Applied Intelligence (2021) 51:6298–6325

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10489-020-02142-z

The geometry of three-way decision

Yiyu Yao1

Accepted: 12 December 2020 / Published online: 9 January 2021

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
A theory of three-way decision concerns the art, science, and practice of thinking, problem solving, and information
processing in threes. It explores the effective uses of triads of three things, for example, three elements, three parts,
three perspectives, and so on. In this paper, I examine geometric structures, graphical representations, and semantical
interpretations of triads in terms of basic geometric notions of dots, lines, triangles, circles, as well as more complex
structures derived from these basic notions. I use examples from different disciplines and fields to illustrate the uses of these
structures and their physical interpretations for triadic thinking, triadic computing, and triadic processing. Following the
principles of triadic thinking, this paper blends together three common ways to think, namely, numerical thinking, textual
thinking, and visual thinking.

Keywords Three-way decision · triadic thinking · Trilevel analysis · Visual thinking · Numerical thinking ·
Eight trigrams · Enneagram

1 Introduction In the paper, I have drawn examples from many different

disciplines and fields. As a non-expert in some of these
The theory of three-way decision has received much fields, my descriptions are, in most cases, at a surface
attention in recent years [66, 70, 124, 143]. In a nutshell, level and may contain possible misunderstandings. My
three-way decision is about thinking, problem solving, main focus is on the uses of triadic structures, patterns,
and information processing based on a triad of three and methodologies in these examples. The triadic ways to
things [136, 138]. As an introduction of the paper, I present develop and to present the contents are the focal points.
a brief discussion of the necessary background of three-way In comparison, the contents matter to a lesser degree and
decision as triadic thinking. To connect with the readers of my brief descriptions are sufficient for the purpose of
this special issue, I examine some implications of three- illustrating their uses of the principles and practices of
way decision to artificial intelligence. Finally, I state the triadic thinking. Moreover, although I appreciate the triadic
objectives of this paper and give a summary of the main approaches in these examples, I may not necessarily agree
results. with the contents. In other words, triadic thinking provides
powerful principles, effective methodologies, and useful
This article belongs to the Topical Collection: 30th Anniversary tools, independent of specific contents.
Special Issue
1.1 Three-way decision as triadic thinking
I would like to thank Professor Hamido Fujita for his constructive
and supportive comments on three-way decision and his encour-
agement for writing the paper for the special issue. I am grateful to Triadic thinking and triadic methods of three-way decision
reviewers for their encouraging comments and suggestions. This are motivated by and rely on a fundamental finding of
work was partially supported by a Discovery Grant from NSERC, cognitive science and cognitive psychology about our
Canada.
limited ability in processing a few units of information,
 Yiyu Yao due to the capacity of our short-term working memory [23,
[email protected] 40, 83]. Although there is no general agreement on the
exact number of units, thinking in threes is a common
1 Department of Computer Science, University Of Regina, theme and a frequent appearance across different cultures
Regina, Saskatchewan, S4S 0A2, Canada and various disciplines [9, 12, 31, 59]. For example, a
The geometry of three-way decision 6299

study of Changizi and Shimojo [14] based on more than – Three-way decision support systems [128],
100 writing systems over human history shows that the – Three-way decision in knowledge management [2],
“number of strokes per characters is approximately three, – Sequential three-way decision [24, 47, 61, 100, 101,
independent of the number of characters in the writing 126, 133, 152].
system.” Pogliani et al [97, 98] give extensive examples to
demonstrate that we humans in general and scientists in By adding a third option to thinking in twos (i.e., dichotomous,
specific have an intriguing preference for a ternary patterned black/white, or all/nothing thinking), three-way decision is
reality. According to Merriam [82], words and numbers are about thinking in threes (i.e., trichotomous, black/grey/white,
major elements in human symbol systems and there is a or all/some/nothing). One of the fundamental notions of
dominance of the number three in rhetoric with numbers. three-way decision is a triad of three things. There are
Booker [10] shows that the number three has archetypal many interpretations of a triad, which offers the universality,
significance in storytelling, as expressed by the rule of three flexibility, and operability of three-way decision.
(i.e., use three elements). Watson [121] points out that a
tripartite system, consisting of three grand ideas, ages, or 1.2 Three-way decision and artificial intelligence
principles, has been used by numerous authors in studies of
intellectual history. In many situations, one of the advantages of triadic thinking
While some authors assume the existence of triadic is the avoidance of a simplification of using competitive
patterns in nature, others suggest that triadic patterns are or exclusive opposite twos. The addition of a third option
our creations for representing and understanding the world. moves towards balance, harmony, and completeness, which
Dundes [31] states insightfully: “Trichotomy exists but it is often leads to a new point of view, additional insights,
not the nature of nature. It is part of the nature of culture.” and different approaches. As examples, I look at some
The root of this “nature of culture” is perhaps our limited implications of triadic thinking to artificial intelligence
information processing capacity [134]. Furthermore, our (AI).
extensive experiences of and exposure to triadic thinking Studies of AI commonly focus on its dual goal, as stated
confirm, reconfirm, and re-reconfirm the easiness, the by Herbert Simon: “AI can have two purposes. One is to
power, and the value of thinking, working, and processing use the power of computers to augment human thinking.
in threes. On the other hand, a comprehensive theory of ... The other is to use a computer’s artificial intelligence
triadic thinking still does not exist in its own right. This to understand how humans think.” This dichotomous way
has motivated the introduction of a theory of three-way to think unfortunately has led to a separation of machines
decision for thinking in threes [131, 132, 134]. To have a and humans. Lebiere et al [60] point out: “... rather than
sense of the rapid developments on the theories, methods, benefit from a complementary relationship, these two goals
and applications of three-way decision, the following is a have diverged, and the fields of AI and cognitive science
sample list of newly emerged topics inspired by three-way have each matured as essentially separate disciplines.
decision and sample publications on each topic: Artificial intelligence has become dedicated to the sole
purpose of the creation of intelligent computer programs,
– Theories of three-way decision [45, 46, 51, 65, 102,
irrespective of their relation to human cognitive processes.”
138, 139, 160],
If we can learn something from triadic thinking, we may
– Three-way data analysis [69, 74, 122, 123, 125, 159,
introduce a third option. In fact, there have been efforts
161],
towards a more general understanding of AI, which may
– Three-way cluster analysis [119, 144–148],
– Three-way approximations of fuzzy sets and shadowed be termed integrated human-machine intelligence [11],
sets [37, 149, 153, 157], human-machine integrated intelligence, or human-machine
– Three-way concept analysis [73, 76, 99, 103, 108, 135, symbiosis [38, 68, 134]. Research initiatives along this line
162], include, to give three examples, cognitive computing [134],
– Three-way concept learning [62, 84], artificial general intelligence (AGI) [60], and human-
– Three-way decision in sentiment analysis [50, 158], machine collective intelligence [85].
– Three-way conflict analysis [57, 58, 112, 137], Another example of triadic thinking in the context of
– Three-way hypotheses analysis and assessment [34], artificial intelligence is a classification of three types of
– Three-way attribute reduction and feature selection [63, artificial intelligence: a) artificial narrow intelligence (ANI),
75, 154–156], b) artificial general intelligence (AGI), and c) artificial
– Three-way granular computing [33, 64, 127, 136], super intelligence (ASI) [39]. As a third example, Peeters
– Three-way multi-criteria decision-making and three- et al [95] identify three different perspectives on the future
way multi-attribute decision-making [67, 71, 92, 113, impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on human society: (1)
151], the technology-centric perspective, (2) the human-centric
6300 Y. Yao

perspective, and (3) the collective intelligence-centric 2 How it all started: A personal journey
perspective. There are many more examples of triadic
thinking that are at work in artificial intelligence. A reviewer recommended that I add a section on the
historical development of the theory of three-way decision
1.3 Objectives and summary by recalling relevant basic ideas from three-valued logics,
fuzzy sets, rough sets, and others. This is indeed a wonderful
Among many ways to think, visual thinking, numerical and an insightful suggestion. By giving some key ideas
thinking, and textual thinking stand out. Working together and milestones, a reader will have the necessary contexts
as a triad, they provide complementary perspectives and a to fully understand and appreciate the concept of three-
more complete understanding. Images, symbols, numbers, way decision. In this section, I discuss the major works
and words are essential to human understanding and that have influenced my conception of three-way decision.
communication. Numbers are an important part of the To be consistent with the style of the rest of the paper,
language of science. Natural numbers, at least some of them, I will only give a conceptual level description. A reader
are often associated with special powers or meanings and may consult the references for more detailed mathematical
they have both qualitative and quantitative interpretations. formal formulations.
Studies on the theory of three-way decision explore the In the early 1980s, Pawlak [90, 91] introduced the theory
magic power of the number three, with respect to its literate of rough sets for reasoning about data based on descriptions
and figurative meanings. One of the goals is to establish of objects. When two objects have the same description,
a mathematical and scientific basis of triadic thinking or they are indiscernible from each other. This indiscernibility
thinking in threes. relation is an equivalence relation and objects with the
As visual tools, graphical symbols, images, pictures, and same descriptions form equivalence classes. In this way,
figures often play an essential role in forming a profound only equivalence classes and their unions are describable
understanding. They are intuitively appealing and attention- or definable sets. Consequently, an arbitrary set of objects
grabbing, capitalizing on our pattern-seeking instincts. They may not be definable and has to be approximated by
clarify, illustrate, and augment written ideas, leading to using definable sets. The lower approximation of a set
a simplification and a full understanding of complicated is the greatest definable set inside the set, and the upper
textual descriptions. Sometimes, they may convey meanings approximation is the least definable containing the set. In
that may be difficult to describe fully in words. The order words, the lower and upper approximations are two
main objectives of this paper are, therefore, to open up definable sets that approximate the given set from below and
new avenues for research called the geometry of three- above. Alternatively, it is mathematically equivalent to use
way decision. From a visual perspective, the geometry of three definable sets to represent a rough set approximation.
three-way decision studies various geometric structures and The positive region of the set is defined by the lower
patterns used in three-way decision, for example, trisegment approximation, the boundary region by the difference of the
lines of three-way decision, triangles of three-way decision, upper and lower approximations, and the negative region by
concentric tricircles of three-way decision, and many more. the set complement of the upper approximation.
Numerical thinking (i.e., thinking in threes) and textual The formulation with a pair of lower and upper
thinking (i.e., verbal description of the principles of three- approximations connects rough set theory to modal logics.
way decision) are the two perspectives that have been The lower and upper approximations correspond to the
explored in existing studies on three-way decision, the new necessity and possibility operators of modal logics. Pawlak
visual thinking perspective enables us to form a triad of rough set model corresponds to modal logic system S5. The
three perspectives. In this way, we study three-way decision formulation with three regions connects rough set theory to
by its own principle of thinking in threes. three-valued logics. The positive, negative, and boundary
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 regions are characterized by the truth values of true, false,
gives a brief description of my journey into three-way and a third intermediate value in three-valued logics [16].
decision. Section 3 is an overview of the trisecting-acting- A fundamental result of rough set theory is that the lower
outcome (TAO) model that provides a general conception (upper) approximation of the union (intersection) of two sets
of three-way decision. Section 4 examines geometric cannot be computed from the lower (upper) approximations
structures and patterns of triads that underlie three-way of the two sets. This non-truth-functional feature of rough
decision. Section 5 looks at ways of triadic thinking set theory contributes uniquely to three-valued logics by
embedded in more complex structures, including hexagons, calling for non-truth-functional logic connectives.
the two classical Chinese figures of Hetu (the River Rough set theory captures a type of uncertainty due to
Diagram) and Luoshu (the Luo Writing), the eight trigrams, the indiscernibility of objects based on their descriptions. In
and the enneagram. this case, we know exactly whether an object is in or not
The geometry of three-way decision 6301

