Math 211- Calculus 2

Vectors in the Plane

Definition of a Vector in the Plane A vector in the plane is an ordered pair of real
numbers 〈𝑥, 𝑦〉. The numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 are the components of the vector 〈𝑥, 𝑦〉.

Let 𝑨 = 〈𝑥, 𝑦〉. If 𝐴 = (𝑥, 𝑦) is a point on the plane, then vector 𝑨 may be
represented by the directed line segment 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Any directed line segment equal to
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is also a representation of vector 𝑨.
𝑂𝐴

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is also a representation of

Illustration. 𝑨 = 〈−2,3〉 , the directed line segment 𝐵𝑃
𝑨 since its magnitude and direction is equal to 𝑨.

Definition of Magnitude and Direction of a Vector

The magnitude of a vector A, denoted by ‖A‖, is the length of any of its
representations, and the direction of a nonzero vector is the direction of any of its
representations.

Theorem 1
If A is the vector (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ), then
‖A‖ = √𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 .

Example 1. Let 𝑨 = 〈8, −5〉. Then

‖𝐴‖ = √82 + (−5)2 = √89

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Example 2. Let 𝑨 = 〈−2, 3〉 and point 𝐵 be (4, −3).

a. Draw the position representation of 𝑨 and the particular representation of
𝑨 having 𝐵 as its initial point.
b. Solve the magnitude of 𝑨.
Solution.
a. In the figure below, the position representation of 𝑨 is the directed line 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
whose initial point is on the origin. Figure below shows the position
representation of 𝑨.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ where 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦) be a particular representation of 𝑨. Then
Now, 𝐵𝑃
𝑥 − 4 = −2 ⟹ 𝑥 = 2
𝑦 − (−3) = 3 ⟹ 𝑦 = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ as
Thus, 𝑃 = (2, 0). The particular representation of 𝑨 is the directed line 𝐵𝑃
shown in the figure below.

b. The magnitude of 𝑨 is
‖𝐴‖ = √(−2)2 + (3)2 = √13

Definition of the Sum of Two Vectors

The sum of vectors 𝑨 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 〉 and 𝑩 = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 〉 is the vector 𝑨 + 𝑩 defined by
𝑨 + 𝑩 = 〈𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 〉

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Note: The representation of vectors 𝑨 and 𝑩 are adjacent sides of a parallelogram,

and the representation of 𝑨 + 𝑩 is the diagonal of the parallelogram which is called
the resultant of vectors 𝑨 and 𝑩. Moreover, the rule for addition of vectors is
sometimes called as the parallelogram law.

Example 3. If 𝐴 = 〈5, 3〉 and 𝑩 = 〈7, 2〉, then

𝑨 + 𝑩 = 〈5 + (7), 3 + 2〉 = 〈12, 5〉

Definition of the Negative of a Vector

If 𝑨 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 〉 then the negative of 𝑨, denoted by −𝑨, is the vector 〈−𝑎1 , −𝑎2 〉.

Definition of the Difference of the Two Vectors

The difference of the vectors 𝑨 and 𝑩, denoted by 𝑨 − 𝑩, is the vector obtained by
adding 𝑨 to the negative of 𝑩; that is,

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𝑨 − 𝑩 = 𝑨 + (−𝑩)

Example 4. If 𝑨 = 〈4, −6〉 and 𝑩 = 〈3, 2〉. Then

𝑨 − 𝑩 = 〈1, −8〉

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Definition of the Product of a Vector and a Scalar

If 𝑐 is a scalar and 𝑨 is a vector 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 〉, then the product of 𝑐 and 𝑨, denoted by 𝑐𝑨,
is the vector given by
𝑐𝑨 = 𝑐 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 〉 = 𝑐𝑎1 + 𝑐𝑎2
1
Example 5. Let 𝑨 = 〈4, −6〉. Then 2𝑨 = 〈8, −12〉 and 2 𝑨 = 〈2, −3〉.

