JUNIOR EXECUTIVE AAI ATC

ELECTRIC CHARGES
AND FIELDS
SUMMARY
1. Electric and magnetic forces determine the properties of atoms,
molecules and bulk matter.
2. From simple experiments on frictional electricity, one can infer that
there are two types of charges in nature; and that like charges repel
and unlike charges attract. By convention, the charge on a glass rod
rubbed with silk is positive; that on a plastic rod rubbed with fur is
then negative.
3. Conductors allow movement of electric charge through them,
insulators do not. In metals, the mobile charges are electrons; in
electrolytes both positive and negative ions are mobile.
4. Electric charge has three basic properties: quantisation, additivity
and conservation.
Quantisation of electric charge means that total charge (q) of a body
is always an integral multiple of a basic quantum of charge (e) i.e.,
q = n e, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, .... Proton and electron have charges
+e, –e, respectively. For macroscopic charges for which n is a very large
number, quantisation of charge can be ignored.
Additivity of electric charges means that the total charge of a system
is the algebraic sum (i.e., the sum taking into account proper signs)
of all individual charges in the system.
Conservation of electric charges means that the total charge of an
isolated system remains unchanged with time. This means that when
bodies are charged through friction, there is a transfer of electric charge
from one body to another, but no cr eation or destruction
of charge.
5. Coulomb’s Law: The mutual electrostatic force between two point
charges q1 and q2 is proportional to the product q1q2 and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance r 21 separating them.
Mathematically,
k (q1q2 )
F21 = force on q2 due to q1 = 2
rˆ21
r21
1
where r̂21 is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to q2 and k =
4 πε 0
is the constant of proportionality.
In SI units, the unit of charge is coulomb. The experimental value of
the constant e0 is
e0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2
The approximate value of k is
k = 9 × 109 N m2 C–2
6. The ratio of electric force and gravitational force between a proton
and an electron is
k e2
≅ 2.4 × 1039
G m em p
7. Superposition Principle: The principle is based on the property that the
forces with which two charges attract or repel each other are not
affected by the presence of a third (or more) additional charge(s). For
an assembly of charges q1, q2, q3, ..., the force on any charge, say q1, is
the vector sum of the force on q1 due to q2, the force on q1 due to q3,
and so on. For each pair, the force is given by the Coulomb’s law for
two charges stated earlier.

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8. The electric field E at a point due to a charge configuration is the
force on a small positive test charge q placed at the point divided by
the magnitude of the charge. Electric field due to a point charge q has
a magnitude |q|/4pe0r 2; it is radially outwards from q, if q is positive,
and radially inwards if q is negative. Like Coulomb force, electric field
also satisfies superposition principle.
9. An electric field line is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent
at each point on the curve gives the direction of electric field at that
point. The relative closeness of field lines indicates the relative strength
of electric field at different points; they crowd near each other in regions
of strong electric field and are far apart where the electric field is
weak. In regions of constant electric field, the field lines are uniformly
spaced parallel straight lines.
10. Some of the important properties of field lines are: (i) Field lines are
continuous curves without any breaks. (ii) Two field lines cannot cross
each other. (iii) Electrostatic field lines start at positive charges and
end at negative charges —they cannot form closed loops.
11. An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges q and –q
separated by some distance 2a. Its dipole moment vector p has
magnitude 2qa and is in the direction of the dipole axis from –q to q.
12. Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane (i.e., the plane
perpendicular to its axis and passing through its centre) at a distance
r from the centre:

−p 1
E=
4 πε o (a + r 2 )3 / 2
2

−p
≅ , for r >> a
4 πε o r 3
Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance r from the centre:

2 pr
E =
4 πε 0 (r 2 − a 2 )2

2p
≅ for r >> a
4 π ε 0r 3
The 1/r 3 dependence of dipole electric fields should be noted in contrast
to the 1/r 2 dependence of electric field due to a point charge.
13. In a uniform electric field E, a dipole experiences a torque τ given by
τ =p×E
but experiences no net force.
14. The flux Df of electric field E through a small area element DS is
given by
Df = E.DS
The vector area element DS is

DS = DS n̂
where DS is the magnitude of the area element and n̂ is normal to the
area element, which can be considered planar for sufficiently small DS.
For an area element of a closed surface, n̂ is taken to be the direction
of outward normal, by convention.
15. Gauss’s law: The flux of electric field through any closed surface S is
1/e0 times the total charge enclosed by S. The law is especially useful
in determining electric field E, when the source distribution has simple
symmetry:
(i) Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge density l
λ
E= ˆ
n
2 πε 0 r

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where r is the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire and
n̂ is the radial unit vector in the plane normal to the wire passing
through the point.
(ii) Infinite thin plane sheet of uniform surface charge density s
σ
E= ˆ
n
2 ε0

where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane, outward on either side.

