Scientific Research Methods Dr. Engr.

Bien Maunahan

CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

A theoretical framework, or only a framework, is used to guide an interpretive study

while a hypothesis is tested in a causal study. In both cases, the researcher needs to review
the literature to:
• Develop the framework or hypothesis
• Discover productive ways to improve the methodology and data analysis
• Familiarize himself with previous findings

STAGES OF LITERATURE

There are two stages in a literature review:

• The preliminary review

• Detailed review

The first stage is the preliminary review. The aim is to identify the research gap and
justification for the study, which was discussed in Chapter 2

The objective of the comprehensive review, which constitutes the second phase, is to
formulate a framework or hypothesis. In this instance, the literature review should not "cover
the field" or generate a "shopping list" of works authored by various authors. An extensive
literature review is unnecessary, particularly if it encompasses tangential works. Reviewing
the fundamental concepts is adequate for constructing the framework or causal mechanism.

Conducting a literature review can also serve as a valuable opportunity to identify

effective research methodologies that capitalize on the findings of prior investigations.
Consider the case of validating a hypothesis, for instance. Upon this, you should conduct a
comprehensive review of the operationalization (measured) of concepts, sampling
procedures, data sources, processing methodologies, and analytical approaches.

The fundamental objective of the literature review is to familiarize oneself with prior
research in order to facilitate a comparison of one's own findings. Local contexts must be
taken into account for the comparison to make meaning.

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It is good practice to summarize each book or journal paper on a card or a piece of A4

size paper. Then, you can alphabetize the cards and sheets to form the references
(bibliography).

It is more efficient to review the latest publications first rather than start from older
publications. The more recent publications would have reviewed earlier studies.

FRAMEWORK

Utilizing a framework comparable to role theory in the field of construction project

management provides a comprehensive viewpoint for undertaking a literature review that
incorporates the varied relationships, responsibilities, and behaviors of stakeholders involved
in construction projects.

Comparable to men's complicated societal duties, construction project stakeholders

exemplify unique functions and roles. Project managers, architects, engineers, contractors,
clients, regulatory bodies, and local communities are examples of these stakeholders. Every
stakeholder is entrusted with distinct obligations and expectations within the structure of the
agreement. An example of a role that reflects the complex obligations observed in societal
positions is that of project managers, who supervise project implementation, allocate
resources, and ensure cost and schedule conformity.

Furthermore, the utilization of role theory brings role ambiguity in the field of
construction project management. Similarly, to societal roles, stakeholders may confront
standards. Difficulties may arise, for instance, among stakeholders regarding the function of
governmental entities in overseeing construction operations. These disparities could
potentially be attributed to different ethical positions, comparable to how conservatives
advocate for limited government involvement in construction projects while liberal campaign
for stricter regulations pertaining to safety and quality control.

Moreover, construction project stakeholders conform to industry-specific norms and

standards, which are comparable to societal value-guided behavioral norms. As an
illustration, project managers are required to demonstrate leadership attributes, proficient
communication skills, and risk mitigation methodologies. These behaviors reflect the

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anticipated conduct within the construction industry, which is in accordance with the
common values of quality, safety, and sustainability.

To enrich the framework for a literature review in construction project management, a

deeper exploration of several dimensions becomes imperative. This involves an investigation
into stakeholders' diverse values, their expectations regarding project outcomes, and their
perceptions of quality, safety, and community impact. Additionally, understanding how
varying stakeholder perspectives influence decision-making processes, project objectives, and
how constraints—be they financial, regulatory, or technological—affect stakeholder roles
within the construction landscape is crucial.

Furthermore, it is critical to analyze the adaptability of stakeholder roles in the

construction industry as a result of technological advancements, market demands, emerging
trends, and regulatory changes. The study provides valuable perspectives on the ever-
changing stakeholder roles and their development throughout the course of construction
project management, thereby contributing to a thorough comprehension of the complex
relationships involved.