in a given set. But we cannot precisely define the set based of acceptance or rejection are made with a respective
on descriptions of objects. In some other situations, another acceptable level of errors.
kind of uncertainty appears. Due to a lack of information, In three-valued logics, the third intermediate value
we only know statuses of some objects, namely, in or not in denotes a truth value that is different from the the
a set, and we do not know the statuses of the rest of objects. standard truth values, true and false. Depending on different
To model this type of uncertainty, in 1993 I introduced interpretations of the third value, it is possible to build
the notion of an interval set [129]. An interval set is a different three-valued logic systems [16]. However, the
family of sets that are bounded by a pair of sets called the use of a single value to represent a wide range of
lower and upper bounds, in which the lower bound is a possibilities is a weakness of three-valued logics. For this
subset of the upper bound. Any set in the family may be reason, more general many-valued logic systems have been
the actual set, if the complete information is known. The proposed [42], in which the third value of three-valued
lower and upper bounds of an interval set correspond to the logics is generalized into a set of values. A grand challenge
rough set lower and upper approximations, although their of many-valued logics is the semantics of truth values and
respective semantics are different. Based on the lower and the validity of inference rules. A possible solution is to
upper bounds, an interval set can be equivalently defined interpret many-valued logics in terms of three-valued logics
by three regions. The lower bound consists of these objects by introducing the concepts of designated truth values and
that we know are members of the set and, thus, defines the designated false values, corresponding to the standard truth
positive region; the complement of the upper bound consists values, true and false. The rest of the truth values correspond
of these objects that we know are not members of the set to the intermediate value of three-valued logics. In other
and, thus, defines the negative region. The boundary region words, a many-valued logic system is approximated by
is the difference of the upper bound and the lower bound, a three-valued logic system. The probabilistic rough sets
consisting of objects whose statuses we do not know. If are an example of this approach. Probabilistic rough set
we draw a correspondence between the three regions and approximations are the results of a three-valued or three-
three values in three-valued logics, interval set algebra is way approximations of probabilistic logic. The designated
characterized by Kleene’s three-valued logic, with the third truth values are probability values at or above one threshold,
intermediate value being interpreted as unknown [16]. which defines the positive region. The designated false
In the early 1990s, we generalized Pawlak rough sets into values are probability values at or below another threshold,
decision-theoretic rough sets, namely, a probabilistic rough which defines the negative region. The rest of probability
set model, based on the Bayesian decision procedure [141, values between the two thresholds define the boundary
142]. A pair of thresholds on the conditional probability of region.
an arbitrary object being in a set given that the object is in an In 1965, Zadeh [150] introduced the theory of fuzzy
equivalence class is used to construct probabilistic positive, sets for representing concepts with gradually changing
negative, and boundary regions. The Pawlak rough sets are boundaries. An object is assigned a membership grade in
a special case in which the pair of thresholds is the pair of the unit interval [0, 1] to indicate the degree to which the
the two extreme values 1 and 0 of a probability function. object is a member of a fuzzy set. The corresponding fuzzy
Decision rules induction from the pair of lower and logics are many-valued logics. Zadeh briefly described the
upper approximations or the three regions is perhaps one concept of a three-way approximation of a fuzzy set, in a
of the most common applications of rough set theory. For similar way as constructing a three-way approximation of a
the Pawlak rough sets, decision rules from the positive many-valued logic or constructing a three-way probabilistic
and negative regions are certain and the corresponding rough set approximation. Specifically, if the membership
decisions are made free of errors. In contrast, decision grade of an object is at or above one threshold, the object
rules from the probabilistic positive and negative regions is considered to be a member, if the membership grade is at
are no longer certain and the corresponding decisions are or below another threshold, the object is considered to be a
made under some tolerance levels of errors. Consequently, non-member, if the membership grade is between the two
there is a need to have a new interpretation of decision thresholds, the object has an indeterminate status.
rules in probabilistic rough sets. Inspired by the ideas of In 1998, Pedrycz [93, 94] proposed the concept of
sequential hypothesis testing introduced by Wald [118], that shadowed sets as three-way approximations of fuzzy sets.
is, a hypothesis is accepted, rejected, or further tested, in The construction process of a shadowed set from a fuzzy
2009 I introduced the concept of three-way decision for set uses three actions, which is similar to Zadeh’s method
interpreting decision rules in probabilistic rough sets [130, conceptually. If the fuzzy membership grade of an object is
131]. Rules from the positive, negative, and boundary at or above one threshold, the membership grade is lifted to
regions are viewed as rules for acceptance, rejection, 1; if the membership grade is at or below another threshold,
and non-commitment. It is understood that decisions the membership grade is reduced to 0; if the membership
6302 Y. Yao

grade is between the two thresholds, the membership grade 3.1 An overview of the trisecting-acting-outcome
is expanded into the unit interval [0, 1]. While Zadeh did (TAO) model
not discuss how to determine the pair of thresholds, Pedrycz
gave an optimization method for computing the pair of In three-way decision, we use a triad of three parts to
thresholds. According to the set of three values {1, [0, 1], 0}, represent a whole. Depending on different interpretations
it is straightforward to define the positive, boundary, and of a triad, we can formulate various models of three-
negative region of a shadowed set. way decision. One possible way to construct a triad is to
By observing the common notion of the three regions decompose a whole into three parts. The trisecting-acting-
used in rough sets, interval sets, and three-way approxima- outcome (TAO) model of three-way decision is formulated
tions of fuzzy sets, in 2012 I outlined of a theory of three- based on such an understanding of a triad.
way decision [132], in which evaluation-based models were Figure 1 depicts the basic three components of the
introduced. One model uses a single evaluation, of which TAO model, namely, trisecting the whole, acting upon
probability functions and fuzzy membership functions are the three parts, and optimizing the outcome. The middle
special cases. Another model uses a pair of evaluations, triangle (A, B, C) denotes a trisection of the whole and
which, I found out later, has a close connection to the con- connects two tripods. The upper tripod, consisting of the
cepts of bipolarity [27], the evaluative space model [13], and node “Whole” and three legs A, B, and C, describes
bilattices [26]. the task of trisecting. There are two possible ways to
These investigations have been focused more on clas- interpret the tripod. A top-down reading suggests that the
sification and decision-making problems. They explore a whole is decomposed into three parts; a bottom-up reading
narrow sense of three-way decision. Since 2012, I have been suggests that the three parts support the whole. The lower
working on a wide sense of three-way decision, that is, a inverted tripod, consisting of the node “Strategies” and
philosophy of thinking in threes, a methodology of working three legs A, B, and C, describes the task of acting. A
in threes, and a mechanism of processing in threes. The most set of strategies is applied to process the three parts. There
recent results of the wide sense of three-way decision were are also two possible ways to interpret the tripod. A top-
given in the trisecting-acting-outcome (TAO) model [134, down reading from A, B, and C to strategies suggests
138], which will be briefly reviewed in the next section. In that a trisection of the whole enables the formulation of
the present paper, I will further explore the wide sense of a set of different strategies. We devise a set of strategies
three-way decision from a geometric point of view. based on the trisection of the whole. A bottom-up reading
With respect to the narrow sense of three-way decision, suggests the applications of a pre-defined set of strategies
there are formal mathematical models. These models to the trisection. In many cases, the trisection is, in fact,
provide ways to making three-way decisions in particular constructed based on a given set of strategies.
contexts. With respect to the wide sense, the investigations The dotted square represents an outcome of three-way
have been focused on the philosophical foundations and decision determined by a combination of a trisection and
methodologies of three-way decision. Models of the wide
sense are more of a conceptual nature and may be
difficult to describe mathematically. The power of the
philosophy and methodology of three-way decision lies in
their universality, flexibility, and domain-independency. In
addition to playing the role of guiding thinking, problem-
solving, and information-processing, conceptual models of
the wide sense guide us in building new concrete, formal,
and operational models of the narrow sense.

3 A trisecting-acting-outcome (TAO) model

A fundamental philosophy of a theory of three-way decision

is triadic thinking, that is, thinking in threes. A triad of three
things is used to describe, represent, and process a whole in
three parts. This section briefly reviews a trisecting-acting-
outcome (TAO) model [136], in which we can observe many
uses of threes. Fig. 1 A TAO model of three-way decision (adapted from [136])
The geometry of three-way decision 6303

a set of strategies in the square. The tasks of trisecting in an upper level may be viewed as an integration of relevant
and acting are closely tied together. When the two tripods analyses in its lower level. An analysis of the lower may be
in Fig. 1 are put together, we have a triangular bipyramid viewed as a projection of its upper level. It is interesting to
with the base triangle (A, B, C) and consisting of three note that both the bottom level and the middle level consist
levels. This triangular bipyramid provides a basis for trilevel of three entries. These two levels may also be viewed as two
thinking and processing [139], leading to two basic modes three-way methods.
of three-way decision [136]. A top-down trisection-driven
mode starts with trisecting the whole and then searches for 3.2 The TAO model explained by an example
the most suitable strategies to process the three parts. A
bottom-up action-driven mode starts with a pre-given set of As presented in earlier papers [136, 138, 139], there are
strategies and searches for the most effective trisection. To many three-way decision approaches and examples from
produce a desired outcome, it may be necessary to search a wide-range and diverse disciplines that can be used to
for the most effective combination of a trisection and a set illustrate the ideas and value of the TAO framework. We
of strategies. This often requires multiple iterations of the explain basic notions and ideas of the TAO model based on
top-down and bottom-up modes, involving trisection-guided a study of strategic decision-making by Schwenk [106].
redesign of strategies and strategy-guided re-trisection of By reviewing and abstracting from many descrip-
the whole. tive models of strategic decision-making process,
The trisection (A, B, C) offers a total of seven ways Schwenk [106] suggests a simplified three-stage model,
to process the three parts. In Fig. 2, we arrange the consisting of problem identification, alternative generation,
seven ways into three levels [136]. The bottom level is and evaluation/selection. For each stage, he lists three to
an individual analysis in which each of the three parts is four heuristics (i.e., cognitive simplification processes) that
considered independently of the other two. This kind of may operate. Table 1 summarizes the relevant information
analysis is indicated by a one-dimensional line in Fig. 1. from Table 2 in Schwenk’s paper.
For example, the solid line (Whole, A) only considers part In light of the TAO model, Schwenk’s three-stage
A in the context of the “Whole” and the dashed line strategic decision-making model may be viewed as an
(A, Strategies) applies “Strategies” to part A. The other two instance of three-way decision as thinking in threes. The
parts B and C do not come into the picture. The middle three stages form the trisection of the whole of a decision-
level is a comparative analysis, in which the relationship making process. Cognitive simplification processes or
between two parts is taken into consideration. This type heuristics that may operate in the three stages correspond
of analysis is described by a two-dimensional triangle in to the set of strategies. For each cognitive process,
Fig. 1. For example, when two parts A and B are considered Schwenk also provides possible undesirable effects. For
together, we have a trisecting face given by the triangle example, in the problem identification stage, a decision-
(Whole, A, B) and an acting face given by the triangle maker may rely on erroneous beliefs or hypotheses,
(Strategies, A, B). In this case, parts A and B are considered leading to an ignorance or misinterpretation of evidence
together with respect to the “Whole” and “Strategies,” and information. As a double-edged sword, cognitive
respectively. The third part C does not play any role. The simplification makes complex strategic decision-making
top level is an integrative analysis of all three parts, which is simpler in some situations and may also be harmful to
described by the three-dimensional trisecting pyramid (i.e., organizations in some other situations. For the latter, it may
the upper one) and acting pyramid (i.e., the lower one). be necessary to correct the undesirable effects of cognitive
The three levels of analysis correspond to one-, two-, and simplification processes.
three-dimensional understanding of the whole. An analysis In addition to the simplification processes in Table 1,
Schwenk points out a number of more processes. This
leads to a large number of combinations of cognitive
simplification processes in the three stages, which may
explain for the many different ways used by or styles of
decision-makers. The three-stage conception of Schwenk
takes into consideration of the trisecting and acting parts
of the TAO model and provides a basis for systematically
studying strategic decision-making. With respect to the
outcome part of the TAO model, it may be constructive
to investigate how to evaluate the effectiveness of a
tristage model of strategic decision-making with cognitive
Fig. 2 Trilevel seven elements analysis (adapted from [136]) simplification processes.
6304 Y. Yao