(iii) Thin spherical shell of uniform surface charge density s
q
E= rˆ (r ≥ R )
4 πε 0 r 2
E=0 (r < R )
where r is the distance of the point from the centre of the shell and R
the radius of the shell. q is the total charge of the shell: q = 4pR2s.
The electric field outside the shell is as though the total charge is
concentrated at the centre. The same result is true for a solid sphere
of uniform volume charge density. The field is zero at all points inside
the shell.

Physical quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remarks

Vector area element DS [L2] m2 DS = DS n̂

Electric field E [MLT–3A–1] V m–1

Electric flux f [ML3 T–3A–1] Vm Df = E.DS

Dipole moment p [LTA] Cm Vector directed

from negative to
positive charge

Charge density:

linear l [L–1 TA] C m–1 Charge/length

surface s [L–2 TA] C m–2 Charge/area

volume r [L–3 TA] C m–3 Charge/volume

POINTS TO PONDER

1. You might wonder why the protons, all carrying positive charges,
are compactly residing inside the nucleus. Why do they not fly away?
You will learn that there is a third kind of a fundamental force,
called the strong force which holds them together. The range of
distance where this force is effective is, however, very small ~10-14
m. This is precisely the size of the nucleus. Also the electrons are
not allowed to sit on top of the protons, i.e. inside the nucleus,
due to the laws of quantum mechanics. This gives the atoms their
structure as they exist in nature.
2. Coulomb force and gravitational force follow the same inverse-square
law. But gravitational force has only one sign (always attractive), while
Coulomb force can be of both signs (attractive and repulsive), allowing
possibility of cancellation of electric forces. This is how gravity, despite
being a much weaker force, can be a dominating and more pervasive
force in nature.
3. The constant of proportionality k in Coulomb’s law is a matter of
choice if the unit of charge is to be defined using Coulomb’s law. In SI
units, however, what is defined is the unit of current (A) via its magnetic
effect (Ampere’s law) and the unit of charge (coulomb) is simply defined
by (1C = 1 A s). In this case, the value of k is no longer arbitrary; it is
approximately 9 × 109 N m2 C–2.

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4. The rather large value of k, i.e., the large size of the unit of charge
(1C) from the point of view of electric effects arises because (as
mentioned in point 3 already) the unit of charge is defined in terms of
magnetic forces (forces on current–carrying wires) which are generally
much weaker than the electric forces. Thus while 1 ampere is a unit
of reasonable size for magnetic effects, 1 C = 1 A s, is too big a unit for
electric effects.
5. The additive property of charge is not an ‘obvious’ property. It is related
to the fact that electric charge has no direction associated with it;
charge is a scalar.
6. Charge is not only a scalar (or invariant) under rotation; it is also
invariant for frames of reference in relative motion. This is not always
true for every scalar. For example, kinetic energy is a scalar under
rotation, but is not invariant for frames of reference in relative
motion.
7. Conservation of total charge of an isolated system is a property
independent of the scalar nature of charge noted in point 6.
Conservation refers to invariance in time in a given frame of reference.
A quantity may be scalar but not conserved (like kinetic energy in an
inelastic collision). On the other hand, one can have conserved vector
quantity (e.g., angular momentum of an isolated system).
8. Quantisation of electric charge is a basic (unexplained) law of nature;
interestingly, there is no analogous law on quantisation of mass.
9. Superposition principle should not be regarded as ‘obvious’, or
equated with the law of addition of vectors. It says two things:
force on one charge due to another charge is unaffected by the
presence of other charges, and there are no additional three-body,
four -body, etc., forces which arise only when there are more than
two charges.
10. The electric field due to a discrete charge configuration is not defined
at the locations of the discrete charges. For continuous volume
charge distribution, it is defined at any point in the distribution.
For a surface charge distribution, electric field is discontinuous
across the surface.
11. The electric field due to a charge configuration with total charge zero
is not zero; but for distances large compared to the size of
the configuration, its field falls off faster than 1/r 2, typical of field
due to a single charge. An electric dipole is the simplest example of
this fact.