Using a framework based on role theory, literature reviews in construction project

management can be conducted systematically and perceptively. This approach enables a
study of the various aspects of construction projects, including stakeholders' roles, values,
expectations, and limitations.

Another example is how to develop a framework to guide the research concerning the
study of smart cities. Here, the researcher is not looking for the causes of smart cities.
Instead, the study is exploratory. The goal is to understand and explore the potential of smart
cities in using informatics and technology to improve the organization and efficiency of
municipal services.
Consequently, a framework is necessary to guide the exploration of what is a smart
city and how it works. It may include the definitions of smart cities, types of smart cities,
goals, defining features, development of a smart city ecosystem of firms and workers, pilot
programs, integrative standards, costs, equity, inclusiveness, and other issues.

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In summary, the role theory is the framework, but this alone is not sufficient. The
researcher needs to develop the framework by enriching it with related ideas. Hence, the
researcher must establish different roles' values, rules, expectations, perspectives, and
constraints. Additionally, developing the framework with additional relevant and practical
concepts aids the researcher in attaining a broader understanding of the values, regulations,
anticipations, viewpoints, and limitations associated with the specific subject matter or
situation under study

HYPOTHESIS

In the case of a hypothesis, the literature review is used to develop the causal
mechanism. It may be in textual, symbolic, mathematical, or physical form. A hypothesis is a
tentative answer to a research problem that is advanced so that it can be tested.
It is appropriate to use a hypothesis when you are testing a theory. If you expect how
your research question will be answered (the outcome), then it is fair to say you have an idea
in mind. If you ask your research question, 'What is the expected outcome?' and have an
answer, you can ask why? What is my thinking behind this prediction? This is essentially the
theory that you will be testing.
If you cannot predict the answer to your question, then your approach is not one of
theory testing, and you should not proceed with developing hypotheses to test. Your research
questions remain as such. This will be the case if your research is descriptive or exploratory.
Developing hypotheses requires that you identify one character, variable, or descriptor
of a sampling unit that causes effects or influences another character, variable, or descriptor
of the same or other sampling units. The character, variable, or descriptor that affects other
variables or sampling units is called the independent variable. The character, variable, or
descriptor affected by the independent variable is called the dependent or response variable.
A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If [this happens], then [this will happen]." One
way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the dependent variable if
you change the independent variable.
The basic format might be: "If [these changes are made to a certain independent
variable], then we will observe [a change in a specific dependent variable]."
A hypothesis predicts a relationship between one or more factors and the problem
under study that can be tested.

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Kinds of Hypotheses:

There are four kinds of hypotheses:

(a) Question
(b) Declaration Statement
(c) Directional Statement
(d) Null form or Non-Directional

(a) The question form of Hypotheses - At best, it represents the simplest level of
empirical observation.
(b) Declarative Statement - Provide an anticipated relationship or difference between
variables. This would imply that the hypothesis developer has examined existing
evidence, which led him to believe a distinction may be anticipated as additional
evidence.
(c) Directional Statement - A hypothesis may be directional, which brings an expected
direction in the relationship or difference between variables.
(d) Non-Directional Hypothesis - A hypothesis may be stated in the null form, which
asserts that no relationship or difference exists between or among the variables.
The form null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis that is testable within the
framework of probability theory. It is also a non-directional form of a hypothesis.