Table 1 Cognitive processes of three-stage model of Schwenk [106]

Stage I Stage II Stage III

Goal formulation/ Strategic alternatives Evaluation and
Problem definition generation selection

(1) Prior hypothesis bias (1) Single outcome calculation (1) Representativeness
(2) Adjustment and anchoring (2) Inference of impossibility (2) Illusion of control
(3) Escalating commitment (3) Denying value trade-offs (3) Devaluation of partially
(4) Reasoning by analogy (4) Problem sets described alternatives

4 Geometric structures and patterns view allows us to focus mainly on triadic thinking with
in three-way decision only three items, without the complication incurred by the
relationships of the three. There is a large body of evidence
This section examines visual understanding of three-way to justify and support this specific type of ways to think, as
decision through geometric interpretations of structures and demonstrated by various uses of the rule of three.
patterns of three-way decision. An important result from cognitive science and psychol-
ogy is about our limited ability for processing information
4.1 Representations and interpretations of triads due to the capacity of short-term working memory. We
humans can only process a few units of information in
A central notion of three-way decision as triadic thinking our working memory, typically ranging from two to seven
is a triad of three things or items. There are many units [23, 40, 83]. Another related result is our subitizing
interpretations of a triad in different contexts and for various ability to tell immediately, without counting, the number of
applications. In a graphical representation, we use either items presented to us when the number of items is small,
points or boxes to represent the three items and use lines typically fewer than six [53, 96]. For example, if we look
to represent the relationships among the three items. We at Fig. 3, we can easily tell that there are three dots with-
also examine other geometric representations, including out actually counting the dots. Although there are different
triangles and circles. opinions regarding the exact number, three seems to be a
reasonable choice. A supporting evidence for three is that
4.1.1 Triad as a set of three dots the first three numbers have been typically represented by
series of identical marks in different languages [25]. For
The simplest interpretation of a triad, given by the three example, Chinese represents 1, 2, and 3 by one, two, and
nodes A, B, and C in the TAO model of Fig. 1, is three three horizontal lines, respectively. Roman numbers 1, 2,
relatively independent and unconnected items, which is and 3 consist of one, two, and three vertical lines, respec-
represented by three isolated dots in Fig. 3. Although tively. Our subitizing ability enables to see the numerical
there may be a sequential arrangement as in Fig. 3a or sense of the identical marks immediately without counting.
a layered arrangement as in Fig. 3b and c, we assume On the other hand, when a number is four or above, the pat-
that these arrangements do not imply any particular order tern of series of identical marks no longer holds. We would
on the three items. By representing a triad simply as a have to count the number of identical marks, if the patterns
set of three isolated dots, we temporarily ignore, for the of series identical marks were used.
sake of simplicity, some useful and important relationship, In light of these cognitive findings, it is not surprising
interaction, and dependency of the three items, which to find that triadic thinking is a universal practice across
will be further explored later in the paper. This simplistic many cultures and different disciplines, manifesting in

Fig. 3 Triads as three dots

The geometry of three-way decision 6305

many ways, shapes, and forms [9, 12, 31, 59, 97]. The 4.1.2 Triad as a tripod
rule of 3, as a practical cognitive simplification heuristics,
tells us to focus on three things at a time. We can easily The simple interpretation and representation of a triad as
remember three things and prioritize three things [80]; we three dots, although capturing an essential aspect of the
do not need to write them down or look them up [4]. threeness of a triad, does not take into consideration of the
When the rule is applied in our daily life, Meier [80] and relationships between parts of the whole nor the interaction
Bailey [4] demonstrate that we can achieve more by simply of the three items. To bring in these aspects, we use a tripod
deciding or choosing three things, goals, or tasks we want to represent a triad, following a suggestion by Merrell [81]
to accomplish at the beginning of each day and the start for depicting and interpreting Pierce’s signs with a tripod.
of each week. Booker [10] examines various uses of the In the earlier discussion of the TAO model of three-way
rule of 3 in storytelling, in which things often appear in decision of Fig. 1, we identified two tripods, a trisection
threes. Backman [3] explores the rule of 3 in writing through tripod (Whole, A, B, C) and a strategy tripod (Strategies,
effective uses of three-part or triadic structures. Boer [9] A, B, C). Figure 4a redraws the trisection tripod as a three-
and Gallo [35, 36] explain the effectiveness of the rule of blade fan. The circle in the center represents a whole. The
3 in public speeches. Brown [12] shows that trinitarianism, three lines describe the relationships between parts and
namely, thinking in threes, is widespread in the theory and whole: Reading outwards, the whole is trisected into three
practice of marketing. Pogliani et al [97] show that, when parts labelled by A, B, and C; reading inwards, the three
viewing the reality, there is an intriguing human preference parts support the whole. Relationships between different
for ternary patterns. parts are realized through their connections to the whole.
There are many other diverse uses of the rule of 3 For example, A and B are related through the circle in the
for triadic thinking. We look at three more examples for center. Finally, the tripod unites the three parts by the whole.
different interpretations of the three. Three is perhaps Figure 4b is a slightly modified version of the semiotic
the smallest number of items for us to form a pattern tripod used by Merrell [81] for interpreting Peirce’s triad,
in our mind: Once is a chance, twice is a coincidence, Sign(Representamen)/Object/Interpretant. We use a circle
thrice is a pattern. Sometimes, three is considered to instead of a dot in the center and add a dot at the outer end of
be the maximum: The three strikes rule suggests a each of the three lines. In the figure, R, I , and O represent,
severe consequence/punishment of the third time. In some respectively, a sign (or a representamen), the interpretant,
situations, three is used to denote figuratively many. We and the semiotic object. A tripod represents a genuine
often repeat the same things thrice to show an emphasis of triadicity, with the center circle as a focal point tying all
the importance, the priority, or the urgency, for example, elements together. Each sign element connects to the other
“clarity, clarity, clarity” by Oliver Strunk for writing, two through the center circle node. The interpretant plays
“education, education, education” by Tony Blair when a mediating role connecting the representamen and the
setting out his priorities for office, and “location, location, object and the meaning arises from relations between the
location” in real estate. It is interesting to note that this components of the sign.
rhetoric device known as epizeuxis, in fact, taps into the We refer to the tripod of Fig. 4a as the tripod of three-
above three senses of the number three: a) three as the way decision. The tripod provides a powerful geometric
minimum number of items to form a pattern, b) three as figure for describing a triad for triadic thinking. As another
the maximum number of allowed appearances, and c) three example for illustration, we give a 3V characterization
as a figurative number of many. The resulting triad of of big data as depicted in Fig. 4c. In 2001, Laney [56]
three repetitions of the same word forms a powerful and discussed a 3D conception of data management by
memorable pattern. introducing three aspects of data, namely, data volume,

Fig. 4 Triads as tripods

6306 Y. Yao

velocity, and variety, which was later used as the 3V of more than four elements. I use three examples to further
of big data. In light of the power of thinking in threes, demonstrate the necessity and the power of triadicity in
the acceptance of the 3V conception is not a surprise. human understanding. The first example is taken from
It is just another example of triadic thinking. What is Clayton [20] on the common use of lists of three as powerful
interesting is that many proposals have been made by speech patterns by great speakers. He commented that Sir
considering other aspects and features of big data by Winston Churchill’s famous list of four, “blood, toil, tears
using words beginning with V, ranging from three Vs and sweat,” is often mis-quoted as or shortened into a list
to ten Vs. The list of V-words includes, for example, of three, “blood, sweat and tears.” The second example is
Volume, Variety, Velocity, Veracity, Variability, Validity, taken from Brown [12] on the production/sale/marketing
Vulnerability, Viscosity, Volatility, Visualization, and Value. three eras schema in marketing. Although the original paper
As predicated by the principle of triadic thinking, proposals by Keith [54] contained a fourth era of “marketing control,”
with four or more Vs have not received the equal attention this fourth element has been forgotten in later studies. The
as the three Vs proposal. We have to make an effort to third example is the concept of generations of programming
memorize and to sort when we are given four or more Vs. languages. It is wide accepted that the development of
The introduction of other Vs suggests that the three Vs of programming languages is divided into three generations:
volume, velocity, and variety might not be the best choice. 1) the first generation of machine languages, 2) the
On the other hand, the principle of triadic thinking demands second generation of assembly languages, and 3) the third
us to choose only three Vs to conceptualize big data. Among generation of high-level languages. Although two additional
the list of V-words used in existing studies, we select fourth and fifth generations have been introduced, they
Volume, Variety, and Value as the three Vs of big data. The have not been well received nor commonly used. Talking
word “big” qualifies various and different aspects of data about only up to three generations or eras is a common
analytics. Choosing the two Vs of Volume and Value seem practice [12].
to be an easy decision. Large volume is a constant, common, Two oversimplifies, three charms, and four alarms. Build-
and unique feature of big data, which mainly focuses on the ing a case with three good reasons is more effective than
size of data. Deriving high value is a basic goal and objective with either two or four [110]. A tripod has three supporting
of big data analytic. The choice of the third V needs some legs, which offers a good metaphor for model building. Tri-
comments. We may take a broader meaning of “Variety” to partite models give us a great aesthetic pleasure of balance,
capture the wide diversity, non-uniformity, non-monotony, harmony, and completeness. They are complex enough to
or variance of different features of data, as well as methods allow for the necessary generality and flexibility on one
for processing the data, as characterized by other Vs. For hand and simple enough to not tax our brain on the other.
example, “Velocity” deals with a variety of speeds in which
real-time data are changing and to be processed. “Veracity” 4.1.3 Triad as a trisegment line
concerns about a variety of inconsistencies or accuracy of
data, and so on. By summarizing the discussion, we arrive Interpretations of a triad as a set of three dots or a tripod
at the triadic 3V conception of big data given in Fig. 4c. provide a general geometric understanding of three-way
By focusing on three Vs, we have a memorable and decision as thinking in threes. In many situations, we are
appealing characterization of big data. The inclusion of interested in special arrangement of the three dots. The very
additional Vs, although covering more aspects, may not first simple idea is to put three dots on a line, as shown
necessarily be advantageous. The discussions on the three in Fig. 5, capturing a sequential structure of the three dots.
Vs conception of big data are generally relevant when The interpretation of a triad as a trisegment line is a widely
formulating a simple and memorable model in other used way to express a simple view of the reality, such as
contexts. To support the choice of three, we quote from space and time. The earlier discussed three-era schema and
Clayton [20]: “The emotional power of lists of three is so three-generation classification are typical examples of the
great that even when lists of four are used, we typically trisegment line interpretation.
remember only three.” Although Clayton specifically used Figure 5a is an abstract geometric representation of a
lists of four elements, the statement remains valid for lists trisegment line. The line represents a continuous whole and