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ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL
AND CAPACITANCE SUMMARY
1. Electrostatic force is a conservative force. Work done by an external
force (equal and opposite to the electrostatic force) in bringing a charge
q from a point R to a point P is q(VP–VR), which is the difference in
potential energy of charge q between the final and initial points.
2. Potential at a point is the work done per unit charge (by an external
agency) in bringing a charge from infinity to that point. Potential at a
point is arbitrary to within an additive constant, since it is the potential
difference between two points which is physically significant. If potential
at infinity is chosen to be zero; potential at a point with position vector
r due to a point charge Q placed at the origin is given is given by
1 Q
V (r) =
4 πε o r
3. The electrostatic potential at a point with position vector r due to a
point dipole of dipole moment p placed at the origin is
1 p.rˆ
V (r ) =
4 πε o r 2
The result is true also for a dipole (with charges –q and q separated by
2a) for r >> a.

4. For a charge configuration q1 , q2 , ..., q n with position vectors r 1 ,

r2, ... rn, the potential at a point P is given by the superposition principle

1 q1 q2 q
V = ( + + ... + n )
4 πε 0 r1P r2P rnP
where r1P is the distance between q1 and P, as and so on.
5. An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential has a constant
value. For a point charge, concentric spheres centred at a location of the
charge are equipotential surfaces. The electric field E at a point is
perpendicular to the equipotential surface through the point. E is in the
direction of the steepest decrease of potential.
6. Potential energy stored in a system of charges is the work done (by an
external agency) in assembling the charges at their locations. Potential
energy of two charges q1, q2 at r1, r2 is given by
1 q1 q 2
U =
4 πε 0 r12
where r12 is distance between q1 and q2.
7. The potential energy of a charge q in an external potential V(r) is qV(r).
The potential energy of a dipole moment p in a uniform electric field E
is –p.E.
8. Electrostatics field E is zero in the interior of a conductor; just outside
the surface of a charged conductor, E is normal to the surface given by
σ
E= ˆ where n̂ is the unit vector along the outward normal to the
n
ε0

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surface and s is the surface charge density. Charges in a conductor can
reside only at its surface. Potential is constant within and on the surface
of a conductor. In a cavity within a conductor (with no charges), the
electric field is zero.

9. A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator. Its

capacitance is defined by C = Q/V, where Q and –Q are the charges on the
two conductors and V is the potential difference between them. C is
determined purely geometrically, by the shapes, sizes and relative
positions of the two conductors. The unit of capacitance is farad:,
1 F = 1 C V –1. For a parallel plate capacitor (with vacuum between the
plates),
A
C= ε0
d
where A is the area of each plate and d the separation between them.

10. If the medium between the plates of a capacitor is filled with an insulating
substance (dielectric), the electric field due to the charged plates induces
a net dipole moment in the dielectric. This effect, called polarisation,
gives rise to a field in the opposite direction. The net electric field inside
the dielectric and hence the potential difference between the plates is
thus reduced. Consequently, the capacitance C increases from its value
C0 when there is no medium (vacuum),

C = KC0

where K is the dielectric constant of the insulating substance.

11. For capacitors in the series combination, the total capacitance C is given by

1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
C C1 C2 C3
In the parallel combination, the total capacitance C is:
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

where C1, C2, C3... are individual capacitances.

12. The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C, with charge Q and
voltage V is

1 1 1 Q2
U = QV = CV 2 =
2 2 2 C
The electric energy density (energy per unit volume) in a region with
electric field is (1/2) E2 e0 .

Physical quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remark

Potential or V [M1 L2 T–3 A–1] V Potential difference is

physically significant
Capacitance C [M–1 L–2 T–4 A2] F
–2
Polarisation P [L AT] C m-2 Dipole moment per unit
volume
Dielectric constant K [Dimensionless]

POINTS TO PONDER
1. Electrostatics deals with forces between charges at rest. But if there is a
force on a charge, how can it be at rest? Thus, when we are talking of
electrostatic force between charges, it should be understood that each
charge is being kept at rest by some unspecified force that opposes the
net Coulomb force on the charge.
2. A capacitor is so configured that it confines the electric field lines within
a small region of space. Thus, even though field may have considerable
strength, the potential difference between the two conductors of a
capacitor is small.

