International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment

Rebuilding Nepal: traditional and modern approaches, building or diminishing resilience?

Catherine Forbes,
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 Rebuilding Nepal: traditional and modern approaches, building or
diminishing resilience?

STRUCTURED ABSTRACT

Purpose

To highlight the importance of vernacular architecture and traditional knowledge to building

resilience in Nepal and the impact of modernisation on that resilience and architectural
diversity.
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Design/Methodology/Approach

Using an action research approach, including field observations and discussions with local
community members, artisans, architects, engineers and other international experts, the
study examines the resilience of traditional building typologies to natural hazards in Nepal,
including earthquake; the changes that have occurred over time leading to the failure and/or
rejection of traditional construction; and a review of post-earthquake reconstruction options,
both traditional and modern.

Findings

Although traditional approaches have been cyclically tested over time, the study found that
changes in building materials, technologies, knowledge and skills, access to resources,
maintenance practices, urban environments and societal aspirations have all contributed to
the popular rejection of vernacular architecture following the earthquakes.

Research Limitations/Implications

The research is limited to traditional timber and masonry construction in the Kathmandu
Valley and surrounding mountain areas.

Practical Implications

To improve resilience the study identifies the need for: capacity building in both traditional
and modern construction technologies; adoption of approaches that use local materials,
knowledge and skills, whilst addressing local timber shortages and access issues; a
transparent construction certification system; good drainage and regular maintenance.

Originality/Value

The study critically evaluates the impact of technological, environmental, social and
economic changes over time on the resilience of vernacular housing in Nepal.

Keywords:

Nepal, building resilience, vernacular architecture, architectural diversity, changing

construction technologies, impacts of modernisation on resilience.

Article Classification:

Research Paper
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Nepal suffers devastating earthquakes on a regular basis, with its central region
affected approximately every eighty to one hundred years. The 2015 Gorkha
earthquake and its powerful aftershocks caused extensive damage around the
Kathmandu Valley and the mountains to its west, north and east. Almost 9,000 lives
were reported lost when mountainsides crumbled and buildings collapsed.

But seismic events are not the only natural hazards that the Nepali people face in
their occupation of the land. Annual hazards include freezing winters, high winds,
snowmelt and torrential monsoon rains in summer causing landslides and flooding.
Empirical knowledge, gained through the cyclical testing of communities and
structures by these events, has developed over generations and is reflected in the
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settlement patterns and traditional housing models that are scattered across the
Nepalese landscape and throughout the historic urban centres, contributing to their
distinctive character.

Over recent years, however, particularly since the 1970s, the importation of foreign
knowledge, practices, materials and technologies has brought about substantial
change to people’s aspirations and the built environment (Adhikary, 2016). Since the
recent earthquakes, there has been increased pressure to reject traditional
construction technologies and to adopt fully imported solutions with the claim that
these will enable the Nepali people to ‘build back better’. But are these claims well
founded? Why did the traditional solutions fail and will the modern solutions provide
a more resilient future?

This paper raises issues identified through pre and post-earthquake field
observations and through discussions with local community members, artisans,
architects, engineers, international experts and NGOs (local and international)
involved in the reconstruction. It highlights the complexity of issues that must be
considered in assessing earthquake damage and potential new solutions. It argues
for the recognition of empirical knowledge and vernacular architecture in building
resilience and maintaining architectural diversity in Nepal.

2.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The methodology for this study was generally qualitative in nature, with information
gathered through action research and field observations undertaken over a two-year
period (2014–2016). Research was participative and involved individual and focus
group interviews with local people and experts in the field contributing to the
research process. Analysis and critical reflection further informed the approach,
underscored by the author’s application of knowledge gained through years of field
experience. In short, data for this paper has been drawn from multiple sources and
critically analysed within an action based research framework that is considered to
be well suited to the conditions and circumstances as it is flexible and responsive.
The author, an architect and specialist in traditional building construction and
conservation, first visited Bhattedande and neighbouring villages in 2014 to study the
 vernacular housing. They also investigated historic urban housing in Dhulikhel and
Kathmandu. Some of the buildings clearly bore the scars of previous earthquakes
and damp issues associated with the annual monsoon rains. These were recorded
photographically, in field notes and annotated sketches.
Immediately following the earthquake of 25 April 2015, the author was involved in
discussions with members of ICOMOS–ICORP (UNESCO’s International Council on
Monuments and Sites–International Scientific Committee on Risk Preparedness)
regarding the earthquake’s impact on traditional buildings in Nepal. Geologists,
remote sensing experts, engineers and architects with expertise in traditional
construction in seismic zones made rapid assessments of the damage by analysing
satellite imagery, video footage and before and after photographs provided by
people in the field.
In the wake of the earthquake, the Nepal Rebuilds network was established by local
Nepali professionals and local and international NGOs to share information to
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facilitate recovery and reconstruction. The author prepared an open discussion