Theorem 2
If 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 are vectors in 𝑉2 , and 𝑐 and 𝑑 are any scalars, then the vector addition
and scalar multiplication satisfy the following properties:
a. 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨 (commutative law)
b. 𝑨 + (𝑩 + 𝑪) = (𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑪 (associative law)
c. There is a vector 𝟎 in 𝑉2 for which 𝑨 + 𝟎 = 𝑨 (existence of additive identity)
d. There is a vector −𝑨 in 𝑉2 such that 𝑨 + (−𝑨) = 𝟎 (existence of negative)
e. (𝑐𝑑 )𝑨 = 𝑐(𝑑𝑨) (associative law)
f. 𝑐 (𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝑐𝑨 + 𝑐𝑩 (distributive law)
g. (𝑐 + 𝑑 )𝑨 = 𝑐𝑨 + 𝑑𝑨 (distributive law)
h. 1(𝐴) = 𝐴 (existence of scalar multiplicative identity)

Definition of a Real Vector Space

A real vector space 𝑉 is a set of elements, called vectors, together with a set of
real numbers, called scalars, with two operations called vector addition and scalar
multiplication such that for every pair of vectors 𝑨 and 𝑩 in 𝑉 and for every scalar
𝑐, a vector 𝑨 + 𝑩 and a vector 𝑐𝑨 are defined so that properties (a)-(h) of Theorem
2 are satisfied.

The vectors 𝒊 = 〈1, 0〉 and 𝒋 = 〈0, 1〉 are called unit vectors because their
magnitude is 1. Thus,
〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 〉 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑎2 𝒋

Let A be the vector 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 〉 and 𝜃 the direction angle of A. Since

𝐴 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑎2 𝒋
𝑎1 = ‖𝐴‖ cos 𝜃
𝑎2 = ‖𝐴‖ sin 𝜃,
we can write
𝑨 = ‖𝑨‖(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑗) (1)

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Example 6. Express the vector 〈−6, 4〉 in the form (1).

Solution. Note that ‖〈−6, 4〉‖ = √52. Thus

−6 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
√52 √52

Thus,
−6 4
〈−6, 4〉 = √52 ( 𝒊+ 𝒋)
√52 √52

Theorem 3
If the nonzero vector 𝑨 = 𝑎1 𝐢 + 𝑎2 𝐣, then the unit vector 𝑼 having the same direction
as 𝑨 is given by
𝑎1 𝑎2
𝑼= 𝐢+ 𝐣
‖𝐀‖ ‖𝐀‖

Example 7. Let 𝑨 = 2𝒊 + 𝒋. Find the unit vector having the same direction as 𝑨.

Solution. Note that

‖𝑨‖ = √5
Thus,
2 1
𝑼= 𝒊+ 𝒋
√5 √5

Example 8. Let 𝑨 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 and 𝑩 = 3𝒊 + 4𝒋. Find the unit vector having the same
direction as 𝑨 − 𝑩.

Solution.
𝑨 − 𝑩 = (𝒊 + 2𝒋) − (3𝒊 + 4𝒋) = −2𝒊 − 2𝒋
Thus,
‖𝑨 − 𝑩‖ = √8
Hence, the unit vector is
2 2
𝑼=− 𝒊− 𝒋
√8 √8

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 Math 211- Calculus 2

Vectors in Three-Dimensional Space

Definition of the three-Dimensional Number space
The set of all ordered triples of real numbers is called the three-dimensional
number space, denoted by R3. Each ordered triple (x, y, z) is called a point in the
three-dimensional number space.
Theorem 4
(i) A line is parallel to the yz plane if and only all points on the line have
equal x coordinates.
(ii) A line is parallel to the xz plane if and only if all points on the line
have equal y coordinates.
(iii) A line is parallel to the xy plane if and only if all points on the line
have equal z coordinates.

Photo Source: https://opentextbc.ca/calculusv3openstax/chapter/vectors-in-three-dimensions/

Theorem 5
(i) A line is parallel to the x axis if and only if all points on the line have equal
y coordinates and equal z coordinates.
(ii) A line is parallel to the y axis if and only if all points on the line have equal
x coordinates and equal z coordinates.
(iii) A line is parallel to the z axis if and only if all points on the line have
equal x coordinates and equal y coordinates.