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3. Electric field is discontinuous across the surface of a spherical charged

σ
shell. It is zero inside and ε0 n̂ outside. Electric potential is, however
continuous across the surface, equal to q/4pe0R at the surface.
4. The torque p × E on a dipole causes it to oscillate about E. Only if there
is a dissipative mechanism, the oscillations are damped and the dipole
eventually aligns with E.
5. Potential due to a charge q at its own location is not defined – it is
infinite.
6. In the expression qV (r) for potential energy of a charge q, V (r) is the
potential due to external charges and not the potential due to q. As seen
in point 5, this expression will be ill-defined if V (r) includes potential
due to a charge q itself.
7. A cavity inside a conductor is shielded from outside electrical influences.
It is worth noting that electrostatic shielding does not work the other
way round; that is, if you put charges inside the cavity, the exterior of
the conductor is not shielded from the fields by the inside charges.

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CURRENT
ELECTRICITY SUMMARY
1.Current through a given area of a conductor is the net charge passing
per unit time through the area.
2. To maintain a steady current, we must have a closed circuit in which
an external agency moves electric charge from lower to higher potential
energy. The work done per unit charge by the source in taking the
charge from lower to higher potential energy (i.e., from one terminal
of the source to the other) is called the electromotive force, or emf, of
the source. Note that the emf is not a force; it is the voltage difference
between the two terminals of a source in open circuit.
3. Ohm’s law: The electric current I flowing through a substance is
proportional to the voltage V across its ends, i.e., V µ I or V = RI,
where R is called the resistance of the substance. The unit of resistance
is ohm: 1W = 1 V A–1.
4. The resistance R of a conductor depends on its length l and
cross-sectional area A through the relation,
ρl
R=
A
where r, called resistivity is a property of the material and depends on
temperature and pressure.
5. Electrical resistivity of substances varies over a very wide range. Metals
have low resistivity, in the range of 10–8 W m to 10–6 W m. Insulators
like glass and rubber have 1022 to 1024 times greater resistivity.
Semiconductors like Si and Ge lie roughly in the middle range of
resistivity on a logarithmic scale.
6. In most substances, the carriers of current are electrons; in some
cases, for example, ionic crystals and electrolytic liquids, positive and
negative ions carry the electric current.
7. Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per second per
unit area normal to the flow,
j = nq vd
where n is the number density (number per unit volume) of charge
carriers each of charge q, and vd is the drift velocity of the charge
carriers. For electrons q = – e. If j is normal to a cross-sectional area
A and is constant over the area, the magnitude of the current I through
the area is nevd A.
8. Using E = V/l, I = nevd A, and Ohm’s law, one obtains
eE ne 2
=ρ vd
m m
The proportionality between the force eE on the electrons in a metal
due to the external field E and the drift velocity vd (not acceleration)
can be understood, if we assume that the electrons suffer collisions
with ions in the metal, which deflect them randomly. If such collisions
occur on an average at a time interval t,
vd = at = eEt/m
where a is the acceleration of the electron. This gives
m
ρ=
ne 2τ
9. In the temperature range in which resistivity increases linearly with
temperature, the temperature coefficient of resistivity a is defined as
the fractional increase in resistivity per unit increase in temperature.

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10. Ohm’s law is obeyed by many substances, but it is not a fundamental
law of nature. It fails if
(a) V depends on I non-linearly.
(b) the relation between V and I depends on the sign of V for the same
absolute value of V.
(c) The relation between V and I is non-unique.
An example of (a) is when r increases with I (even if temperature is
kept fixed). A rectifier combines features (a) and (b). GaAs shows the
feature (c).
11. When a source of emf e is connected to an external resistance R, the
voltage Vext across R is given by
ε
Vext = IR = R
R +r
where r is the internal resistance of the source.
12. Kirchhoff’s Rules –
(a) Junction Rule: At any junction of circuit elements, the sum of
currents entering the junction must equal the sum of currents
leaving it.
(b) Loop Rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any
closed loop must be zero.
13. The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances – R1, R2,
R3, R4 as shown in the text. The null-point condition is given by
R1 R3
=
R2 R 4
using which the value of one resistance can be determined, knowing
the other three resistances.

Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remark

Electric current I [A] A SI base unit

Charge Q, q [T A] C
2 –3 –1
Voltage, Electric V [M L T A ] V Work/charge
potential difference
Electromotive force e [M L2 T –3 A–1] V Work/charge
2 –3 –2
Resistance R [M L T A ] W R = V/I
Resistivity r [M L3 T –3 A–2] Wm R = rl/A
Electrical s [M –1 L–3 T 3 A2] S s = 1/r
conductivity
–3 –1 –1 Electric force
Electric field E [M L T A ] Vm
charge
eEτ
vd =
–1 –1
Drift speed vd [L T ] ms
m
Relaxation time t [T] s
–2
Current density j [L A] A m–2 current/area
3 –4 –1 2 –1 –1
Mobility m [M L T A ] m V s vd / E

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Current is a scalar although we represent current with an arrow.