Types of Hypotheses

1. Simple - the relationship between the dependent (DV) and the independent
variable (IV). Example: Smoking (IV) leads to lung cancer (DV)
2. Complex – the relationship between two or more DV and two or more IV.
Example: Smoking and drinking (IV) leads to lung cancer and liver disease (DV)
3. Null Hypothesis – there is no relationship between DV and IV. For example; there
is no relationship between smoking and stomach pain
4. Research – the opposite of the Null hypothesis. That is the research there is an
existing relationship between the DV and IV. For example, there is a relationship
between smoking and lung cancer.
5. Directional – will show the relationship between the DV and IV and will show the
direction or the exact nature of the variables either positive or negative. For

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example, there is a positive relationship between the experience of the nurses and
job satisfaction.
6. Non-directional – opposite of the directional it shows the relationship between
two variables but does not show the direct either positive or negative. For
example, there is a relationship between the experience of the nurses and the job
satisfaction. (it means does not show the direction positive or negative)
7. Causal – It shows the cause and effect relationship. For example, smoking leads
(IV) to lung cancer (DV).
8. Associative – association or connection of two variables. As the DV changes the
IV changes. For example, for a diabetic person, lowering the level of blood sugar
will decrease the level of infection.

Formulation of Hypothesis
1. Deriving (obtain or identify) a hypothesis from related work or study. Can be taken
from the experience, literature review, observation, or consulting with an expert
person
2. Identifying the dependent and independent variables
a. Independent is responsible to make changes and the dependent variable is the
topic under the study.
i. Examples
Smoking (IV) leads to lung Cancer (DV)
Drinking cold water (IV) leads to Throat Pain (DV)
3. Stating the Hypothesis using the independent and the dependent in a simple sentence
or a concise manner. To show the relationship between the two variables using words
like needs too, lesser than, greater than, associated with or different from, and others.

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a
research design and start collecting data. The research method depends mostly on exactly
what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research
and experimental research.

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If you are doing the literature review, you have to decide which test to use by
reviewing the strengths and weaknesses of each approach before making the decision.
Besides, you will need to improve the model or apply it in a different context as part of your
research contribution. The improved model is your research hypothesis.

In summary, the literature review for causal analysis is not an ad hoc list of authors or
an attempt to cover everything on the topic. It focuses on the research problem and how to
develop a hypothesis for testing. Only the critical research publications or representative
papers in competing explanations are cited to give readers a sense of how the main ideas are
connected.

The review may be organized as follows as an example:

Definition of the housing bubble
Explanations of housing bubbles
▪ Supply factors
▪ Demand factors
▪ Fundamental factors
▪ Psychological factors
Methods of testing for bubbles
▪ Regression of fundamental factors
▪ Tests for structural change
▪ Asset pricing approach
▪ Survey of buyers’ price expectations
Hypothesis
▪ Dependent variable
▪ Independent variables

Recall that, other than developing the hypothesis, you should review the literature to
improve the research methodology. Finally, you should also review previous findings to
compare your results.

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Meaning of Literature Review:

To get from your prima facie questions to a final question, you have to do some
work:

If you have the questions in context, it means rethinking your initial question and then doing
a bit of groundwork (foundation). It involves what is sometimes called a recursive design to
your research.

• The alternative is a linear design, which is more usual in natural sciences.

• However, in applied science, it is typical for the research as it is being done to
affect the shape of the ultimate research.

Your research changes as you proceed; you will have new ideas, which will affect the
direction and progress of your research. They are not bad backward works; they are back in
the sense of letting you think again and refine your initial questions. “Go into your research
with an open mind, knowing that you will be changing and varying, but once you have
decided, be decisive and go for it.”

The term literature refers to the knowledge of a particular area of investigation in any
discipline, including theoretical, practical, and research studies. It is a collection of all the
scholarly writings on a topic. The term review means organizing the knowledge of the
specific area of research to evolve a structure of knowledge to show that the study would be
an addition to this field.

A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic.

The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a
particular area of research. The review should enumerate, describe, summarize, evaluate, and
clarify this previous research.

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Purpose of the Literature Review

• Opportunity to discover productive ways of doing your research so that you can
benefit from previous studies.
• Familiarize yourself with previous findings so that you can compare your results.
It is essential to pay attention to the local contexts so that the comparison makes
sense.
• Develop the framework or hypothesis
• Discover productive ways to improve the methodology and data analysis
• Include all fundamental studies and theories
• The review of literature for the research proposal does not need to be extensive as
that for the final write-up

What is involved in reviewing?

