CONTROL SYSTEM

Need of Compensation =>

1) In order to provide a suitable performance, it is required to adjust the control system
design.
2) This adjustment of a control system is called compensation.
3) A device is inserted into the system for the purpose of satisfying the specification, this
device is called a compensator.
4) Control system are designed to perform specific tasks, given a plant with transfer function
G(s), the objective is to design an overall system to meet a set a specification. The
requirements imposed on the control system are generally related to accuracy, relative
stability and speed of response
5) compensators are used to obtain desired response of a system
6)used to stabilize unstable system
7) it explains how much compensation is required to get desired response

Lag Compensator
Definition: A lag compensator is a circuit that is designed to generate a steady-state
sinusoidal signal having a phase lag to the applied input sinusoidal signal. This can also be
stated in a way that it is a circuit that is when provided with a sinusoidal input produces a
sinusoidal output signal whose phase lags the applied input.

Effect of Phase Lag Compensation

1. Gain crossover frequency increases.
2. Bandwidth decreases.
3. Phase margin will be increase.
4. Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time
and the settling time become larger.
Advantages of Lag Compensator

1. A phase lag network offers high gain at low frequency. Thus, it performs the
function of a low pass filter.
2. The introduction of this network increases the steady-state performance of the
system.
3. The lag network offers a reduction in bandwidth and this provides longer rise
time and settling time and so the transient response.
Disadvantages of Lag Compensator

1. In lag compensator, the attenuation offered by it shifts the gain crossover

frequency to a lower point, thereby decreasing the bandwidth.
2. Though the system response is longer due to decreased bandwidth; however,
the response is quite slow.
3. A control system with a lag network shows more sensitivity towards variation
in the parameters than a system with a lead network.
4. Like in lead compensator, in lag compensator also, due to the addition of
external network, some attenuation is introduced. So, the overall gain must be
increased to handle the attenuation. But this will increase the requirement of
more elements and so the cost and space requirement.
5. A lad compensator somewhat acts as a proportional plus integral
controller hence adversely affects the stability of the system.
Lead Compensator

Definition: A lead compensator is an electrical circuit that when provided with a sinusoidal
input generates a sinusoidal signal as output with a phase lead in comparison to that of the
applied sinusoidal signal. It is also known as lead network.
Advantages of Lead Compensator

1. As we have discussed that lead compensator introduces a dominant zero and a

pole to the transfer function. Hence this improves damping of the overall
system.
2. The enhanced damping of the system supports less overshoot along with less
rise time and settling time. Therefore, the transient response gets improved.
3. The addition of lead network improves phase margin.
4. A system with lead network provides a quick response as it increases
bandwidth thereby providing a faster response.
5. Lead networks do not disturb the steady-state error of the system.
6. It maximizes the velocity constant of the system.
Disadvantages of Lead Compensator

1. The introduction of the lead network in the system adds some attenuation to
it. Thus, to compensate the attenuation there must be an additional gain
enhancement. But with an increase in gain, the requirement of more element
increases. This leads to cause cost enhancement as well as more weight and
greater space.
2. The lead network reduces the overshoot, this increases the conditions of
undershoot. This sometimes makes the system conditionally stable.
3. A single lead network offers a lead angle of about 60°. Thus, for the higher lead
of around 70 to 90° multiple lead compensator is required to be added with
the system.
4. The lead network increases bandwidth but with increased bandwidth, the
system becomes more susceptible to noise.
Effect of Phase Lead Compensation
1. The velocity constant Kv increases.
2. The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so
that relative stability improves and error decrease due to error is directly
proportional to the slope.
3. Phase margin increases.
4. Response becomes faster.

The lead compensator provides phase lead at high frequencies. This shifts the root locus to
the left, which enhances the responsiveness and stability of the system. The lag
compensator provides phase lag at low frequencies which reduces the steady state error.

Advantages of Phase Lag Lead Compensation

1. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the system increases because
it shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.

2. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is improved.

 Pole-zero plot of lag-lead compensator

Explain the need of controllers and compensators in control system

A controller is an element whose role is to maintain a physical quantity in a desired level.
For example, we have a Temperature controller, pH controller, speed control, PID controller.
In other words, aim of controller design is to reduce the error between the reference and
the output signal which is feedback to the controller with input (reference) signal.
A compensator: modification of system dynamics, to improve characteristics of the open-
loop plant so that it can safely be used with feedback control. For example, to improve
stability, uncouple a system, to a 'lead/lag compensator, phase compensator. In case of
Lead and Lag compensator which are often designed to satisfy phase and gain margins,
these bode plot of the system itself changes after the insertion of compensator, bode plot
indirectly represents system dynamics.
If we want to add a dominating zero for compensation in control system then we have to
select lead compensation network.

With single lag or lead compensation may not satisfied design specifications. For an unstable
uncompensated system, lead compensation provides fast response but does not provide
enough phase margin whereas lag compensation stabilise the system but does not provide
enough bandwidth. So, we need multiple compensators in cascade.