Currents do not obey the law of vector addition. That current is a
scalar also follows from it’s definition. The current I through an area
of cross-section is given by the scalar product of two vectors:
I = j . DS
where j and DS are vectors.

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2. Refer to V-I curves of a resistor and a diode as drawn in the text. A

resistor obeys Ohm’s law while a diode does not. The assertion that
V = IR is a statement of Ohm’s law is not true. This equation defines
resistance and it may be applied to all conducting devices whether
they obey Ohm’s law or not. The Ohm’s law asserts that the plot of I
versus V is linear i.e., R is independent of V.
Equation E = r j leads to another statement of Ohm’s law, i.e., a
conducting material obeys Ohm’s law when the resistivity of the
material does not depend on the magnitude and direction of applied
electric field.
3. Homogeneous conductors like silver or semiconductors like pure
germanium or germanium containing impurities obey Ohm’s law within
some range of electric field values. If the field becomes too strong,
there are departures from Ohm’s law in all cases.
4. Motion of conduction electrons in electric field E is the sum of (i)
motion due to random collisions and (ii) that due to E. The motion
due to random collisions averages to zero and does not contribute to
vd (Chapter 11, Textbook of Class XI). vd , thus is only due to applied
electric field on the electron.
5. The relation j = r v should be applied to each type of charge carriers
separately. In a conducting wire, the total current and charge density
arises from both positive and negative charges:
j = r+ v+ + r– v–
r = r+ + r–
Now in a neutral wire carrying electric current,
r + = – r–
Further, v+ ~ 0 which gives
r=0
j = r– v
Thus, the relation j = r v does not apply to the total current charge
density.
6. Kirchhoff’s junction rule is based on conservation of charge and the
outgoing currents add up and are equal to incoming current at a
junction. Bending or reorienting the wire does not change the validity
of Kirchhoff’s junction rule.

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MOVING CHARGES
AND MAGNETISM
SUMMARY
1. The total force on a charge q moving with velocity v in the presence of
magnetic and electric fields B and E, respectively is called the Lorentz
force. It is given by the expression:
F = q (v × B + E)
The magnetic force q (v × B) is normal to v and work done by it is zero.
2. A straight conductor of length l and carrying a steady current I
experiences a force F in a uniform external magnetic field B,
F=Il×B
where|l| = l and the direction of l is given by the direction of the
current.
3. In a uniform magnetic field B, a charge q executes a circular orbit in
a plane normal to B. Its frequency of uniform circular motion is called
the cyclotron frequency and is given by:
qB
νc =
2 πm
This frequency is independent of the particle’s speed and radius. This
fact is exploited in a machine, the cyclotron, which is used to
accelerate charged particles.
4. The Biot-Savart law asserts that the magnetic field dB due to an
element dl carrying a steady current I at a point P at a distance r from
the current element is:
µ0 dl × r
dB = I
4π r3
To obtain the total field at P, we must integrate this vector expression
over the entire length of the conductor.
5. The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of radius R
carrying a current I at an axial distance x from the centre is
µ0 IR 2
B=
2( x + R 2 )3 / 2
2

At the centre this reduces to

µ0 I
B=
2R
6. Ampere’s Circuital Law: Let an open surface S be bounded by a loop
C. Then the Ampere’s law states that
∫
Ñ B.d l = µ I where I refers to
C
0

the current passing through S. The sign of I is determined from the

right-hand rule. We have discussed a simplified form of this law. If B
is directed along the tangent to every point on the perimeter L of a
closed curve and is constant in magnitude along perimeter then,
BL = m0 Ie
where Ie is the net current enclosed by the closed circuit.
7. The magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance R from a long,
straight wire carrying a current I is given by:
µ0 I
B=
2πR
The field lines are circles concentric with the wire.
8. The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying a current
I is
B = m0nI

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where n is the number of turns per unit length.
where N is the total number of turns and r is the average radius.
9. Parallel currents attract and anti-parallel currents repel.
10. A planar loop carrying a current I, having N closely wound turns, and
an area A possesses a magnetic moment m where,
m=NIA
and the direction of m is given by the right-hand thumb rule : curl
the palm of your right hand along the loop with the fingers pointing
in the direction of the current. The thumb sticking out gives the
direction of m (and A)
When this loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, the force F on
it is: F = 0
And the torque on it is,
t=m×B
In a moving coil galvanometer, this torque is balanced by a counter-
torque due to a spring, yielding
kf = NI AB
where f is the equilibrium deflection and k the torsion constant of
the spring.
11. A moving coil galvanometer can be converted into a ammeter by
introducing a shunt resistance rs, of small value in parallel. It can be
converted into a voltmeter by introducing a resistance of a large value
in series.