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Theorem 6
(i) If A(x1, y, z) and B(x2, y, z) are two points on a line parallel to the x axis,
then the directed distance from A to B, denoted by 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ , is given by
̅̅̅̅ = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝐴𝐵

(ii) If C(x, y1, z) and D(x, y2, z) are two points on a line parallel to the y axis,
then the directed distance from C to D, denoted by ̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐷, is given by
̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
(iii) If E(x, y, z1) and F(x, y, z2) are two points on a line parallel to the z axis,
the directed distance from E to F, denoted by 𝐸𝐹 ̅̅̅̅ , is given by
̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐹 = 𝑧2 − 𝑧1

Example 9. The directed distance ̅̅̅̅

𝑃𝑄 from the point 𝑃(2, −5, −4) to the point
𝑄(2, −3, −4) is given by
̅̅̅̅ = (−3) − (−5) = 2
𝑃𝑄

Theorem 7
The undirected distance between the two points P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) is
given by
̅̅̅̅̅̅
|𝑃 2 2
1 𝑃2 | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2

Example 10. Find the undirected distance between the points 𝑃(3, 4, −1) and
𝑄(4, −5, 2).
Solution.
̅̅̅̅| = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
|PQ
= √(4 − 3)2 + (−5 − 4)2 + (2 − (−1))2
= √1 + 81 + 9 = √91

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Theorem 8
The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment having endpoints P1(x1, y1, z1)
and P2(x2, y2, z2) are given by
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑦 +𝑦 𝑧 +𝑧
𝑥̅ = 1 2 2 𝑦̅ = 1 2 2 𝑧̅ = 1 2 2
Example 11. Find the midpoint of the line segment having endpoints the
𝑃(3, 4, −1) and 𝑄(4, −5, 2).

Solution.
x1 + x2 7
x̅ = =
2 2
y1 + y2 1
y̅ = =−
2 2
z1 + z2 1
z̅ = =
2 2
Therefore, the midpoint of the segment is
7 1 1
( ,− , )
2 2 2

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Definition of the graph of an Equation in R3

The graph of an equation in R3 is the set of all points (x, y, z) whose coordinates
are number satisfying the equation.

Definition of a Sphere
A sphere is the set of all points in the three-dimensional space equidistant from a
fixed point. The fixed point is called the center of the sphere and the measure of
the constant distance is called the radius of the sphere.

Theorem 9
An equation of the sphere of radius r and center at (h, k, l) is
( 𝑥 − ℎ )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘 )2 + (𝑧 − 𝑙 )2 = 𝑟 2

Theorem 10
The graph of any second-degree equation in 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 of the form
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + G𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 + 1𝑧 + 𝑗 = 0
Is either a sphere, a point, or the empty set.

Example 12. Determine the graph of the equation

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 8𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 4 = 0
Solution. By completing the square we get,
𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 + 4 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 1 = 4 + 16 + 4 + 1
(𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 + (𝑧 + 1)2 = 25
The graph of the is a sphere having its center at (4, − 2, −1) and radius 𝑟 = 5.

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Example 13. Determine the graph of the equation

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 9 = 0
Solution. By completing the square we get,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 9 = −9 + 9
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑧 − 3)2 = 0
The graph is the point (0, 0, 3).

Example 14. Determine the graph of the equation

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 + 19 = 0
Solution. By completing the square we get,
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 + 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 4 = −19 + 9 + 1 + 4
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 + (𝑧 − 2)2 = −5
This is an empty set since √−5 is not a real number.

Example 15. Find the equation of the sphere having the points 𝐴(4, 6, 2) and
𝐵(8, −4, 0) as endpoints of a diameter.

Solution. The center of the sphere is the midpoint of the line segment between
𝐴(4, 6, 2) and 𝐵(2, −4, 0). Thus,
x1 + x2
x̅ = =3
2
y1 + y2
y̅ = =1
2
z1 + z2
z̅ = =1
2

The center is 𝐶(3, 1, 1) and the radius is |𝐶𝐵̅̅̅̅|. Solving for the radius, we get
̅̅̅̅ | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
|𝐶𝐵
= √(3 − 2)2 + (1 − (−4))2 + (1 − 0)2
= √27
Therefore, the equation of the sphere is
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 + (𝑧 − 1)2 = 27

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Definition of a Vector in Three-Dimensional Space

A vector in three-dimensional space is an ordered triple of real numbers (x,y,z).
The numbers 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are the components of the vector 〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉.