Fig. 5 Triads as trisegment lines

The geometry of three-way decision 6307

elements are ordered from left to right. Given a pair of segment are of a quantitative nature. Once the changes are
thresholds, α, β, we divide the whole into three segments, beyond some thresholds, they become qualitative changes.
which are denoted as three dots L (Left), M (Middle), and Examples of triadic qualitative representation, being easy-
R (Right). Figure 5b is an example of trisegment time line, to-grasp, easy-to-understand, and easy-to-remember, are
which figuratively depicts our everyday conception of time ubiquitous. There are low, middle, and high income
as a triad of the past, present, and future. Although we families; there are low, normal, and high body temperatures
explicitly give a pair of thresholds for trisecting the line, it or blood pressures; there are basic, standard, and luxury
should be noted that such clear cuts may not be well-defined versions of a product; there are good, better, and best
in practice. More often than not, we have rather blurred cuts practices and values. In statistical analysis, we sometimes
and the three segments are given qualitatively, instead of consider the middle and two tails of a distribution. Changes
quantitatively. of stock prices are described in terms of declining,
The trisegment line interpretation of a triad, in fact, unchanged, and advancing. Our attitudes towards an issue
serves as a basis for building an evaluation-based model are categorized into negative, neutral, and positive. An
of three-way decision [132]. We arrange a set of objects evaluation-based model of three-way decision captures the
according to their evaluation status values (ESVs) and essential features of these examples. We may also point out
trisect the set based on a pair of thresholds. Suppose U is that three-valued logics may serve as a basis for reasoning
a set of objects. We assume that an evaluation function of with triadic qualitative values.
objects is a mapping from U to the set of real numbers,
namely, e : U −→ . For x ∈ U , e(x) is the evaluation 4.1.4 Triad as a trilevel structure
status value of x. In general, we may consider a partially-
ordered set or a totally-ordered set in place of . Given a A trisegment line representation of a triad gives us a
pair of thresholds α, β with α ≥ β, we can trisect the set of sequential sense of a set of three things. In some situations, it
objects. Depending on the decisions of objects with values is useful to arrange the three things hierarchically to capture
equal to α or β, there are several ways for trisecting. Two a sense of control and support. This aspect leads to trilevel
possible ways are given below: thinking as one of the modes of three-way decision [139].
Figure 6 depicts three commonly used hierarchical
L(,β] (e) = {x ∈ U | e(x) ≤ β},
representations of a triad, namely, trilevel hierarchies,
M (β,α) (e) = {x ∈ U | β < e(x) < α}, trilevel pyramids, and concentric tricircles (or nested trilayer
H [α,) (e) = {x ∈ U | e(x) ≥ α}, (1) circles). Trilevel hierarchies are widely used to organize
the world and ourselves. Examples of trilevel structures are
and
three levels of governments, three levels of management,
L(,β) (e) = {x ∈ U | e(x) < β}, three levels of leadership, three levels of strategy, three
M [β,α] (e) = {x ∈ U | β ≤ e(x) ≤ α}, levels of understanding, three levels of design, three levels
of biodiversity, three levels of economics, and many others.
H (α,) (e) = {x ∈ U | e(x) > α}, (2)
There is typically a control-support relationship between
where L, M, and H indicates, respectively, low, medium, levels and the top level or inner layer is indirectly related to
and high evaluation status values, and the superscripts give the bottom level or outer layer through the middle level or
the ranges used to construct the corresponding segments. layer. As indicated by a solid line, a higher level controls
Consider a special case of (2) where α = β = 0. and determines its lower level; as indicated by a dashed
We have three subsets of U representing, respectively, line, a lower level supports its higher level. In some sense,
negative, zero, and positive evaluation statuses. The triad a hierarchical control and subordinating brings in an order
of negative/zero/positive is, in fact, a powerful metaphor in in a complex situation. Hierarchical structures play a crucial
our everyday life. While the negative and positive represent role in granular computing. Lower levels consist of smaller
the two opposite and, sometimes, competitive extremes, granules, representing lower granularities and more details,
zero represents the harmonic and tolerating golden middle. and higher levels consist of larger granules, representing
Taking the middle-way and avoiding extremes is a time- higher granularities and more abstraction. This connection
proven wisdom of life [43, 77]. Figure 5c explains three- gives rise to three-way granular computing [136].
way decision in terms of a trisegment line: Two or less is In what follows, I discuss general ideas and examples of
too small, four or more is too many, and three is the right the three types of trilevel structures in Fig. 6.
number of things to think of effectively on a cognitive basis.
A division of a continuous whole into three parts Trilevel hierarchies In Fig. 6a, we use three rectangles of the
represents a change from a quantitative understanding same size to convey a sense of the sameness of the values
to a qualitative understanding. Changes within each line of the three levels, for example, each of the three levels
6308 Y. Yao

Fig. 6 Trilevel structures

is as important as the other two. The three levels simply support, we increase the probability of finding the most
describe or represent the same problem at different levels appropriate theory, representations and algorithms, and
of abstraction, detail, or scale. They provide descriptions implementations. Marr’s three levels have influenced
of the whole from three different perspectives. I use three trilevel thinking in computer science, cognitive science,
examples to illustrate the uses of trilevel hierarchies. brain science, and several other fields.
The first example of trilevel thinking is Marr’s [79] three- The second example of trilevel thinking is Weaver’s
level understanding of an information processing system, trilevel model of communication problems, consisting of
which is given in Fig. 6d. The top level focuses on technical problems of transferring symbols through a com-
computational theory in abstract, the middle level concerns munication channel, semantics problems of understanding
specific representations, algorithms, and processes, and the the transferred messages, and effectiveness problems of uti-
bottom level is about physical implementation. With the lizing the understood messages [107]. It is interesting to
trilevel conception, it is possible to talk about computational note that Weaver’s three levels are arranged according to
theory without referring to particular representations and an increasing order of complexity from bottom-up. Multi-
algorithms, and to talk about representations and algorithms level hierarchies with varying complexity and difficulty is
without referring to specific machine hardware. A theory a commonly used effective way to approach a complex
may determine and, at the same time, be supported problem.
by multiple representations and algorithms. Similarly, an The third example is the ANSI-SPARC architecture
algorithm may determine and, at the same time, be of database management systems consists of three levels,
supported by multiple hardware implementations. A trilevel namely, the external level for user views of data, conceptual
hierarchy enables us to separate our concerns, to focus level for logical views of data, and internal level for physical
on different problems at different levels, and to ask the data storage and retrieval [48]. Similar to Marr’s three
right questions at the right levels. Marr argued that a levels, the separation of the three views enables us to focus
full understanding of an information processing system on a particular type of problem at a particular level. For
depends crucially on understandings at the three levels. example, we can investigate logical aspects of data without
By iteratively exploring top-down control and bottom-up worrying about their physical storage and retrieval methods.
The geometry of three-way decision 6309

Trilevel pyramids In Fig. 6b, we depict a triad by a trilevel The third example is the AIDA (Attention-to-Interest-
pyramid. Our preference for calling Fig. 6b a pyramid, to-Desire-to-Action) model of advertising, which is often
rather than a triangle, is based on three reasons. First, three referred to as AIDA pyramid or AIDA funnel. It may be
levels have different sizes and form a pyramidical structure, commented that a trilevel funnel is an inverted pyramid,
with a large base and small top. Second, we represent three which provides another geometric representation of a triad.
things of a triad as the three levels in the pyramid. We AIDA model works by drawing a customer’s attention,
do not associate any special meanings to neither the three rising the customer’s interest and desire, and finally making
edges nor the three corners of the triangle. We will discuss the customer take a purchasing action. What lie between
such triangle-based interpretations in the next subsection. attention and action may be more than just interest and
Third, a pyramid provides a metaphor of a hierarchical desire. This motivates many proposals that introduce more
organization that has a large number of members at the stages in the AIDA model [5, 117], which unfortunately
bottom and, as we move up the hierarchy, a small number makes the model complicated. On the opposite direction,
of members at the top. While a trilevel hierarchy of Fig. 6a it may be possible to combine the middle two levels
captures a sense of sameness of the three levels, a trilevel into a single middle level based on the concept of
pyramid reflects a sense of difference of the three levels. It is the hierarchy of effects [5, 6]. By following the labels
perhaps the sense of difference that makes a trilevel pyramid of the cognition/affect/conation (behaviour) hierarchy of
a commonly used geometric figure. I use three examples to effects [5, 6], corresponding to thinking/feeling/doing, I
illustrate the use of trilevel pyramids as a representation of may suggest labeling the new middle level as the affect
triads. level. In this way, there is a simple attention/affect/action
The first example is the organizational trilevel pyramid 3A pyramid of marketing.
introduced by Anthony [1]. As shown by Fig. 6e, the three
levels of planning and control are characterized by strategic Concentric tricircles Trilevel hierarchies and trilayer pyra-
decisions, tactical decisions, and operational decisions. As mids provide us with a view of a triad as a stack of or a
illustrated by a pyramid, the scales/impacts of and the stratum of three things. They are appropriate for a top-down
number of decisions made are very different at the three and bottom-up understanding of a triad. In some situations,
levels: Many operational decisions are made at the bottom, we want to consider three things according to a spatial
some tactical decisions are made in the middle, and a few metaphor of internal versus external or a container metaphor
important strategic decisions are made at the top. Decisions of containment. A circle with multiple layers or a family of
at a lower level are guided by decisions at a higher level concentric circles may serve this purpose.
and, reversely, decisions at a lower level support decisions Figure 6c is a trilayer circle characterized by an inner
at a higher level. Although pyramids with more than layer, an outer layer, and an in-between middle layer.
three levels are also a common appearance in management Reading outwards, the inner layer determines or supports
science, Anthony’s pyramid seems to be more popular, the middle layer and the middle determines or supports
due to its simplicity and connections with various types of the outer layer. Reading inwards, the outer layer builds on
information systems. For example, corresponding to trilevel the middle layer and the middle layer builds on the inner
pyramid, it is possible to study information management layer. The sizes of the three layers of this onion structure
systems at three levels [41]. immediately offer two interpretations. The small-to-large
The second example of trilevel pyramids is my re-inter- sequence indicates a kind of growth from the small internal
pretation of the four-level data/information/knowledge/ cores to large external shells. The large-to-small sequence
wisdom (DIKW) hierarchy, in which the two levels of indicates containment of a smaller layer by a larger layer. I
information and knowledge are combined into the middle use three examples to show the values of the trilayer circle
information-knowledge level [139]. Under the interpreta- metaphor.
tion, the bottom level concerns about raw unprocessed data, The first example is the Golden Circle leadership model
the middle information-knowledge level concerns about var- introduced by Sinek [109], which is given in Fig. 6f by
ious types of knowledge embedded in data (i.e., information adding a solid line and a dashed line. As indicated by the
is considered to be a type of weak knowledge), and the top three layers of the Golden Circle, every organization and
level concerns the wise use of knowledge. In some sense, everyone of us should know three most important things:
the new DI-KW hierarchy corresponds closely to Anthony’s What we do, how we do, and why we do. In some sense, the
pyramid. Operational decisions focus on data, tactical deci- sizes of three circles provide hints on our grasp of the three:
sions are based on available information and knowledge We all know WHAT, some of us know HOW, and only very
distilled from data, and strategic decisions show the wisdom few of us can clearly articulate WHY. What differentiates
in actions. great leaders and us ordinary people is that great leaders
6310 Y. Yao