paper outlining the issues identified through these discussions, as well as findings of
rapid assessments prepared by others involved in the emergency response. The
paper was circulated within the group for review and comment. Email
correspondence was entered into to clarify observations and issues reported.
In October 2015, the author returned to Nepal as a member of the Joint World
Heritage Centre, ICOMOS and ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of the
Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property) Reactive Monitoring Mission to
review the impact of the earthquakes on the World Heritage Property of the
Kathmandu Valley. This included a review of damage to vernacular housing located
within the property. Discussions with architects, engineers and other experts in the
Department of Archaeology (the state party responsible for the management of the
property) and ICOMOS Nepal focused on the type, extent and potential causes of
damage to the structures, as well as issues for recovery. Consultation was also
undertaken with various community stakeholder groups and representatives of local
government.
In February 2016, the author returned to Dhulikhel and the village of Bhattedande to
examine both the remains of the collapsed buildings and the buildings that had
survived, and to observe reconstruction within the village. Issues were raised and
discussed with local village leaders and artesans, as well as NGOs involved in the
reconstruction effort.
This paper highlights and critically reflects on the various issues identified through
these investigations and discussions.

3.0 TRADITIONAL SETTLEMENT PATTERNS AND HOUSING TYPES

3.1 Settlement Patterns

The Kathmandu Valley has been highly urbanized for several hundred years with city
states established around the historic urban centres of Kathmandu (Hanuman
Dhoka), Patan (Lalitpur) and Bhaktapur. The cities feature brick and timber palaces,
tiered temples and vernacular housing gathered along narrow streets and around
 public squares. The buildings closely abut each other, creating dense urban blocks
with shared internal courtyards.
By contrast, rural settlements located on the steep mountain slopes surrounding the
valley are generally looser in arrangement, with free standing houses laid out along
the contours of the land, closely hugging the hillside whilst maintaining close contact
with the rice terraces that feed them. Nevertheless, they form close communities that
provide mutual support and some protection from the elements and wild animals.
Figure 1

3.2 Housing Typologies

The traditional houses are generally rectangular in form, three storeys high, with the
top storey nestled within the large pitched roofs. In rural areas, they are raised on a
plinth, approximately 450mm high, to keep the water out. Cooking and livestock are
accommodated on the ground floor to provide warmth to the sleeping and storage
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areas above. Verandahs provide external work and living spaces. In the cities, the
ground floor often accommodates a shop or workspace in a timber framed
undercroft.
The houses vary in construction, depending on the local material resource available,
geography and climate. Within the study area the houses are of masonry and mud
construction laced with timber, brick in the Kathmandu Valley and stone on the
mountainsides. Generally, the windows are small and the walls thick to contain the
heat. The mud and clay tiled roofs also provide insulation against the cold. The
steeply pitched roofs and wide eaves protect the walls from the driving rains; fibrous
mud plaster is applied regularly to the external wall surfaces to keep them
waterproof; and drains take the water away from the footings. Thus the buildings are
well designed for the cold winters and wet summers, whilst providing the necessary
accommodation for daily life within the confined space offered by the small city
allotments or narrow mountain terraces.
3.3 Seismic Design
Although the masonry walls are loadbearing, the key seismic components of these
structures are the timber elements (Langenbach, 2015; Adhikary, 2016; Pauperio &
Romeo, 2016). These include: timber bands distributed at various heights throughout
the walls of the buildings (floors, lintels and ceiling) to tie them together; long timber
sills and lintels to spread the loads over the window and door openings; timber posts
to transfer the loads vertically (in the building corners and adjacent openings); timber
floor structures that project through the walls to form structural diaphragms; and
braced timber roof structures that contain and stabilize the tops of the walls. The
timber is able to flex and move to absorb the seismic forces, and is used to contain
the masonry, which has no tensile strength. Although the soft mud mortar joints allow
the masonry elements to slide across each other, large corner stones and through
stones help to bond the walls together (Yoemans, 1996; Desai, 2015).
Figure 2
Figure 3
 4.0 FAILURE OF TRADITIONAL HOUSING

As these types of structures were predominant in the areas most affected by the
2015 earthquakes, their failure was extensively reported in the media (Adhikary,
2016). Very little was said about the failure of modern concrete buildings (many
suffered catastrophic failure), and even less about the vernacular buildings that
survived. However, it is not sufficient to just say that the buildings failed. It is
important to understand what failed and why. Was it the design that failed or were
there other causes? Detailed investigations of the buildings revealed the following
(Forbes, 2015; Langenbach, 2015):