If 𝑨 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉, then the directed line having its initial point at the origin and its
terminal point at the point (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) is called the position representation of 𝑨. A
directed line segment having its initial point at (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and its terminal point at the
point (𝑥 + 𝑎1 , 𝑦 + 𝑎2 , 𝑧 + 𝑎3 ) is also a representation of the vector 𝑨.

The zero vector is the vector 〈0,0,0〉 and is denoted by 𝟎. Any point is a
representation of 𝟎.

If 𝑨 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉, then the magnitude of 𝑨 is denoted by ‖𝑨‖, and

‖𝑨‖ = √𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎3 2

The direction of a nonzero vector in 𝑉3 , is given by three angles, called the direction
angles.

Definition of the direction Angles of a Vector

The direction angles of a nonzero vector are the three angles that have the smallest
nonnegative radian measures α, β, and γ measured from the positive 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧
axes, respectively, to the position representation of the vector.

Each direction angle is greater than or equal to zero and less than or equal to 𝜋.
The following are the direction cosines of vector 𝑨. The zero vector has no direction
and so it has no direction cosines.
𝑎1
cos 𝛼 =
‖𝐴‖
𝑎2
cos 𝛽 =
‖𝐴‖

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𝑎3
cos 𝛾 =
‖𝐴‖
Example 16. Let 𝑨 = 〈1, 2, −3〉. Find the magnitude and the direction cosines.

Solution.
‖𝑨‖ = √(𝟏)𝟐 + (𝟐)𝟐 + (−𝟑)𝟐 = √𝟏𝟒
Thus,
𝑎1 1
cos 𝛼 = = ⟹ 𝛼 = 74.5°
‖𝐴‖ √𝟏𝟒
𝑎2 2
cos 𝛽 = = ⟹ 𝛽 = 57.69°
‖𝐴‖ √𝟏𝟒

𝑎3 3
cos 𝛾 = =− ⟹ 𝛾 = 143.30°
‖𝐴‖ √𝟏𝟒

Theorem 10
If cos α, cos β, and cos γ are the direction cosines of a vector,
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

Example 17. From Example 16,

2 2 2
1 2 3
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = ( ) +( ) + (− ) =1
√𝟏𝟒 √𝟏𝟒 √𝟏𝟒

The unit vectors in 𝑉3 are

𝒊 = 〈1. 0. 0〉, 𝒋 = 〈0, 1, 0〉, 𝒌 = 〈0, 0, 1〉

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Thus, we can write 𝑨 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 as

𝑨 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑎2 𝒋 + 𝑎3 𝒌
From the direction cosines we get
𝑎1 = ‖𝑨‖𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝑎2 = ‖𝑨‖𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝑎3 = ‖𝑨‖𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾
Thus,
𝑨 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑎2 𝒋 + 𝑎3 𝒌 = ‖𝑨‖𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝒊 + ‖𝑨‖𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝒋 + ‖𝑨‖𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝒌
Hence, we can express any nonzero vector in terms of its magnitude and direction
cosines.

Let 𝑃(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and 𝑄(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ). Then

𝑽(𝑃𝑄⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) = 〈𝑏1 − 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 , 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 〉

Theorem 11
If the nonzero vector
𝑨 = 𝑎1 𝒊 + 𝑎2 𝒋 + 𝑎3 𝒌

then the unit vector U having the same direction as A is given by

𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝐔= 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤
‖A‖ ‖A‖ ‖A‖

Example 18. Let the points be 𝑃(2, 3, 4) and 𝑄(1, 5, 3). Find the unit vector having
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ).
the same direction as 𝑽(𝑃𝑄

Solution. Note that

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) = 〈𝑏1 − 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 , 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 〉 = 〈1 − 2, 5 − 3, 3 − 4〉 = 〈−1, 2, −1〉
𝑽(𝑃𝑄
= −𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌
and
‖𝑽(𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )‖ = √(−𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐 + (−𝟏)𝟐 = √𝟔

Hence, the desired unit vector is

𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 1 2 3
𝐔= 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤=− 𝐢+ 𝐣− 𝐤
‖A‖ ‖A‖ ‖A‖ √𝟔 √𝟔 √𝟔

References:

1. The Calculus 7 by Louis Leithold

2. Anton, H., Bivens, I., & Davis, S., (2012). Calculus (10th ed.). United States
of America: Anton Textbooks, Inc.

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