• Describing
• Summarizing
• Compare and contrast
• Critically evaluate
• Analyze
• Organize

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The task of the review of literature is highly creative and tedious because the
researcher has to synthesize the available knowledge of the field in a unique way to provide
the rationale for his study.

In experimental research approaches, the literature is reviewed to create the context

from the past for the new study to be conducted with new subjects and newly gathered data.
In order to be creative and original, one must read extensively and critically as a stimulus to
thinking.

The need for a Review of Literature

The review of literature is essential due to the following reasons:

➢ Every investigator needs to be up-to-date in his information about the

literature related to his problem already done by others.
➢ It is considered the essential prerequisite to actual planning and conducting the
study.
➢ The literature review indicates a clear picture of the problem to be solved.
➢ It avoids replicating the study of findings to take advantage of similar or
related literature regarding methodology, data collection techniques, the
procedure adopted, and conclusions drawn.
➢ It provides a source of the problem of study, and an analogy may be drawn for
identifying and selecting the researcher’s problem of research.
➢ The researcher formulates his hypothesis based on a review of the literature.
➢ It provides a rationale for the study. The results and findings of the study can
also be discussed at length.

The literature review fills in the gaps in your knowledge, or indeed, it may create some new
gaps for you. In other words, the literature review helps you to refine your question.

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Literature Reviews usually happen at three critical points in a project

1. During the development of the research question

2. During the planning stages, as you work out the rationale of the step, you need to take
3. The completion of the project and towards the end of the project either because
• The preliminary analysis points you towards literature you had not previously
considered
• To check for relevant studies published since your previous literature searches

Steps How to Write Literature (for discussion refer to the other lecture notes 3.1)

1. Locate the most relevant research

2. Logging. Cataloging, Synthesizing
3. Outlining and writing up

Step 1 has four methods to use:

1. Utilize the Google Scholar

2. Utilize the University’s database
3. Snowball reference lists from journals
4. Review related Theses/ Dissertations

Where do you get literature?

➢ University e-resources and digital library

➢ Invisible web: research beyond Google
➢ Directory of open access journals
➢ Databases
➢ Open access and others

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JULS e-Resources can be accessed through http://www.ju.edu.et/library/e-reources

Invisible Web (Research Beyond Google)

Open Education Database (OEDb) https://oedb.org/ilibrarian/research-beyond-google/

https://www.jisc.ac.uk/blog/ten-search-engines-for-researchers-that-go-beyond- google-11-Jul-2013
https://www.fractuslearning.com/research-beyond-google/

And many others……

Directory of Open Access Journals (https://doaj.org/): Online directory cataloging Open

Access journals

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Some other more academic places you can access are the following:

1. Google Scholar
2. EBSCO
3. MEDLINE
4. ECONLIT
5. PROQUEST
6. OPEN ACCESS
7. STANFORD SEARCHWORKS
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Assignment 1

• Submit five full published articles that will support your research topic
• Write a list of standard references (Vancouver as well as Harvard styles), assuming
utilized in your write up

STEP 2 LOG, CATALOG, and SYNTHESIS (see other lecture notes 3.1)

How to review the literature you find?

1. Reading
1. Collect and read relevant literature
2. Provide an overview of significant
3. Highlight key concepts and papers
4. Do a bird’s-eye view of the whole thing; do not think you have to read every
word. Look for material that is relevant to your question.
5. Keep in mind that related things to your research. How does this
article/book/source relate to my research question?
6. Finding keywords whenever you are on the webpage

Critical Reading: The references and material which seem useful as a result of
preliminary reading are noted down and are read critically, and a severe evaluation
of the available information and data.

Always be critical of what you are reading.

The person who wrote it is only human, like you or me. If it does not
make sense, shout at it.

Try reading it once more, but move on quickly if it does not make sense the second time.