Physical Quantity Symbol Nature Dimensions Units Remarks

Permeability of free m0 Scalar [MLT –2A–2] T m A–1 4p ´ 10–7 T m A–1

space

Magnetic Field B Vector [M T –2A–1] T (telsa)

2
Magnetic Moment m Vector [L A] A m2 or J/T

Torsion Constant k Scalar [M L2T –2] N m rad–1 Appears in MCG

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Electrostatic field lines originate at a positive charge and terminate at a

negative charge or fade at infinity. Magnetic field lines always form
closed loops.
2. The discussion in this Chapter holds only for steady currents which do
not vary with time.
When currents vary with time Newton’s third law is valid only if momentum
carried by the electromagnetic field is taken into account.
3. Recall the expression for the Lorentz force,
F = q (v × B + E)
This velocity dependent force has occupied the attention of some of the
greatest scientific thinkers. If one switches to a frame with instantaneous
velocity v, the magnetic part of the force vanishes. The motion of the
charged particle is then explained by arguing that there exists an
appropriate electric field in the new frame. We shall not discuss the
details of this mechanism. However, we stress that the resolution of this
paradox implies that electricity and magnetism are linked phenomena
(electromagnetism) and that the Lorentz force expression does not imply
a universal preferred frame of reference in nature.
4. Ampere’s Circuital law is not independent of the Biot-Savart law. It
can be derived from the Biot-Savart law. Its relationship to the
Biot-Savart law is similar to the relationship between Gauss’s law and
Coulomb’s law.

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MAGNETISM AND
MATTER
SUMMARY
1. The science of magnetism is old. It has been known since ancient times
that magnetic materials tend to point in the north-south direction; like
magnetic poles repel and unlike ones attract; and cutting a bar magnet
in two leads to two smaller magnets. Magnetic poles cannot be isolated.
2. When a bar magnet of dipole moment m is placed in a uniform magnetic
field B,

(a) the force on it is zero,

(b) the torque on it is m × B,
(c) its potential energy is –m.B, where we choose the zero of energy at
the orientation when m is perpendicular to B.
3. Consider a bar magnet of size l and magnetic moment m, at a distance
r from its mid-point, where r >>l, the magnetic field B due to this bar
is,
µ0 m
B= (along axis)
2 πr 3

µ0 m
=– (along equator)
4 πr3
4. Gauss’s law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through
any closed surface is zero

B Bi S 0
all area
elements S

5. Consider a material placed in an external magnetic field B0. The

magnetic intensity is defined as,
B0
H=
µ0
The magnetisation M of the material is its dipole moment per unit volume.
The magnetic field B in the material is,
B = m0 (H + M)
6. For a linear material M = c H. So that B = m H and c is called the
magnetic susceptibility of the material. The three quantities, c, the
relative magnetic permeability mr, and the magnetic permeability m are
related as follows:
m = m0 mr
mr = 1+ c
7. Magnetic materials are broadly classified as: diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
and ferromagnetic. For diamagnetic materials c is negative and small
and for paramagnetic materials it is positive and small. Ferromagnetic
materials have large c and are characterised by non-linear relation
between B and H.
8. Substances, which at room temperature, retain their ferromagnetic
property for a long period of time are called permanent magnets.

Physical quantity Symbol Nature Dimensions Units Remarks

Permeability of m0 Scalar [MLT–2 A–2] T m A–1 m0/4p = 10–7

free space
Magnetic field, B Vector [MT–2 A–1] T (tesla) 104 G (gauss) = 1 T
Magnetic induction,
Magnetic flux density

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Magnetic flux fB Scalar [ML2T–2 A–1] W (weber) W = T m2

Magnetisation M Vector [L–1 A] A m–1 Magnetic moment

Volume
Magnetic intensity H Vector [L–1 A] A m–1 B = m0 (H + M)
Magnetic field
strength
Magnetic c Scalar - - M = cH
susceptibility
Relative magnetic mr Scalar - - B = m0 mr H
permeability
Magnetic permeability m Scalar [MLT–2 A–2] T m A–1 m = m0 mr
N A–2 B=mH

