequency and medium.

Frequency and Wavelength are inversely related to each other.

wavelength(lamda)= propogation speed(c)/ frequency(f).

Shannon Capacity:

Shannon Capacity, named after Claude Shannon, since he introduced it.

Claude Shannon was an American electrical engineer, mathematician and properly

known as “the father of information theory”.
Shannon cappacity(C)= B log2 (1+S/N).
S- signal power in watts
N- noise power in watts

Telwphony:

Telephony is the field of technology involving the development, application, and

deployment of telecommunication services for the purpose of
electronic transmission of voice, fax, or data, between distant parties.

Network Congestion Definition:

Network congestion refers to a reduction in quality of service (QOS) that causes

packet loss, queueing delay, or the blocking of new connections. Typically, network
congestion occurs in cases of traffic overloading when a link or network node is
handling data in excess of its capacity.

To avoid collapse and reduce the effects of congestion in the network,

organizations use various congestion avoidance and congestion control methods.
These include:

TCP/IP window reduction

Fair queueing in network devices such as routers, switches, and other devices
Priority schemes which transmit higher priority packets ahead of other traffic
Explicit network resource allocation via admission controls toward specific flows

How to solve network congestion problems

Traffic and bandwidth monitoring
Segmenting and prioritizing

Data Encryption Standard:

DES is a block cipher with a 56-bit key length.

It takes plain text in 64-bit blocks and converts them into ciphertext using 48-
bit keys.
DES supports 72 quadrillion or more possible encryption keys. For each message,
the key is chosen at random from among this enormous number of possible keys.
DES was adopted in 1977 for government agencies to protect sensitive data. It was
officially retired in 2005.
DES has been found vulnerable to very powerful attacks.
Its short key length of 56 bits makes it too insecure for modern applications.