Time domain specifications

Frequency Domain Specifications
The frequency domain specifications are resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth.
Resonant frequency
It is the frequency at which the magnitude of the frequency response has peak value for the
first time. It is denoted by ωr. At ω=ωr the first derivate of the magnitude of T(jω) is zero.
Resonant Peak
It is the peak (maximum) value of the magnitude of T(jω). It is denoted by Mr

Bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies over which, the magnitude of T(jω) drops to 70.7% from its zero-
frequency value.
BODE plot
Effect of adding poles and zeros can be quickly determined by bode plot
Pole to CLTF
As pole moves towards the origin in s plane, rise time increases and maximum overshoot
decreases
Addition of left half pole slows down system response
Effect of addition of pole becomes more pronounced as pole locstion drifts away from
imaginary axis
Addition of right half pole makes overall system less stable
Zero to CLTF
Makes overall system response faster
Rise time and peak time decrease but overshoot increases
Addition of right half zero makes overall system response more stable

Polar plot
NYQUIST PLOT
Nyquist Stability Criterion
The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are P
poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the
corresponding G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin P−Ztimes. So, we can write the number
of encirclements N as,
N=P−Z
• If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of
the encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the
enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.
 • If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of
the encirclement in the G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of
the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.

Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about the

critical point (1+j0) must be equal to the poles of characteristic equation, which
is nothing but the poles of the open loop transfer function in the right half of
the ‘s’ plane.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross over frequency
and gain cross over frequency is listed below.
• If the phase cross over frequency ωpcis greater than the gain cross over
frequency ωgc, then the control system is stable.
• If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over
frequency ωgc then the control system is marginally stable.
• If phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is unstable.
ROOT LOCUS
The advantages of root locus are as follows:

o We can analyse the absolute stability of the system with the help of a root locus plot.
o Using the magnitude and angle conditions, we can find the limiting value of the system
gain K for any point on the root locus.
o Enhances system designing with better accuracy.
o It helps in analysing the stability of the system with time delay.
o Root locus plots help us determine the gain margin, relative stability, phase margin,
and the system's settling time.
o The root locus technique is easy to implement as compared to other techniques in the
control system.
o It helps in analysing the performance of the control system.

Disadvantages
It is difficult to analyse stability for non-linear system
It does not provide an accurate representation of transient response of a system
It does not provide an accurate representation of frequency response of a system

ROUTH HURWITZ
Advantages of Routh- Hurwitz Criterion
1. We can find the stability of the system without solving the equation.
2. We can easily determine the relative stability of the system.
3. By this method, we can determine the range of K for stability.
4. By this method, we can also determine the point of intersection for root locus with an
imaginary axis.

Limitations of Routh- Hurwitz Criterion

1. This criterion is applicable only for a linear system.
2. It does not provide the exact location of poles on the right and left half of the S plane.
3. In case of the characteristic equation, it is valid only for real coefficients.
4. Consider the following characteristic Polynomial
5.

6. When the coefficients a0, a1, ......................an are all of the same sign, and none is
zero.
7. Step 1: Arrange all the coefficients of the above equation in two rows:
8.

9. Step 2: From these two rows we will form the third row:
10.

11. Step 3: Now, we shall form fourth row by using second and third row:
 12.

13. Step 4: We shall continue this procedure of forming a new rows:

Stability criterion

1. All the coefficients of the equation should have the same sign.
2. There should be no missing term.

System:

1. Stable System: If all the roots of the characteristic equation lie on the left half of the
'S' plane then the system is said to be a stable system.
2. Marginally Stable System: If all the roots of the system lie on the imaginary axis of the
'S' plane then the system is said to be marginally stable.
3. Unstable System: If all the roots of the system lie on the right half of the 'S' plane then
the system is said to be an unstable system.

SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

Block Diagram Reduction Technique: A block diagram is a diagrammatic representation of

the cause-and-effect relationship between the input and output of a physical system
represented by the flow of signals. Block Diagram Reduction Technique gives the
relationship that exists between various components of a system. The open-loop and the
closed-loop systems can be represented by using the block diagram reduction technique.
The advantages of block diagram representation are:

1. It facilitates easier representation of complex systems.

2. Calculation of transfer function by block diagram reduction techniques is easy.
3. Performance analysis of a complex system is simplified by determining its
transfer function.
4. It facilitates easier access of individual elements in a system that is represented
by a block diagram.
5. It facilitates visualization of operation of the whole system by the flow of
signals.

Disadvantages of Block Reduction Technique

The disadvantages of block diagram representation are:

1. It is difficult to determine the actual composition of individual elements in a

system.
2. Representation of a system using block diagram is not unique.
3. The main source of signal flow cannot be represented definitely in a block
diagram
OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
TRANSFER FUNCTION

PROPERTIES
Laplace transform of its impulse response at zero initial condition
Can be determined by taking ratio of o/p Laplace transform to i/p Laplace transform