POINTS TO PONDER

1. A satisfactory understanding of magnetic phenomenon in terms of moving

charges/currents was arrived at after 1800 AD. But technological
exploitation of the directional properties of magnets predates this scientific
understanding by two thousand years. Thus, scientific understanding is
not a necessary condition for engineering applications. Ideally, science
and engineering go hand-in-hand, one leading and assisting the other in
tandem.
2. Magnetic monopoles do not exist. If you slice a magnet in half, you get
two smaller magnets. On the other hand, isolated positive and negative
charges exist. There exists a smallest unit of charge, for example, the
electronic charge with value |e| = 1.6 ×10–19 C. All other charges are
integral multiples of this smallest unit charge. In other words, charge is
quantised. We do not know why magnetic monopoles do not exist or why
electric charge is quantised.
3. A consequence of the fact that magnetic monopoles do not exist is that
the magnetic field lines are continuous and form closed loops. In contrast,
the electrostatic lines of force begin on a positive charge and terminate
on the negative charge (or fade out at infinity).
4. A miniscule difference in the value of c, the magnetic susceptibility, yields
radically different behaviour: diamagnetic versus paramagnetic. For
diamagnetic materials c = –10–5 whereas c = +10–5 for paramagnetic
materials.
5. There exists a perfect diamagnet, namely, a superconductor. This is a
metal at very low temperatures. In this case c = –1, mr = 0, m = 0. The
external magnetic field is totally expelled. Interestingly, this material is
also a perfect conductor. However, there exists no classical theory which
ties these two properties together. A quantum-mechanical theory by
Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (BCS theory) explains these effects. The
BCS theory was proposed in1957 and was eventually recognised by a Nobel
Prize in physics in 1970.
6. Diamagnetism is universal. It is present in all materials. But it
is weak and hard to detect if the substance is para- or ferromagnetic.
7. We have classified materials as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and
ferromagnetic. However, there exist additional types of magnetic material
such as ferrimagnetic, anti-ferromagnetic, spin glass, etc. with properties
which are exotic and mysterious.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION SUMMARY
1. The magnetic flux through a surface of area A placed in a uniform magnetic
field B is defined as,
FB = B.A = BA cos q
where q is the angle between B and A.
2. Faraday’s laws of induction imply that the emf induced in a coil of N
turns is directly related to the rate of change of flux through it,
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
Here FB is the flux linked with one turn of the coil. If the circuit is
closed, a current I = e/R is set up in it, where R is the resistance of the
circuit.
3. Lenz’s law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such that it
tends to produce a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux
that produces it. The negative sign in the expression for Faraday’s law
indicates this fact.
4. When a metal rod of length l is placed normal to a uniform magnetic
field B and moved with a velocity v perpendicular to the field, the
induced emf (called motional emf ) across its ends is
e = Bl v
5. Inductance is the ratio of the flux-linkage to current. It is equal to NF/I.
6. A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in a nearby coil
(coil 1). This relation is given by,
dI 2
ε1 = − M12
dt
The quantity M12 is called mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to
coil 2. One can similarly define M21. There exists a general equality,
M12 = M21
7. When a current in a coil changes, it induces a back emf in the same
coil. The self-induced emf is given by,
dI
ε = −L
dt
L is the self-inductance of the coil. It is a measure of the inertia of the
coil against the change of current through it.
8. The self-inductance of a long solenoid, the core of which consists of a
magnetic material of relative permeability mr, is given by
L = mr m0 n2 A l
where A is the area of cross-section of the solenoid, l its length and n
the number of turns per unit length.
9. In an ac generator, mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy
by virtue of electromagnetic induction. If coil of N turn and area A is
rotated at n revolutions per second in a uniform magnetic field B, then
the motional emf produced is
e = NBA ( 2pn) sin (2p nt)
where we have assumed that at time t = 0 s, the coil is perpendicular to
the field.