start from WHY and think, act, and communicate from the indicates an outcome-directed way to build habits. Most of
inside out, as indicated by the solid line in the figure. That us work this way by focusing on or starting with what we
is, a powerful and effective pattern of thinking, acting, and want to achieve. The solid line indicates an identity-directed
communicating is WHY-to-HOW-to-WHAT: Why we do way to build habits by focusing on who we wish to be. An
leads to how we do, and how we do leads to what we do. internal search of the root of who we are will help us to
On the other hand, many of us normally start from WHAT know how we do, and knowing how we do will bear the
and seldom move into WHY, as indicated by the dashed fruits of what we get. For habits building, we should always
line in the figure. The Golden Circle with three layers and focus on becoming the type of person, instead of on getting
two directions of movement provide a way leading to great a particular outcome.
leadership. The third example is the commonly used trilayer circle
The second example is a recycle of the Golden Circle description of a computer system by labeling three layers
by Clear [21] in his three level model of behavior change. as hardware, system software, and application software.
Corresponding to the trilayer circle of Fig. 6c, Clear’s System software is supported by the hardware and is built
three labels of the three layers are Identity, Processes, on the top of and around the hardware; application software
and Outcome. The inner layer is about who we are, is supported by the system software and is built on the top
concerning changes of our identity as reflected by our of and around the system software.
beliefs, worldview, self-image, judgments of self and others.
The middle layer is about how we do, concerning changes 4.1.5 Triad as a triangle
of our processes, namely, changing our habits and systems.
The outer layer is about what we get, concerning changes of In trisegment lines and trilevel structures, two elements of
our outcomes, namely, the results of changes. The identity, a triad are not directly linked, but are connected through
processes, and outcomes layers are, respectively, about what the third element. When a direct link between any pair is
we believe, what we do, and what we get. To build habits useful, we need to consider a triangle representation and
that last, we must be willing to make changes at all three interpretation of a triad, as given by the middle triangle
layers. Changes at the three layers, although of different (A, B, C) in the TAO model of Fig. 1. We can easily obtain
nature, are all useful. What makes the trilayer circle valuable a triangle from a trisegment line of Fig. 5 by lifting the
is the two directions in which changes are made [21]. We middle point and connecting the two end points. In a triangle
can use Fig. 6c to explain Clear’s model. The dashed line based interpretation of a triad, the triangle represents a

Fig. 7 Trisections as triangles

The geometry of three-way decision 6311

whole and the three corners represent the three elements states are pairwise exclusive in the sense that at any time
of a triad. The geometric representation of a triad by a the thing must be in one of the three states. The abstract
triangle is the most common one and appears everywhere. A-E-Y triangle has many interpretations when we attach
As examples for illustration, I will discuss three types of specific meanings to the three corners. For example, in
triangles in Fig. 7. the quantificational triangle of contrariety, symbols A, E,
Three-way decision is about thinking based on a set and Y are interpreted, respectively, as All (i.e., universal
or triplet of three elements. In Fig. 7a, we interpret the affirmatives), None (i.e., universal negations), and Some
triangle as representing a whole, the three corners of the but not all. Table 2 summarizes more examples of various
triangle as the three elements of a triad, and the three interpretations of triangles of contrariety [8].
edges as the pairwise connections of the three elements. A triangle may be made more useful in three ways: a)
In the triangle, every element is connected to the other introducing different types of edges through various line
two elements, showing their dependencies, associations, styles and colors, b) adding arrows to edges, and c) attach-
and supports. If we consider only one edge, we see the ing annotations to lines. Figure 7b is an example of an
relationship of two elements. For example, the edge (A, B) arrowed triangle with two types of edges. I can use this tri-
links A and B together. If we consider any two edges angle to explain Covey’s [22] powerful notion of the 3rd
together, we see a direct relationship of the shared element alternative. As shown by Fig. 7e, the 1st Alternative is “My
with the two unshared elements, but not a direct relationship way” and the 2nd Alternative is “Your way.” These two
of the two unshared elements. For example, if we consider ways typically are in conflict of each other, as shown by
edges (A, B) and (A, C) together, A becomes the center of the double arrowed dashed bottom edge of the triangle.
attention and may be explained in the contexts of B and C, By synergizing, we raise up to the 3rd Alternative of “Our
but the relationship of B and C is not present directly. If we way,” as indicated by the two single-arrowed solid edges in
consider all three edges, each of the three corners appears the figure. This 3rd Alternative is a reconciliation of two
exactly twice. Two types of relationship appear, a direct competitive ways, leading to a higher and superior way to
relationship given by an edge and an indirect relationship resolve the conflict. Martin [78] considered similar ideas
given by two edges through a third element. For example, and introduced the notion of integrative thinking. He
for the pair (A, B), we have the direct relation (A, B) and defined integrative thinking as the “ability to face construc-
an indirect relation through C, namely, (A, C) and (C, B). tively the tension of opposing ideas and, instead of choosing
It is fair to say that a triangle interpretation of a triad offers one at the expenses of the other, generate a creative resolu-
us many possibilities to explore three-way decision. tion of the tension in the form of a new idea that contains
For a more concrete triangle-based interpretation, I use elements of the opposing ideas but is superior to each.”
Béziau’s [8] abstract A-E-Y triangle of contrariety given in Covey’s 3rd alternative and Martin’s integrated new idea are
Fig. 7d. The corners of an A-E-Y triangle represent three related to but different from the earlier discussed notion of
states used to describe conditions, situations, or positions middle way. The middle way is typically more about mod-
of something at specific times. Furthermore, the two states eration and aversion of extremes, staying in the middle of
A and E represent opposite extremes and the third state Y two opposites. The two interpretations of a moderate middle
represents somewhere in the middle. Typically, the three and a new integrated or synergized middle provide a fuller

Table 2 Triangles of contrariety

Name A Y E

Quantificational triangle of contrariety All Some None

Space triangle of contrariety Everywhere Somewhere Nowhere
Time triangle of contrariety Always Sometimes Never
Alethic triangle of contrariety Necessary Contingent Impossible
Deontic triangle of contrariety Obligatory Allowed Prohibited
Directional triangle of contrariety Left Center Right
Punctual triangle of contrariety In advance On time Late
Moral triangle of contrariety Bad Right Good
Ordering triangle of contrariety > = <
Sign triangle of contrariety + 0 −
Intensity triangle of contrariety Low Medium High
6312 Y. Yao

picture of the notion of a third way in addition to commonly defined by p. If we also use a, b, and c to label three points
used two ways, forming a basis of three-way decision. on the three axes, we immediately have a tripod (p, a, b, c)
Consider now a particular arrowed triangle in which three with p as the top and a, b, c as three legs, as shown by
arrowed edges form a circle. For example, A points at B, B the dotted lines in Fig. 8a. This metaphor of decomposing
points at C, and C points back at A. In other words, the three one into three components or combining three components
elements in a triad form a circular sequence or have a kind into one explains the underlying principle of 3-dimensional
circular dependency. A circle figuratively give a sense of thinking, which is one mode of three-way decision. To
completeness. In this case, a circular triangle may be drawn further illustrate 3D thinking, I use two more examples to
as a trisegment circle as shown in Fig. 7c. As a concrete make it three.
example, Fig. 7f depicts Duhigg’s [30] cue/routine/reward The concept of guna is one of the key ideas in the Hindu
habit loop. The three-step loop explains how our brain work: worldview [72]. The word guna literally means a cord, a
A cue triggers a habit and leads to a physical, mental, thread, a strand, or a rope, indicating that everything in the
or emotional routine, the result of the routine produces world is bound by gunas [116]. As an embracing notion,
a reward, and the loop starts again with a new cue. The translations of the word guna are varying and in many,
continuous many repetitions of the loop give birth to habits. including quality, peculiarity, attribute, property, mode,
merit, virtue, and so on [49, 72, 116]. The triple gunas,
4.1.6 Triad as a basis of a three-dimensional space as primary qualities, modes of nature, or driving forces,
are sattva (i.e., goodness, purity, light, harmony, superiority,
A three-dimensional (3D) space provides a formal and etc.), rajas (i.e., passion, activity, motion, ambivalence, etc.),
visual method to describe spatial information. A set of and tamas (i.e., darkness, decay, inertia, inertness, inactivity,
three linearly independent vectors forms a basis of a three- inferiority, etc.) [19, 49, 72, 116]. With reference to the
dimensional space so that any point in the space can be positive-neutral-negative triad, we may similarly explain
produced by a linear combination of the three basis vectors. the triple gunas: a) sattva is positive and is associated
In this way, a basis is the simplest characterization of the with goodness, truth, wholesomeness, health, etc., b) tamas
space. Due to the fact that we live in a 3D space, the is negative and is associated with darkness, ignorance,
3D metaphor is universally used in different cultures and death, etc., and c) rajas can be either positive or negative,
disciplines. For this reason, we may treat a triad as a basis of depending on a particular context [72].
a 3D space, from the triad the whole space can be generated. Figure 8b labels the three dimensions in a 3D space by
That is, a triad consists of three basic elements from which the triple gunas. According to the 3D thinking metaphor,
all other elements can be produced. This interpretation of a in a similar that we define any point in the 3D vector
triad with a generative power offers a new perspective on space by three numbers, we can characterize all things and
three-way decision as 3-dimensional thinking. beings in the world by the three basic qualities of sattav,
Figure 8a describes the 3-dimensional vector space with rajas, and tamas, in terms of their proportions, dispositions,
an orthogonal basis {x, y, z}, where x, y, and z are three and compositions. All things have mixtures of these three
unit vectors along the three axes. A point p in the space is gunas with differing proportions. A harmony is a right
represented by a triplet (a, b, c), where a, b, and c are the proportion of the three gunas and an unbalanced state of
projections of p on the three axes x, y, and z. In other words, being is a disproportion of the three gunas. The use of three
p is composed by a units of x, b units of y, and c units of gunas, rather than other numbers, provides another piece
z, the vector representing p is written as ax + by + cz. The of evidence in support of three-way decision as thinking in
triplet is also referred to as the components of the vector threes. In passing, for the strength of triadic thinking, the