➢ Discover relationships between sources

➢ Identify significant themes and concepts
➢ Identify critical gaps and disagreements

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2. Writing
1. Once you have your information from your literature search, you need to make
sense of it and join it into a meaningful story.
2. Your literature review should be more like a story than a list.
3. You should be connecting this bit with that bit,
1. saying how these fits but that does not and
2. showing how there is a theme (or not) through the literature that you
are reviewing
3. If, inconveniently, there is not a theme, say so. Suggest some reason
why this might be.

One of the big problems with students’ literature reviews is that they look like lists rather
than stories.

Your literature review should be more like a story than a list

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Do not be upset by the difference in opinion that you find. Take pleasure in them, and use
them to understand your field of study.

➢ There are disagreements, competitions, conflicts, friendships, and even plots

in professional research as in any human endeavor.

Try to understand why these exist: try to create a story and explain the story.

➢ Then, use your understanding to modify your initial questions. You can then
progress from here.

Drawing Storyboards

A storyboard helps you get a mental map of the subject you intend to study.
➢ Toto illustrates the point: suppose that you are studying something in
your field of specialization; what was the design parameter to apply? Is
that a very clearly defined issue or question as it stands?

A storyboard will enable you to think about some of the issues surrounding those parameters

Drawing a storyboard is helpful to check whether the problem and all primary, directly
contributing factors or significant components have been covered

Hint:

• Further quantifying and specifying the problem;

• Exploring the key factors or significant groups of factors that, in your opinion,
might influence or cause the problem
• Any other major existing research activities

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STEP 3 OUTLINING AND WRITING UP

Making Headway

As part of your introduction/literature review chapters, how do you place it?

• writing this foundation of ideas into a section of the research report

What you must now do is to establish and make clear how your argument will proceed.
Sequencing of gathered literature concerning parameters is a good start

Common Ground

The opening context should contain some common grounds on which everyone can
agree.

➢ These can be coming from facts, valid truth, and others

The second thing to do in setting out your likely argument is to establish the problem on the
ground that you have cleared. You have straightened things out a bit. Now you can be clear
about where the issues lie.

What is missing in the gathered data, and what data does not make sense in your
topic?

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SOME TIPS IN WRITING:

1. Do not begin writing before you have completed the outline
2. Draw your outline
3. An hour of planning can save you hours of doing
4. Consider the two steps – outlining and writing
5. The first draft is for getting it all onto paper
6. The second draft is for tightening up and improving the flow
7. Ask friends to explain it back
8. Listen very carefully to your advisers’ feedback

REFERENCE CITATION
When you are writing, you are required to refer to the work of other authors.

– Each time you do so, it is necessary to identify their work by making reference to it
in-text and reference list

This practice of acknowledging authors is known as referencing.

References must be provided whenever you use someone else’s opinions, theories, or data
organization of material.

A reference is required if you:

 Quote (use someone’s exact words)

 Copy (use figures, tables, or structure)
 Paraphrase (convert someone’s ideas into your own words
 Summarize (use a brief account of someone’s ideas)

Why it is needed to have a reference for your Thesis:

References enhance your writing and assist your reader by:

 Strengthening your academic argument

 Showing the reader the source of your information
 Allowing the reader to consult your sources independently
 Allowing the reader to verify your data.

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Methods of Reference Citations

• Vancouver System
• Harvard System
• Others

Vancouver System

Consecutive numbers are used in the text to indicate the references.

Then at the end of the paper or chapter (of a book), the references will be listed in that order,
using the format described below:

For an article:

Author(s)‘Surname followed by Initials. Title of the article. Name of Journal.

Year; Volume number: page numbers of articles.

Example:
Alemayehu, E. Experimental Studies on T-Beam
Connection. International Journal of Civil Engineering.
2019; 1(2):59-62

For a book:

Author(s)‘ Surname followed by initials. Title of the book. Edition. Place:

Publisher; Year.