1. Essential timber components in many buildings had decayed (through rot

and/or insect attack), compromising their structural integrity;
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2. Essential timber elements had been substantially reduced in size and/or

number, or were missing altogether from many buildings;
3. Masonry walls separated through lack of adequate bonding (missing large
through stones);
4. Masonry gable end walls fell out due to lack of containment;
5. Mud mortar was missing from masonry joints (washed out over time by rain or
lost through decay caused by rising damp);
6. Cement mortar on the other hand had caused stones to fracture due to its
strength and rigidity (stronger than the materials it bonded and with no give to
allow for movement);
7. Internal cross walls were lacking;
8. Houses were poorly located on unstable ground; and
9. In city locations, the addition of unapproved floors to the tops of buildings
caused overloading and failure of the walls below.

It is evident from these findings that construction traditions had either been forgotten
or compromised.

Figure 4

5.0 CHANGING CONDITIONS

In order to better understand the causes of failure and to prevent or mitigate these in
the future, it is necessary to understand the technological, environmental and
societal changes that have occurred over the last hundred years.

5.1 Timber shortage

Following the earthquake of 1934, it was recorded that suitable construction timber
was in very short supply (Adhikary, 2016). This has continued to be the case in many
areas affected by the recent earthquakes, with buildings being built with young poor
quality timber, often untreated softwood (treated timber not being available) rather
than the traditional more durable hardwood that is resistant to rot and insect attack
(Forbes, 2015).
 Although deforestation has been recognised as a major issue in Nepal for many
years and forestry programs have been established to provide slope stabilization,
new agricultural products and a fuel source for cooking and heating, the
establishment of forests for the production of quality hardwood for construction does
not appear to have been a priority. Restrictions on timber harvesting have also made
suitable construction timber expensive and difficult to get (Paudel et al, 2015). This
has contributed to people not only using poorer quality timber, but also reducing the
size or number of critical timber elements, or omitting them from their buildings
altogether (Adhikary, 2016; Forbes, 2015).

5.2 Changing technologies

Since the 1970s, the importation of new construction materials and technologies has
introduced new building typologies to urban areas, but also to areas easily
accessible by road (Desai, 2015; field observations, 2014, 2015 and 2016). The
globally popular reinforced concrete frame is now prominent across the landscape of
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the Kathmandu Valley, reflecting peoples’ aspirations for modernity as well as their
strong belief in the strength and durability of cement. Their intrusion into more
remote mountain areas only accessible by foot has not been as great.

5.3 Loss of memory, knowledge and skills

Although reinforced concrete construction requires specialist engineering knowledge

and construction skills, the workforce has followed the demand and adapted,
abandoning the traditional artesan skills and knowledge that had previously been
handed down from one generation to another. These changes are reflected in the
professional training of architects and engineers, which focuses totally on modern
construction (Adhikary, 2016). They have also contributed to the low status of
traditional artesans within society and the devaluing of their knowledge, despite its
continued relevance to anti-seismic design and appropriate design for climate and
place (Jing et al, 2016).

As eartqhuakes usually occur only once in a person’s lifetime, the memory of

disaster and its impact on buildings is often lacking. Thus, without the
intergenerational transfer of knowledge, critical safety elements of traditional building
design and construction can be forgotten and not implemented. The trust placed in
the strength of cement mortar has lead to the construction of thinner walls (making
buildings colder to live in) and the removal of through and corners stones as key
bonding elements. It has also lead to risking construction on less stable ground (eg.
building on the filled outer edges of mountain terraces rather than on the solid
ground back against the hillside) (Forbes, 2015).

5.4 Building Codes

Followiing extensive research into both traditional and modern construction

technologies, Nepal developed building codes for seismic design in 1994 (DUDBC).
These incorporated ‘mandatory rules of thumb’ that reflected empirical knowledge of
the past, although not the full diversity of solutions developed across the country, as
well as engineering requirements for the use of modern materials (Sharpe, 2015).
However, as there was no inspection or certification process to ensure that buidlings
were correctly built, these codes were never fully implemented. Lack of proper
 engineering input, skimping on materials to save money (particularly steel and
cement) and later upper storey additons to buildings that were not designed to take
them, saw many modern structures collapse as well as traditional ones (Jain, 2015).