Fig. 8 3-dimensional spaces

The geometry of three-way decision 6313

combination of the literal meaning of the word guna (i.e., a 4.2 Preference orderings of the threes
strand or a cord) and the number three also reminds us of the
metaphor that “a cord of three strands is not easily broken.” Discussions so far have been focused on the representations
Colors play an important role in our everyday living and interpretations of a triad based on relationships of the
and communications. Thinking in three colors is a very three things in the triad. When applying strategies to a
common practice. The triple gunas are represented as white triad to achieve a desirable outcome, we sometimes need
(sattva, brightness), red (rajas, emotion and unrest), and to consider another type of relationships that reflect our
black (tamas, darkness) [116]. A red-yellow-green traffic preferences on the three things. As indicated in Fig. 9, there
light tells us to stop when it is red, to proceed when it is are three basic categories of preferences [134]: 1) unordered
green, to prepare to stop or to proceed if safe when it is three (e.g., Fig. 9a), 2) partially ordered three (e.g., Fig. 9b–
yellow. In project management, the same tricolor system d), and 3) totally ordered three (e.g., Fig. 9e). Preference
indicates that a project is ahead of schedule (i.e., green), is orderings of the three tell us how to prioritize our attention
behind schedule (i.e., red), and needs attention (i.e., yellow). in the acting step of the TAO model of three-way decision,
When thinking in three colors, we may decorate each item particularly when time and resources are scarce.
in a triad by a different color. A preference ordering of the three things of a triad
Instead of using three colors, there are several models may be the same as or different from other structures
for generating or representing various colors by using three discussed earlier. A triad is therefore jointly characterized
primary additive colors [111]. For example, Fig. 8c is an by a relational structure (e.g., a trilevel hierarchy) and
illustration of a 3D RGB space based on the three primary a preference ordering (e.g., a partially-ordered three).
colors, Red, Green, and Blue. Similar to an expression of a Triadic thinking depends on both structural information and
point in the 3D space, a color is a convex combination of the preferential information of the three things in the triad.
three primary colors, that is, a mixture of the three primary When three things of a triad are of equal importance
colors in a certain proportion. Although the 3D color space or it is not meaningful to impose a preference ordering,
allows for an infinite number of possibilities, in practice we will represent the preference ordering simply as three
we typically consider only a finite number of colors. In the dots, as shown in Fig. 9a. For example, it is very common
RGB color model, combinations of pairs of primary colors to describe the study of a field from philosophy, theory,
of equal intensity produce three secondary colors: cyan and practice three perspectives. One may argue that theory
(combination of green and blue), yellow (combination of red is guided by its underlying philosophy and practice is
and green), and magenta (red and blue). A combination of a guided by theory, forming a trilevel hierarchy in a structural
primary color and one of its two adjacent secondary colors description. However, it may be unwise to argue which one
of equal intensity produces a tertiary color. With the three is more important and an unordered three seems to be more
primary colors and the three secondary colors, there are six reasonable.
tertiary colors. Although further combinations are possible, There are three possible types of partially-ordered threes.
these first three levels of 12 colors are often sufficient. Figure 9b shows that, among three things, one is preferred
The trichromatic theory of color vision is built and to another one, and both of them are not compared with
explained based on three types of long- (L), middle- the third. Although we divide a whole into three parts, it
(M), and short- (S) wavelength-sensitive cones in the may be only necessary to process two of them one after
retina [111]. It may be viewed as another example of the other. For example, in medical decision-making we may
thinking in threes. The common practice of using three divide a group of people into three classes with respect
colors for visual representation, 3D color spaces, and the to a disease: (i) those who have the disease, (ii) those
trichromatic theory of color vision offer additional insights who possibly have the disease, and (iii) those who do not
into three-way decision from a new color perspective. have the disease. For designing treatment and monitoring

Fig. 9 Example configurations of partially-ordered and totally-ordered threes

6314 Y. Yao

plans, (i) is ordered before (ii) and (iii) is not taken into 5.1 Hexagon of a tripartition for set-theoretic
consideration. Figure 9c shows that one of the three is three-way decision
preferred to other two. The philosophy of the middle-
way is a typical example of this structure. We prefer the Set-theoretic models of three-way decision are formulated
moderate middle to the two opposite extremes. In many and explained based on trisections of a universe of
tests in medicine, a middle value indicates normal and a objects [140]. Depending on the properties of the three
too low or a too high value indicates abnormal. The normal subsets in a trisection, it is possible to study different
is preferred to abnormal. Figure 9d shows that two of the models. In this section, I only consider a tripartition based
three are preferred to the third, which is the reverse of the model.
Fig. 9c. Consider again the earlier medical decision-making Suppose that U is a set called the universe of objects.
example. Groups (i) and (iii) are associated with certainty Three subsets A, B, C ⊆ U form a trisection of U , written
or less uncertainty and group (ii) is associated with more as A, B, C, if they satisfy the property:
uncertainty. Decision-making under certainty is easy and
(i) A ∪ B ∪ C = U.
decision-making under uncertainty is difficult. From the
point of view of uncertainty, we may prefer both (i) and (iii) That is, the union of the three subsets covers the universe.
to (ii). We humans generally prefer knowing, whether the A tripartition of U is a trisection of U that satisfies the
result is positive or negative, to not knowing. following properties:
Figure 9e shows a totally ordered three, which is the
(ii) A = ∅, B = ∅, C = ∅,
opposite case of an unordered three. In this case, processing
is easy, that is, one after another in a sequence. A totally (iii) A ∩ B = ∅, A ∩ C = ∅, B ∩ C = ∅.
ordered three in many situations is the same as the trilevel Property (ii) requires that all three subsets are nonempty.
structure. For Marr’s three levels, it is naturally to work in Property (iii) states that the three subsets are pairwise
the sequence of computational theory, representations and disjoint. A tricovering of U is a trisection of U and satisfies
algorithms, and hardware implementations. With reference properties (i), (ii) and
to Sinek’s Golden Circle, it is more effective to address
WHY, HOW, and WHAT questions sequentially. (iv) A = B, A = C, B = C.
The three categories of unordered threes, partially Property (iv) states that the three subsets are pairwise
ordered threes, and totally ordered threes also form a triad different. Given property (ii), property (iii) implies (iv).
of preference structures, from non-preference to strong Thus, a tripartition is a special case of a tricovering.
preferences. The two opposite ends of unordered threes For a tripartition A, B, C, by taking the set complement
and totally ordered threes are relatively simple and easy to of each subset, we have another trisection A , B  , C  ,
work with, the middle of partially ordered threes is more where A = U − A denotes the complement of A and so on.
complex and offers more ways to work with. We may By the properties of a tripartition, the following additional
draw a correspondence between unordered threes and totally relationships hold [8]:
ordered threes to chaos and order. Then the partially ordered
(1) A = B ∪ C, B  = A ∪ C, C  = A ∪ B,
threes lie at the edge between chaos and order. The three
(2) A = B  ∩ C  = ∅, B = A ∩ C  = ∅, C = A ∩ B  = ∅,
states may be metaphorically described as the shapeless
(3) A ⊆ B  , A ⊆ C  , B ⊆ A , B ⊆ C  , C ⊆ A , C ⊆ B  ,
gas, flowable liquid, and rigid solid, in which complexity,
(4) A ∪ B  = U, A ∪ C  = U, B  ∪ C  = U,
interesting things, and innovations happen in the liquid
(5) A = B  , A = C  , B  = C  .
middle, namely, the edge of chaos [52]. This might suggest
that three-way decision with partially ordered threes may
produce useful models, as the cases of the middle way [77], It follows that the trisection A , B  , C   is a tricovering
Covey’s 3rd alternative [22], and Martin’s integrated third of U .
idea [78]. We adopt the notion of a set-theoretical hexagon from
Béziau [8], Dubois and Prade [28], and Ciucci et al [17]
to describe a hexagon of three-way decision. By using the
5 Explanations of richer structures based six subsets in the tripartion A, B, C and the tricovering
on triadic thinking A , B  , C   as corners of a hexagon and their relationships
as edges, we arrive at the hexagon of three-way decision,
In this section, I will show, through three examples, that as depicted by Fig. 10. A dashed line connects two disjoint
it is possible to construct and to explain more complex sets, a dotted line connects a set and its complement, a solid
geometric structures by using the basic structures of three- line connects two sets with a nonempty intersection, and an
way decision discussed in the last section. arrowed solid line connects a pair of sets such that one is
The geometry of three-way decision 6315

diagonal lines, we can obtain four triangles, giving rise

to four tricoverings. For example, from the rectangle
(A, C, A , C  ) we have four tricoverings: A, C, C  ,
A , C, C  , A, A , C, and A, A , C  . There are a total
of 12 such tricoverings. Each of the 12 tricoverings is
defined by a subset from the tripartition A, B, C, the
complement of the subset, and a second different subset
from A, B, C or the complement of the second subset.
For example, tricovering A, C, C   consists of subset C,
C’s complement C  , and a second subset A; tricovering
A , C, C   consists of subset C, C’s complement C  , and
A (i.e., the complement of a second set A). In other words,
each of these tricoverings can be simply characterized by a
pair of complementary subsets linked by a dotted line in the
hexagon in the context of a second subset.
The hexagon of a tripartition and triangles in the hexagon
suggest different patterns and structures that may be used
for modeling three-way decision. One can construct similar
hexagons for other types of trisection of a universe. These
Fig. 10 Hexagon of a tripartition of a universe hexagons have been used to connect three-way decision
with different data analysis methods such as rough set
analysis and formal concept analysis [18, 28, 138].
a subset of the other. Triangles in the hexagon are useful
triads. 5.2 Sequences and cycles of the eight trigrams
The tripartition A, B, C is the middle triangle formed
by three dashed lines. A tripartition can be equivalently The notion of Yinyang is deeply rooted in Chinese thought
defined by any pair of subsets from A, B, C, as the third and culture. Wang [120] presented a very comprehensive
subset can be defined as the set complement of the union of analysis and discussion of the richness and multiplicity of
the other two. For example, A, B, C can be equivalently the meanings and applications of Yinyang. In this paper, I
written as A, B, (A ∪ B) . Thus, a tripartition is related examine specific ways of triadic thinking based on a very
to the notion of an orthopair (i.e., a pair of disjoint sets) basic understanding of Yinyang. The focus is on triads
proposed by Ciucci [15]. For example, A, B, C can be embedded in or implicitly used in Yinyang pairs. I hope that
equivalently defined by an orthopair A, B. The tricovering such an examination of a triadic understanding of Yinyang
A , B  , C   is the middle triangle formed by three solid may offer something new to the rich and multifaceted
lines. According to property (4), any two subsets from the concept of Yinyang.
tricovering A , B  , C   are sufficient to cover the universe
U ; moreover, the two subsets determine the third subset. For 5.2.1 A three-step construction process of the eight trigrams
example, A ∪ B  = U and C  = (A ∩ B  ) . It is sufficient
to define the tricovering A , B  , C   by giving only two Yinyang represents a pair of mutually dependent, comple-
subsets from it. mentary, and transformable two opposites. Yin is negative,
There are six triangles corresponding to the six corners. dark, and feminine; Yang is positive, bright, and masculine.
The three triangles, with each formed by three solid Everything in the world contains or is explainable in terms
lines, give three tricoverings A, B  , C  , A , B, C  , and of its Yin and Yang. Yin and Yang co-exist and one can-
A , B  , C. In each of these three tricoverings, the two not exist without the other. The concept of Yinyang itself
subsets with set complement operator  are sufficient to has its two sides. It is simple, straightforward, and earthly
cover the universe and the third subset is the intersection on the one hand, and complex, subtle, and heavenly on the
of these two subsets. For example, in the tricovering other. The interaction, integration, and harmony of Yin and
A, B  , C  , B  ∪ C  = U and A = B  ∩ C  . The other Yang give rise to Zhong (i.e., middle) or He (i.e., harmony).
three triangles, with each formed by two solid lines and one In this way, we have a triad consisting of Yin, Yang, and
dashed line, do not produce tricoverings. Zhong, with Zhong embedded in Yin and Yang as a mid-
There are three rectangles in the hexagon: (A, B  , A , B), dle position, a harmonized third state, a boundary of Yin
(A, C, A , C  ), and (B, C  , B  , C). From a rectangle, by and Yang. Examples of the (Yin, Yang, Zhong) triad are
combining two adjacent edges and one of the two common appearances in Chinese thought and culture. For
6316 Y. Yao

example, Yang represents the heaven, Yin represents the and the pair is called the Liangyi (two modes). In the second
earth, and we humans in the middle connect the heaven and step, adding Yin and Yang lines on the top of each of the
earth. Father symbolizes Yang, mother symbolizes Yin, and two modes produces Sixiang (four images). Adding a Yang
children in the middle tie together father and mother. Hot line is equivalent to moving up and adding a Yin line is
is Yang, cold is Yin, and the middle is a more comfort- equivalent to moving down. For example, Greater Yang (i.e.,
able warm zone. Mixing of Yin and Yang would produce (Yang, Yang)) is the result of moving up, which produces
Zhong, in the same way that mixing cold and hot water more Yang. The naming system of the first two levels, i.e.,
would produce warm water. Yang, Yin, Greater Yang, Lesser Yin, Lesser Yang, and
By combining Yin and Yang in structured ways, it is Greater Yin, suggests that the newly added Yin or Yang
possible to produce useful patterns. Fig. 11 shows the line has a higher weight. For example, by adding a Yin line
construction of eight trigrams by a three-stage combination on the top of Yang produces a Lesser Yin, in which Yin is
process of Yin and Yang, which is an example of thinking dominating. Finally, in the third step, adding Yin and Yang
in threes. In the figure, a broken line represents Yin and an lines on the top of each of the four images produces Bagua
unbroken line represents Yang. We assume that the upwards (eight trigrams). The eight trigrams are referred to as Qian
direction represents the direction of the heaven (i.e., Yang) (Heaven), Dui (Marshes), Li (Fire), Zhen (Thunder), Xun
and the downwards direction represents the the direction (Wind), Kan (Water), Gen (Mountains), and Kun (Earth).
of the earth (i.e., Yin). As we move up, we increase the Qian consists of only Yang lines, is of Yang nature, and
amount of Yang and decrease the amount of Yin, and as we is labeled as Yang. Kun consists of only Yin lines, is of Yin
move down, we increase the amount of Yin and decrease the nature, and is labeled as Yin. For the rest of six trigrams, if
amount of Yang. Furthermore, in each step we add either a a trigram contains only one Yang line, it is of Yang nature
Yin line or a Yang line on the top of an existing pattern to and is labeled as Yang; if a trigram contains only one Yin
form a new pattern. line, it is of Yin nature and is labeled as Yin. Therefore, Dui,
In the first step, moving up from Taiji (the Great Li, and Xun are of Yin nature and their labels are Yin; Zhen,
Ultimate) produces Yang, and moving down produces Yin, Kan, and Gen are of Yang nature and their labels are Yang. It