Example:

Chopra, K. A., Dynamics of Structures Theory and

Applications to Earthquake Engineering, 1st Ed. Cambridge:
Pearson Prentice Hall.

Cook, R.D. et al., Concepts and Applications of Finite Element

Analysis, USA, John Wiley & Sons.

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For a chapter in a book:

Author(s) of the chapter Surname(s) followed by initials. Chapter title. In:

Editor(s) of book Surname(s) followed by initials, eds. Title of the book.
Place: Publisher, Year; Page numbers of chapter.

Example:
Briggs, C., Flick, U. and Stringer, E.T. Appropriate
Technologies In Boerma T and Bennett J 2nd Ed. Construction
Engineering. Amsterdam: KIT Press, 1999; p. 51-68.

Harvard System

 References are referred to more fully in the text, putting the surname of the author and
year of the publication referred to between brackets, Ex:(Agon, 2011).
 In this citation system, the references at the end of the proposal should be listed in
alphabetical order, and the publication year comes following the author's names in
brackets.

For a book:

Example:

Chopra, K. A. (2007), Dynamics of Structures Theory and

Applications to engineering, 1st Ed. Cambridge: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Sample Text Citation

Vancouver System

The contrast between toughness and strength should be noted; the former
measures energy, whereas the latter measures the stress required to fracture the
material [10]. Hardness, or resistance to wear, is an essential property of
concrete used in roads and in-floor surfaces Subjected to heavy traffic [8].

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Harvard System

It can be defined as the resistance of aggregate to failure by impact, and it is

usual to determine the aggregate impact value of bulk aggregate (Neville A,
2010). The term toughness was issued to measure this energy (Nasir et al.,
2010).

“et al.” is a scholarly abbreviation of the Latin phrase et alia, which means “and others.” It is
commonly used when you do not want to name all the people or things in a list and works
roughly the same way as “etc.”

The “al.” in this phrase needs a period after it to indicate it is an abbreviation of Alia, but it
is incorrect to put a period after “et.”

Ways of Citing Text

When you cite sources of information in the text of your report, regardless of
whether you quote, copy, paraphrase, or summarize, you should include:

➢ the author’s surname (family name)

➢ the year of publication (latest edition)
➢ page numbers when directly quoting or closely paraphrasing an
author‘s words/material
➢ correct punctuation and spacing

There are two ways of citing references:

• Author prominent
• Information prominent

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Verbs that help with author-prominent referencing

State Point out Describe

Remark Add Suggest
Maintain Assert Affirm
Agree Claim Clarify
Disagree Contest Contend
Highlight Find Show
Imply Theorize Offer
Predict question Dispute
Justify Confirm Reason

Author prominent

This way gives prominence to the author by using the author‘s surname (family name) as
part of your sentence with the date and the page number in parentheses (round brackets).

• Direct quote example

Alemayehu (2018, p. 52) argues that “research must be systematic and a

rigid standard protocol.”

• Paraphrase example
Alemayehu (2018) suggests that, unlike the final year project, research
must follow a series of steps and be rigorous.

Information prominent
The other way of citing references gives prominence to the information, with all the
required referencing details in parentheses at the end of the citation.

• Direct quote example

It has been argued that “research must be systematic and a rigid standard
protocol” (Alemayehu, 2018, p. 52).

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• Paraphrase example

unlike the final year project, research must follow rigorous steps (Alemayehu,
2018).

Websites

Within the text …………….. (www.xxxx) www.xxx, accessed on 27 August 2011

All cited literature in the text should be given in the reference list.

Sample Reference Citation

Vancouver System:

[1] Bryan, S.E. Pumice rafting and faunal dispersion during 2001 – 2002 in the
Southwest Pacific: the record of a dacitic submarine explosive eruption from
Tonga, Earth, and Planetary Science Letters. 2004; 135-154.