5.5 Maintenance and Urban Infrastructure

In rural areas, annual maintenance of structures in the form of remudding of walls,

weeding of roofs and maintenance of drains are embedded in the local culture (site
evidence, 2014 and 2015). However, in city areas, the installation and upgrading of
modern infrastructure, such as sealed roads, water supply systems and sewerage
systems, has changed the environment in which the buildings exist (site evidence,
2015 and 2016). Over time, rising ground levels have resulted in roads, through their
multiple layering and resurfacing, being half a metre above internal floor levels
instead of half a metre below.

Figure 5
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This, together with the pressure of tall new structures built up against the old, has
made access for maintenance and repair extremely difficult. As storm water drainage
systems are inadequate, monsoon rains flood into the shops and houses at both roof
and ground level accelerating their decay. The loss of mortar from joints and the
decay of bricks and timber elements contributed to the failure of many traditional
buildings in the urban context during the earthquakes (site evidence, 2014, 2015 and
2016).

6.0 RESPONSE AND RECOVERY

Although the current crisis is a result of earthquake, reconstruction must address all
hazards and all aspects of daily life, both now and into the future, including
accommodating people’s livelihood needs within the confined spaces available. The
solutions should also be sustainable, economically, socially, culturally and
environmentally.

6.1 Government Funding

The Nepali Government pledged monetary support to all homeowners whose houses
collapsed, but proportional funds were not offered for houses that were partially
damaged (Adhikary, 2016). As a result, it has been reported that many people
demolished their houses for the government survey, even though they could have
repaired them (Desai, 2015). In Bhattedande, however, many people stated that they
had demolished upper floors as a precautionary measure against further collapse
during aftershocks (a resilience response) (village discussions, 2016).

In February 2016 (ten months after the earthquake), government inspectors had still
not surveyed the damage to houses in Bhattedande even though there had been an
80% loss in the village. As people awaited government confirmation of reconstruction
requirements, they had not begun to rebuild. Thus, although the government promise
was made with good intentions, it had in essence disempowered people from
rebuilding and undertaking their own recovery, thus reducing their resilience.
 6.2 New Buildings and Technologies

Although all new buildings are required to be constructed in accordance with the
national building code (still under review at the time of this study), as yet no
certification system has been put in place to ensure compliance (Adhikary, 2016).
Nor is the financial assistance offered sufficient to meet the costs of improvement. In
the city areas, where people can afford to rebuild without government assistance,
reinforced concrete framed buildings have been re-erected quickly, again without
proper oversight and often repeating the mistakes of the past (Adhikary, 2016).

Although the code provides rules of thumb for traditional construction, the new
Design Catalogue for Reconstruction of Earthquake Resistant Houses developed
since the earthquake by the Department of Urban Development and Building
Construction (DUDBC, 2015) promotes modern construction and limits traditional
construction to a single storey. This restriction on size fails to satisfactorily
accommodate living and livelihood needs on the limited land available in both the
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urban and rural contexts.

Many international companies have offered new manufactured products, ranging

from steel frames to polystyrene wall panels. Nearly all require importation of
materials and expertise from abroad and few have regard to the local social,
economic, climatic and geographic conditions. Poverty, combined with the blockade
of the Indian border in the months following the earthquakes (due to political unrest),
temporarily prevented the importation of many of these options, but not in the long
term. Unfortunately, these global alternatives create homogeneity in the built
environment and fail to recognize the value and appropriateness of local solutions to
local conditions.

6.3 Local Solutions

In remote rural areas, lack of access and minimal financial resources necessitate the
adoption of local solutions that use the physical and human resources available.
Even if communities have the money to afford cement and steel, these materials
cannot be easily carried up the steep mountain paths. Therefore, where quality
timber is not available, the immediate issue is finding alternatives for the traditional
seismic timber bands. Solutions incorporating polypropylene geogrid bands
(Adhikary, 2016), galvanised wire gabion bands (Langenbach, 2015) and wire
containment1 (Desai, 2015 & 2016) have been developed and tested for seismic
performance. These options, which incorporate local materials, knowledge and skills,
provide far more affordable and sustainable alternatives that enable maintenance of
local character and identity through retention of local architectural typologies.
However, as yet, these solutions have not been approved under the national building
code.

6.4 Capacity Development

As found in Bhattedande, many villages have lost both their traditional artesans and
modern construction workers through the export of skilled labour to Asia and the
Middle East where the pay is better (village discussions, 2016). Thus, reconstruction
requires capacity development in both traditional and modern construction. Not only
do traditional skills and knowledge need to be reinforced and strengthened, but also
 understanding of the highly technical nature of reinforced concrete construction:
including the correct proportioning of cement, sand, graded aggregate and water;
appropriate cover to steel to prevent corrosion; and the removal of air to ensure
homogeneity and structural integrity (site evidence, Bhattedande, 2016).