Fig. 11 Eight trigrams

The geometry of three-way decision 6317

is interesting to note that this rule of determining Yin/Yang constructing the binary number of a trigram bottom-up, the
nature/labels at the level three is not applicable to the levels bottom Yin or Yang has a dominant contribution. This seems
one and two. The later added Yin/Yang lines do not have to be inconsistent with the assumption that the top Yin
higher weights. This is also somewhat inconsistent with a or Yang dominates. However, constructing binary numbers
common practice of interpreting the three Yin/Yang lines. top-down by treating Yin as 0 and Yang as 1 will produce
Typically, eight trigrams offer a way of triadic thinking in values 7, 3, 5, 1, 6, 2, 4, 0 for Qian, Dui, ..., and Kun,
which the top line is associated with heaven, the bottom line which gives a different sequence. In addition, it is difficult
with earth, and the middle line with human beings. The three to assign a number to Taiji that is neither Yin nor Yang.
lines may have different weights. As mentioned earlier, a third Zhong is embedded in
The set of the eight trigrams consists of all possible Yin and Yang to form a triad of (Yin, Yang, Zhong). The
trifold combinations of Yin and Yang. The eight trigrams standard binary system may be insufficient for such a triadic
are used as a means to categorize and study myriads thinking, as we have 0 and 1 for Yin and Yang and no
of things. In the process of forming the archetypes of symbol for Zhong. In addition, the obvious connotations of
the eight trigrams, there have been many different ways Yang for positive and Yin for negative are not explicitly
to attaching meanings to them, including, for example, present. To address these issues, I suggest a numerical
assigning numbers, connecting to natural objects and interpretation of trigrams by using a lesser-known balanced
phenomena, and relating to spatial positions and directions. binary number system [55, 104]. The system matches
perfectly the triad of (Yin, Yang, Zhong) with three symbols,
5.2.2 Numerical interpretations of trigrams namely, 1̄ = −1 for Yin, 1 = +1 for Yang, and 0 for
Zhong. Yin and Yang are clearly a pair of negative and
In some specific sense, the eight trigrams simply serve a positive numbers, and their sum is the 0 = (−1) + (+1)
role of an index of categories of things. By using three for Zhong. In Fig. 11, we use ()b to denote a balanced
lines, trigrams are easy-to-memorize and easy-to-grasp. As binary number representation of a trigram. To be consistent
discussed earlier, the structure of a trigram is determined with the assumption that the top Yin or Yang dominates, we
by both the number of Yin and Yang lines and their construct a balanced binary number top-down. For example,
positions. It is therefore natural to attached numbers with for Qian, Dui, ..., to Kun, we have (111)b , (1̄11)b , ..., to
their associated meanings to the eight trigrams. (1̄1̄1̄)b . The same procedure for computing the decimal
By labeling the eight trigrams top-down with numbers value of a binary number is used to compute the decimal
1 to 8 in Fig. 11, we have Qian-1, Dui-2, Li-3, Zhen-4, value of a balanced binary number. For example, Qian is
Xun-5, Kan-6, Gen-7, and Kun-8. The numbers are simply computed by (111)b = (+1)×22 +(+1)×21 +(+1)×20 =
the positions of individual trigrams in the sequence and +7, Dui is computed by (1̄11)b = (−1) × 22 + (+1) × 21 +
may be interpreted as the serial numbers of the trigrams. (+1) × 20 = −1, and so on.
In Chinese numerical thinking, odd numbers are commonly With the balanced binary system, the + and − signs
known as Yang numbers and even numbers as Yin numbers. of the corresponding decimal values provide explicit and
Unfortunately, the serial numbers of trigrams do not convey convenient way to show the Yin and Yang nature of a
the information about the Yin/Yang nature of trigrams. For trigram, respectively. It is also possible to express the
example, the serial number of Li is 3, but its nature is Yin composition of Yin and Yang in each trigram. For example,
instead of Yang. Qian contains no Yin and only +7 units of Yang, Dui
It has been suggested that the eight trigrams can be contains −4 units of Yin and +3 units of Yin and sum
viewed as a representation of binary numbers [88]. In (−4) + (+3) = −1 shows the Yin nature of Dui, and so on.
Fig. 11, by interpreting Yin as 0 and Yang as 1 and reading Unfortunately, the decimal values of Qian, Dui, ..., to Kun
a trigram bottom-up, we can produce a binary number as under the balanced binary number system do not confirm
shown by ()2 . Qian’s binary number is (111)2 = 1 × to the commonly used Yin/Yang labels of trigrams. On the
22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 7, Dui’s binary number is other hand, it is possible to express Taiji as 0, which is the
(110)2 = 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 6, and so on. sum of Yin (−1) and Yang (+1), −3 and +3, and so on.
In this way, we produce the same sequence of the eight The complementary of Yin and Yang is explicitly present.
trigrams, but according to the decreasing order of values, Yin is −1 and Yang is +1 and their sum is 0 representing
from 7 down to 0. Alternatively, we may interpret Yin as Taiji. A pair of trigrams is called an image complementary
1 and Yang as 0. Qian’s binary number is (000)2 = 0, pair, if one is obtained from the other by flipping Yin lines
Dui’s binary number is (001)2 = 1, ..., and Kun’s binary to Yang lines and Yang lines to Yin lines. For the image
number is (111)2 = 7. The same sequence is obtained complementary pair (Qian, Kun), Qian is +7, Kun is −7,
according to the increasing order from 0 up to 7. When and their sum is 0. For the complementary pair (Li, Kan),
6318 Y. Yao

Fig. 12 Two cycles of the eight trigrams

Li is +3 = (−2) + (+5), Kan is −3 = (−5) + (+2), adjacent principal directions. If we position ourselves at the
and their sum is 0, although their corresponding Yin/Yang center, the eight trigrams are our connections to the outside
nature/labels are reversed. world. Alternatively, it is possible to label the four principal
Everything contains a mixture of Yin and Yang and each directions as left, upper, right, and lower, and the four
of the four trigrams, Li, Gen, Zhen, Xun, contains both Yin secondary directions as upper-left, upper-right, lower-right,
and Yang lines. It might not be unreasonable to reinterpret and lower-left.
the two image complementary pairs Li-Gen and Zhen-Xun Typically, the upper is superior and represents heaven
regarding their Yin/Yang labels. For example, it might be and the lower is inferior and represents earth. Based on
unreasonable to interpret Li (fire) as Yang, instead of Yin. In this understanding, there exists an easy way to explain and
this way, the serial numbers, in terms of even and odd, and interpret the Before Heaven cycle by simply arranging the
the decimal values of the balanced binary numbers, in terms sequence in Fig. 11. As shown in Fig 12a, Qian consists of
of negative and positive, would confirm to the Yin/Yang three Yang lines and takes the position of heaven, and Kun
nature/labels of all eight trigrams. In addition, it would also consists of three Yin lines and takes the position of earth.
confirm to the triadic understanding of the three lines in a The three trigrams following Qian are put counterclockwise
trigram for representing heaven, human beings, and earth, sequentially on the left half of the cycle, and the three
with possibly different weights or importance. trigrams preceding Kun are put counterclockwise in the
decreasing order on the right half of the cycle. There are
5.2.3 Spatial interpretations of trigrams several interesting observations. Connecting the trigrams
according to the increasing order of their serial numbers
There are two widely used circular arrangements or cycles results in an S shape. The two trigrams of each of the
of the eight trigrams, known as the Xiantian Tu (The four image complementary pairs are in the opposite sides,
Diagram of Before Heaven) and Houtian Tu (The Diagram representing two opposite directions. Furthermore, the sums
of After Heaven) [87, 89, 114, 120]. To some extent, of their numbers are all 9. If the decimal values of the
the two diagrams offer spatial interpretations of the eight corresponding balanced binary numbers are used, the two
trigrams, as shown in Fig. 12. Among many features and trigrams have opposite signs and their sum is 0.
interpretations of the two cycles, it is possible to identify Other ways to construct and interpret cycles of the eight
one of their most important functions, namely, a principle trigrams rely on two more diagrams known as Hetu (the
of and a way to positioning and orientation. In this aspect, River Diagram) and Luoshu (the Luo Writing), as shown in
triadic thinking can be observed. There are three levels Fig. 13. In the two diagrams, black dots represent Yin (even)
for positioning and orientation, in a decreasing order of numbers and white dots represent Yang (odd) numbers.
importance. The center of the cycle represents Zhong Hetu (Fig. 13a) is composed of ten numbers from 1 to 10,
(middle, Taiji), which is the most important position. The and Luoshu (Fig. 13c) is composed of nine numbers from 1
four principal directions are east, south, west, and north. to 9. In both diagrams, number 5 is in the middle. The image
The secondary four directions are southeast, southwest, of number 5 is a cross that is unique and very different from
northwest, and northeast. Each of them is the middle of two all other numbers; the images of other numbers are lines or
The geometry of three-way decision 6319