[2] Moufti, M.R., Sabtan, A.A., El-Mahdy, O.R., Shehata, W.M. Assessment
of the industrial utilization of scoria materials in central Harrat, Saudi Arabia,
Engineering Geology. 2000; 57 (2): 155-162.

[3] Assefa, G. The mineral industry of Ethiopia: present conditions and future
prospects. Journal of African Earth Sciences. 1984; 3(3): 331-345.

Harvard System:

Assefa, G. (1984). The mineral industry of Ethiopia: present conditions and

prospects. Journal of African Earth Sciences. 3(3): 331-345

Bryan, S.E. (2004). Pumice rafting and faunal dispersion during 2001 – 2002
in the Southwest Pacific: a record of a dacitic submarine explosive eruption
from Tonga. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 135-154

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Moufti, M.R., Santan, A.A., El-Mahdy, O.R., Shehata, W.M. (2000).

Assessment of the industrial utilization of scoria materials in central Harrat,
Saudi Arabia. Engineering Geology. 57 (2): 155-162

Avoid Plagiarism

 In writing, we draw upon others’ words and ideas and the intellectual heritage
underlying human progress.

 The scholarship entails researching, understanding, and building upon the work of
others but also requires that proper credit be given for any borrowed material.

What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the representation of another author's language, thoughts, ideas, or

expressions of one's original work

 Plagiarism is considered academic dishonesty and a breach of journalistic

ethics.
 It is subject to sanctions such as penalties, suspension, expulsion from school
or work, substantial fines, and even imprisonment

Plagiarism is stealing other researchers’ data or work and presenting them as one’s work. It is
a severe offense, and you should give proper credit when it is due. This does not mean that
one should cite everything, which is overkill.

For example, it is well known that Marcism originates from Markos.

According to Fishman, plagiarism occurs when someone:

• Uses words, ideas, or work products

• Attributable to another identifiable person or source
• Without attributing the work to the source from which it was obtained
• In a situation in which there is a legitimate expectation of original authorship
• In order to obtain some benefit, credit, or gain which need not be monetary

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The term “source” includes

 published sources – books, magazines, newspapers, textbooks, websites, movies,

photos, paintings, plays, etc
 unpublished sources - materials from research services, blogs, class handouts,
lectures, notes, speeches, or other students‘ papers.

Using words, ideas, computer code, or any work without giving proper credit
is plagiarism.

Turnitin (2015) 10 primary forms of plagiarism that students commit:

1. Submitting someone's work as their own

2. Taking passages from their previous work without adding citations (self-
plagiarism).
3. Re-writing someone's work without properly citing sources.
4. Using quotations but not citing the source.
5. Interweaving various sources together in work without citing.
6. Citing some, but not all, passages that should be cited.
7. Melding together cited and not cited sections of the piece.
8. Providing proper citations but failing to change the structure and wording of
the borrowed ideas enough (close paraphrasing).
9. Inaccurately citing a source.
10. Relying too heavily on other people's work, failing to bring original thought
into the text.

Any time you use information from a source of any kind, you must cite it.

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Citation Methods

 One citation method is to identify the source in the text,

➢ Put the author‘s last name and publication year in parenthesis and give the
page number where the cited information appears. (Altura, 2015, p. 66).
➢ The author’s name links the reader to a list at the end of the paper giving full
publishing information
Example:
Alemayehu, E. Scientific Research Methods. Lecture Note,
Jimma University, 2015; pp. 62-70.

 Two other methods are footnotes and endnotes, which use raised numbers at the end
of an idea or quoted words to link the reader to the source, given at the bottom of the
page (footnote) or the end of the paper (endnote).

For all three methods, you must include the source in a reference list at the end of the paper,
fully identifying each source by author‘s name, title, publisher‘s name, year of publication,
and page numbers.

The exception is that the superscript numbers should be placed before dashes.