Organisations such as CRAterre (International Centre on Earthen Architecture) have

partnered with the Red Cross and local NGOs to develop simple guidelines that
illustrate the key elements of earthquake resistant houses based on well-researched
local materials and technologies (Forbes, 2015). CRAterre, NCPDP (National Centre
for People’s Action in Disaster Preparedness) (Desai, 2016) and the Nepal
Vocational Academy (Panauti, 2016) have provided hands-on training for local
builders and artesans to ensure they have the skills and knowledge needed for
traditional reconstruction. NSET (National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal)
has also provided construction training focused on meeting building code
requirements (Forbes, 2015). With the support of UNDP (United Nations
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Development Programme), NCPDP has prepared a field manual for the retrofitting of
damaged buildings (Desai, 2017).

6.5 Testing over Time

Nepal’s traditional housing typologies have developed through cyclical testing over
time. Although those houses that were in good condition survived with little impact
from the disaster, many of the houses that collapsed were found to be old, poorly
maintained and suffering from decay. In comparison, the concrete houses that
survived were relatively new. The performance of these houses over time has yet to
be tested. Considering the vulnerability of steel to corrosion when exposed to water
and air and the impact that this will have on the structural integrity of these buildings,
the durability and long-term sustainability of this construction type and other alternate
solutions must also be considered and monitored.

7.0 CONCLUSION

Unfortunately, the failure of traditional buildings in the recent earthquakes has been
considered by the general populace as the failure of the materials used, rather than
the failure of poor construction, poor maintenance or the changing built environment.
Conversely, in the case of modern buildings, the failure has generally been attributed
to greed, corruption and poor construction. The misunderstanding of causes of
failure, particularly in relation to traditional building types, has lead to a general
rejection of these typologies both locally and internationally. Correspondingly, there
has been an accelerated take up of the imported modern technologies, which have
not been locally tested over time.

The long-term impact of this for Nepal will be the loss of architectural diversity,
cultural identity and diminished resilience through the loss of local knowledge and
skills. It will also result in financial loss to the local tourist economy through the loss
Nepal’s unique character. The future failure of the modern buildings will also result in
diminished resilience.

Major issues that still need to be addressed include: improving governance within the
property and construction industries to ensure that buildings meet the required
 construction standards; improving drainage within urban areas to prevent flooding
and reduce building decay; and building community awareness regarding the need
for regular maintenance – buildings in good condition are far more resilient than
those in poor condition.

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Figure Captions:

Figure 1: Vernacular rural housing near Bhattendande. The stone and timber houses
follow the contours and are set back against the hillside. (Source: Author, 2014)

Figure 2: A traditional urban brick and timber house in Dhulikhel showing a shop
accommodated within the timber framed undercroft. The timber joists of the upper
floors extend through the walls to create structural diaphragms. The ends of the
joists were originally protected from the weather by brick and plaster cornices.
(Source: Author, 2014)

Figure 3: A traditional stone and timber house in Bhattedande. Large corner stones
hold the corners of the building. The timber brackets supporting the roof extend
through the stone walls assisting in binding them together. Although cracks
developed in the walls as a result of the earthquake, the building did not collapse.
(Source: Author, 2016)

Figure 4: The principal beam supporting the first floor of the house in Figure 3 failed
due to termite damage. However, the structural diaphragm (composed of timber
joists and floor boards) prevented the building from collapsing. (Source: Author,
2016)

Figure 5: In Kathmandu the street has been raised well above the floor of this shop
and a concrete kerb added in an attempt to stop runoff from the monsoon rains
entering the building. The windows above have the traditional long sills and lintels.
(Source: Author, 2016).
 1
The wire containment system for incorporation in traditional mud and stone buildings was first
designed by Professor K. S. Jagadish and further developed and tested by Rupal and Rajendra
Desai, NCPDP (Desai, 2017)
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Figure 2: A traditional urban brick and timber house in Dhulikhel showing a shop accommodated within the
timber framed undercroft. The timber joists of the upper floors extend through the walls to create structural
diaphragms. The ends of the joists were originally protected from the weather by brick and plaster cornices.
(Source: Author, 2014)

160x119mm (300 x 300 DPI)

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Figure 3: A traditional stone and timber house in Bhattedande. Large corner stones hold the corners of the
building. The timber brackets supporting the roof extend through the stone walls assisting in binding them
together. Although cracks developed in the walls as a result of the earthquake, the building did not collapse.
(Source: Author, 2016)

160x119mm (300 x 300 DPI)