Fig. 13 Hetu and Luoshu

rectangles. The cross representation of number 5 captures and eight neighbors is commonly used in image processing
truthfully five directions, namely, the center and the four and pattern recognition. In the magic square of Luoshu,
principal directions. In fact, we can interpret the cross of five if we add the three numbers horizontally, vertically, or
as two triads, one is the horizontal triad and the other is the diagonally, the sum is always 15. For each of the four lines
vertical triad. That is, thinking in number 5 is a combination passing the number 5, the sum of the two ending numbers
of two ways of triadic thinking. The horizontal triad may is 10 and their average and the middle is 5. That is, the
explain the principle of the middle way, emphasizing a triad of three numbers clearly represents two opposites and
superior position of the middle in an attempt to avoid biases a middle, which reflects the principles of the middle way.
towards either left or right. The vertical triad may explain To produce diagrams of the Before Heaven and After
our middle position for connecting heaven and earth. Heaven in Fig. 12, we may assign numbers according to
Both Hetu and Luoshu may be interpreted based on Hetu or Luoshu. For example, the sequence of After Heaven
concentric tricircles, as shown in Fig. 13. While a concentric according to Luoshu is given by Kan-1, Kun-2, Zhen-3,
tricircle is more obvious in Hetu [114], as indicated by Xun-4, Zhong-5, Qian-6, Dui-7, Gen-8, Li-9. The result is
Fig. 13b, for Luoshu a concentric tricircle is embedded in the diagram of After Heaven in Fig. 12b. However, although
the magic square of Fig. 13d. In Fig. 13e, the middle circle a pair of trigrams of two opposite directions are number
is replaced by a square instead. In Hetu, the pair (5, 10) complementary with respect to number 10, i.e., their sum
indicates the center, the four pairs, (3, 8), (2, 7), (4, 9), is 10, they are not necessarily image complementary. If
and (1, 6), denote the four principal directions. In order to we slightly change the number sequence of Before Heaven
denote the four secondary directions, we may rotate outer into Qian-1, Dui-2, Li-3, Zhen-4, Zhong-5, Xun-6, Kan-
circle 45 degree either clockwise or counterclockwise. On 7, Gen-8, and Kun-9, then a pair of two trigrams for
the other hand, Luoshu directly provides the center and the opposite directions is both number complementary (i.e.,
eight directions. The number 5 is the center, 1, 3, 7, and their sum is 10) and image complementary in the diagram
9 are the four neighbors for the principal directions, and of Before Heaven. If we are interested in building a simpler
1, 2, ..., 9 are the eight neighbors for the principal and the interpretation of a cycle of eight trigrams, it would be nice
secondary directions. This triad of a cell, four neighbors, if we can make the three aspects of the eight trigrams
6320 Y. Yao

to be consistent, namely, a numerical interpretation of the trigrams, numerical interpretations of the eight trigrams,
Yin/Yang nature of a trigram, the image complementary of sequences and cycles of the eight trigrams. As a final note,
pairs of trigrams, and the number complementary of pairs I should point out that my brief discussion on a triadic
of trigrams. understanding and interpretation of these basic concepts is
A combination of two trigrams produces a hexagrams. not intended to untangle a whole complex web of many
The total of sixty-four hexagrams serve as the basic issues and should not be viewed as a search for a right
patterns and structures for interpreting Yijing (The Book of solution. Instead, its main purpose is to bring our attention to
Changes). Each line in a hexagram has a specific meaning. triadic thinking involved. Following the earlier discussions
In addition to thinking in two trigrams, the six lines in on the third alternative and the third way, it is perhaps
a hexagram are divided into three groups of two lines, possible to integrate and combine the two schools of thought
offering another way of triadic thinking. Similar to the into a third school in which results from the complementary
interpretations of a trigram, the positions of the lines in perspectives on numbers, images, meanings, and principles
a hexagram have a great significance. For example, the are made consistent under a holistic view. More thorough
bottom two lines associate with earth, the middle two lines and systematic investigations of the third school of thought
associate with human beings, and the top two lines associate may be worthy of further efforts.
with heaven [120]. Thus, a hexagram is used as a trilevel
hierarchy discussed in Section 4.1.4. Alternatively, the six 5.3 Enneagram
lines in a hexagram can be read inside-out. The middle
two lines represent the essential part or the central force of The enneagram, as shown in Fig. 14a, is a nine-pointed
the hexagram, the second bottom and second top lines are, geometric figure that has many interpretations and serves
respectively, the middle of the lower and upper trigrams and many purposes, for example, as a representation of a
represent the most desirable positions, and the bottom and spiritual worldview, a symbol of transformation, a tool for
the top lines represent, respectively, the beginning and the personal and spiritual reflection and growth, a system of
ending results. In this way, a hexagram is used similar to a personality typing, and many others [7, 32, 44, 86]. Based
concentric tricircle discussed in Section 4.1.4. on the earlier discussion about the eight trigrams, it is
There are many views of the eight trigrams, the sixty- also possible to study the enneagram from multiple angles
four hexagrams, and their sequences and cycles. In terms of suggested by its images, numbers, meanings, and principles.
these patterns and structures, there are roughly two schools In this paper, I mainly look at the ways and modes of triadic
of thought in interpreting the Yijing, namely, the school thinking suggested by the enneagram. It may be appropriate
of images and numbers and the school of meanings and to mention that the enneagram has received criticism.
principles. Many existing studies, unfortunately, are not For example, the scientific validity of the enneagram as
entirely consistent and compatible. To a certain degree, this a system of personality typing has been questioned [32,
has created some unnecessary complication and mystery 115]. Nevertheless, the power of the enneagram as a
of many fundamental concepts, for example, the eight visual and metaphorical tool for organization, presentation,

Fig. 14 The enneagram and the hexad

The geometry of three-way decision 6321

and reasoning is effective, powerful, and insightful. The that is, active, passive, and neutral forces [44], which has
enneagram describes patterns that help us to interpret the a close connection to the philosophy of the three gunas.
world and to manage our emotions in threes. Everything is created and works in accordance with a triadic
form. According to Gurdjieff, a new arising can be born
5.3.1 Triadic structures and triadic thinking in the from existing ones in such way that “the higher blends
enneagram with the lower in order to actualize the middle and thus
becomes either higher for the preceding lower, or lower
The enneagram itself may be viewed as a triadic structure for the succeeding higher” [7]. A process of transformation
consisting of three main components related to the three typically requires three forces of affirmation, denial, and
numbers 9, 3, and 7. The first component is a circle reconciliation. This reminds us of the philosophy of the
divided into nine parts of equal length, with one dividing middle way or the third alternative way.
point at the uppermost position. Starting with number 9 The law of seven describes the path of movement of
at the uppermost position, the nine dividing points are everything. A traversal of six numbers in the hexad starting
successively numbered from 9 down to 1 counterclockwise. from a number and coming back to the number vividly
The second component is the equilateral triangle that describes a typical path of how everything in the world
connects the three multiples of number 3, namely, 3, 6, develops. Suppose that we start with 1 and traverse the
and 9. The third component is a hexad, that is, a six- hexad in the increasing order of numbers. By considering
pointed figure in Fig. 14b, that connects the rest six numbers the relative position of the next number relative to the
according to a specific order defined by number 7. If we current number, we have the following sequence:
divide numbers 1 to 6 by 7, the following sequence of lower-left, upper-right, upper-left, lower-right, upper-left, upper-right.
repeating decimals of six repeating digits is produced: (4)
1/7 = 0.142857,
The path is not a straight line, but consists of crisscrossed
2/7 = 0.285714, striving and failing of energies, as well as moving left and
3/7 = 0.428571, right, along the path. It might be worthy mentioning a kind
4/7 = 0.571428, of similarity to the earlier discussed construction process of
5/7 = 0.714285, the eight trigrams, in which moving up and down indicates,
respectively, the increase of Yang and Yin, respectively.
6/7 = 0.857142. (3)
It can be observed that the cycle of sequence of 5.3.2 Enneagram personality
1, 4, 2, 8, 5, 7 is common in all six repeating decimals. The
hexad in Fig. 14b is, in fact, constructed by connecting One of the most popular applications of the enneagram is
two adjacent numbers in the sequence of 1, 4, 2, 8, 5, 7, personality typing. I review briefly the basic ideas from Riso
which is structurally equivalent to a circle of the six and Hudson [105] and Dueck [29], with an emphasis on the
numbers under the sequence. In summary, we can simply uses of triads. I examine an understanding of the nine types
interpret the enneagram in term of three circles: A circle of enneagram personality at three levels.
connecting nine numbers, a circle (represented by a triangle) At the first level, the nine numbers in the enneagram
connecting three numbers, and a circle (represented by a are grouped into three centers to represent three body or
hexad) connecting the rest of six numbers. intelligence triads: (8, 9, 1) of the Gut (Instinctual, Body)
The enneagram contains significant symbolism and its triad, (5, 6, 7) of the Head (Intellectual, Thinking) triad, and
three components give rise to three principles and laws: (2, 3, 4) of the Heart (Emotional, Feeling) triad. The Gut
The circle for the law of one or the law of wholeness, the triad is typically associated with anger, the Head triad with
triangle for the law of three, and the hexad for the law of fear, and the Heart triad with shame. The middle numbers
seven [44]. A circle does not have a beginning nor an end, in the three triads, namely, 9, 6, and 3, are associated with
providing a metaphor of everlasting movement. The law of the primary personality types that are usually blocked with
one emphasizes on both integration and division of a whole. instinct, thinking, or feeling. The remaining six numbers
The whole is divided into parts and the parts are integrated are associated with the secondary personality types that are
into the whole. It is interesting to note that number 9 is the somewhat more mixed and more connected with instinct,
largest single digit number, metaphorically representing a thinking, or feeling. The Enneagram’s three triads therefore
highest state and taking the uppermost position in the circle. specify three fundamental psychological orientations.
The law of three is thinking in threes. There are many At the second level, the nine basic personality types
interpretations and applications of this law. For example, may be characterized individually. For example, Riso and
there are three forces that guide everything in motion, Hudson [105] give the following descriptions:
6322 Y. Yao

2: the Helper (the encouraging, demonstrative, possessive in specific, the design and implementation of intelligent
type), systems. The triad helps us to become a better integrative
3: the Motivator (the ambitious, pragmatic, image- thinker by thinking visually, numerically, and textually.
conscious type) Effective communications, for example presenting an idea
4: the Individualist (the sensitive, self-absorbed, depres- in a scientific paper, rely on a seamless integration of the
sive type) three perspectives. The output from any intelligent system
5: the Investigator (the perceptive, cerebral, provocative becomes more meaningful if it can be presented, explained,
type), and communicated visually, numerically, and textually.
6: the Loyalist (the committed, dutiful, suspicious type), In the paper, I have intentionally used number three in
7: the Enthusiast (the spontaneous, fun-loving, excessive many places, for example, a trilevel structure of sections,
type), subsections, and sub-subsections, phrases of three words,
8: the Leader (the self-confident, assertive, confronta- three examples, and others. In fact, if one takes a closer look
tional type), at any scientific paper, one would see the presence of triadic
9: the Peacemaker (the pleasant, easygoing, complacent thinking. Many book titles have three words or contain
type), three topics. We either consciously or subconsciously use
1: the Reformer (the rational, idealistic, orderly type). threes. The goal of a theory of three-way decision is to
systematically study what we have been doing and to search
For each basic type, Riso and Hudson use only three for a model of explanation.
basic and representative characteristics, instead of a full In the introduction section, I have briefly discussed some
exhaustive list. This may be viewed as another example of implications of triadic thinking (i.e., three-way decision) to
the applications of the rule of three and the principles of artificial intelligence. As future research, it is worthwhile to
triadic thinking. have a more in-depth study of this topic. Three-way decision
At the third level, a basic personality type can be further is a human way and heuristics to approach complexity.
explained with reference to two more basic types, forming It may also be used by intelligent systems. With human
again a triad of three basic types. Given a basic type, one intelligence on one side and machine intelligence on the
of its two adjacent types on the enneagram circle is a other, triadic thinking suggests their integration as the
wing of the type. While the basic type dominates, a wing third alternative way. When a network of people and
may complement and add important, possibly contradictory, machines work together, collective and global intelligence
elements to the basic type. Given a triad consisting of a may emerge. Finally, the geometric structures and patterns
basic type and its two wings, there are three possibilities, discussed in the paper may help us to expand the application
that is, using one wing, using the dominant wing, or using domains of three-way decision, particularly in designing
both wings. intelligent systems.
The frequent uses of triads in enneagram personality
typing are perhaps not surprising, as they follow from the
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