➢ When a footnote must be placed at the end of a clause,1 add the number after
the comma.
➢ When a footnote must be placed at the end of a sentence, add the number after
the period.2
➢ Numbers denoting footnotes should always appear after punctuation, except
for one piece of punctuation3—the dash

Sample of Footnote.

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Citation to electronic resources such as websites should include the exact URL / URI, the
date last revised, and any available information about the writer, publisher, and/or creator of
the site.

Example:
UC Berkeley Teaching Library Internet Workshops Style Sheets for Citing
Resources (Print & Electronic) at
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/Style.html

Guidelines to avoid Plagiarism

1. Paraphrase
2. Cite
3. Quoting
4. Citing Quotes
5. Citing your materials
6. Referencing

Paraphrase

You have found information that is perfect for your research paper. Read it and put it
into your own words. Make sure that you do not copy completely more than two
words in a row from the text you have found. If you use more than two words
together, you will have to use quotation marks.

Cite

Citing is one of the effective ways to avoid plagiarism. Follow the document
formatting guidelines used by educational institutions or the institution that issued the
research request. This usually entails the addition of the author(s) and the publication
date or similar information. Citing is that simple.

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Quoting

When quoting a source, use the quote exactly the way it appears. No one wants to be
misquoted—most institutions of higher learning frown on “block quotes” or quotes of
40 words or more. A scholar should be able to paraphrase most material effectively.
This process takes time, but the effort pays off! Quoting must be done correctly to
avoid plagiarism allegations.

Citing Quotes

Citing a quote can be different than citing paraphrased material. This practice usually
involves adding a page number or a paragraph number in the case of web content.

Citing your materials

If you used some of the material you are using for your research paper in your current
class, a previous one, or anywhere else, you must cite yourself. Treat the text the same
as you would if someone else wrote it. It may sound odd, but using the material you
have used before is called self-plagiarism, and it is not acceptable.

REFERENCING

One of the most important ways to avoid plagiarism is to include a reference page or
page of works cited at the end of your research paper. Again, this page must meet the
document formatting guidelines used by your educational institution. This information
is particular and includes the author(s), date of publication, title, and source.

Paraphrase vs. Plagiarism

Original Source:

Highway engineers …must consider future traffic flows, design of highway …

intersections/interchanges, geometric alignment and design, highway
pavement materials, and design. … They must also consider the structural
design of pavement thickness and pavement maintenance.

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Student Version A- Plagiarism

Highway engineers must take into account future traffic flows, design of
highway intersections/interchanges, geometric alignment, structural design
pavement thickness, and pavement maintenance

This is plagiarism; the student has combined copied pieces of the

authors’ language without quotation marks or citations.

Student Version B – Improper paraphrasing, also plagiarism

Highway engineers must consider the stream of traffic, design of highway

intersections, geometric orientation, structural design of pavement thickness,
and maintenance. (Martin)

This is plagiarism because the student has woven together sentences

and switched a few words (“stream of traffic” for “future traffic flow,”
“orientation” for “alignment”), has left out some comments and has
given an incomplete and inaccurate citation.

Student Version C – Appropriate paraphrase, not plagiarism

The author believed that highway engineer should consider all the relevant
engineering parameters in the design and maintenance of highway pavements
(Rogers, 2002).

This student has paraphrased using their own words, accurately

reflecting and citing the author’s idea.

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Student Version D – Quotation with cite, not plagiarism

The author discussed that “Highway engineers …must consider future traffic
flows, design of highway … structural design of pavement thickness, and
pavement maintenance. (Rogers, 2002).”

By introducing his source, the student signals that the following

material is from that source.

Verbatim words are in quotation marks, omitted words are marked by

ellipses (…), and cited the source of the quote.

Always cite words, information, and ideas you use if they are new to you
(learned in your research). No matter where you find it
– even in on the Internet or in an encyclopedia,
YOU CITE IT!

You may not have to cite “common knowledge,”

but the fact must be commonly known.
Better to be safe than not give credit when you should!

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