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Quantity Symbol Units Dimensions Equations

Magnetic Flux FB Wb (weber) [M L2 T –2 A–1] FB = B i A

EMF e V (volt) 2 –3
[M L T A ] –1
e = − d( N ΦB )/ dt
Mutual Inductance M H (henry) [M L2 T –2 A–2] e1 = −M12 (dI 2 /dt )

Self Inductance L H (henry) [M L2 T –2 A–2] ε = − L (d I / d t )

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Electricity and magnetism are intimately related. In the early part of the
nineteenth century, the experiments of Oersted, Ampere and others
established that moving charges (currents) produce a magnetic field.
Somewhat later, around 1830, the experiments of Faraday and Henry
demonstrated that a moving magnet can induce electric current.
2. In a closed circuit, electric currents are induced so as to oppose the
changing magnetic flux. It is as per the law of conservation of energy.
However, in case of an open circuit, an emf is induced across its ends.
How is it related to the flux change?
3. The motional emf discussed in Section 6.5 can be argued independently
from Faraday’s law using the Lorentz force on moving charges. However,
even if the charges are stationary [and the q (v × B) term of the Lorentz
force is not operative], an emf is nevertheless induced in the presence of a
time-varying magnetic field. Thus, moving charges in static field and static
charges in a time-varying field seem to be symmetric situation for Faraday’s
law. This gives a tantalising hint on the relevance of the principle of
relativity for Faraday’s law.

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ALTERNATING
CURRENT SUMMARY
1. An alternating voltage v = vm sin ω t applied to a resistor R drives a

vm
current i = im sinwt in the resistor, im = . The current is in phase with
R
the applied voltage.
2. For an alternating current i = im sin wt passing through a resistor R, the
average power loss P (averaged over a cycle) due to joule heating is
( 1/2 )i 2mR. To express it in the same form as the dc power (P = I 2R), a
special value of current is used. It is called root mean square (rms)
current and is donoted by I:
im
I = = 0.707 im
2
Similarly, the rms voltage is defined by

vm
V = = 0.707 vm
2
We have P = IV = I 2R
3. An ac voltage v = vm sin wt applied to a pure inductor L, drives a current
in the inductor i = im sin (wt – p/2), where im = vm/XL. XL = wL is called
inductive reactance. The current in the inductor lags the voltage by
p/2. The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle
is zero.
4. An ac voltage v = vm sinwt applied to a capacitor drives a current in the
capacitor: i = im sin (wt + p/2). Here,
vm 1
im = , XC =
XC ωC is called capacitive reactance.
The current through the capacitor is p/2 ahead of the applied voltage.
As in the case of inductor, the average power supplied to a capacitor
over one complete cycle is zero.
5. For a series RLC circuit driven by voltage v = vm sin wt, the current is
given by i = im sin (wt + f )
vm
where im =
R + ( XC − X L )
2 2

XC − X L
and φ = tan −1
R

Z = R2 + ( X C − X L )
2
is called the impedance of the circuit.
The average power loss over a complete cycle is given by
P = V I cosf
The term cosf is called the power factor.
6. In a purely inductive or capacitive circuit, cosf = 0 and no power is
dissipated even though a current is flowing in the circuit. In such cases,
current is referred to as a wattless current.
7. The phase relationship between current and voltage in an ac circuit
can be shown conveniently by representing voltage and current by
rotating vectors called phasors. A phasor is a vector which rotates
about the origin with angular speed w. The magnitude of a phasor
represents the amplitude or peak value of the quantity (voltage or
current) represented by the phasor.
The analysis of an ac circuit is facilitated by the use of a phasor
diagram.

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8. A transformer consists of an iron core on which are bound a primary
coil of Np turns and a secondary coil of Ns turns. If the primary coil is
connected to an ac source, the primary and secondary voltages are
related by
N 
Vs =  s  V p
 Np 
and the currents are related by

 Np 
Is =   I p
 Ns
If the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the primary, the
voltage is stepped-up (Vs > Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step-
up transformer. If the secondary coil has turns less than the primary, we
have a step-down transformer.

Physical quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remarks

2 –3 –1 vm
rms voltage V [M L T A ] V V = , vm is the
2
amplitude of the ac voltage.

im
rms current I [ A] A I= , im is the amplitude of
2
the ac current.

Reactance:
XL =  L
2 –3 –2
Inductive XL [M L T A ]
XC = 1/  C
2 –3 –2
Capacitive XC [M L T A ]
2 –3 –2
Impedance Z [M L T A ] Depends on elements
present in the circuit.

1
Resonant wr or w0 [T ]
–1
Hz w0  for a
frequency LC
series RLC circuit

ω0 L 1
Quality factor Q Dimensionless Q= = for a series
R ω0 C R
RLC circuit.
Power factor Dimensionless = cos f , f is the phase
difference between voltage
applied and current in
the circuit.

POINTS TO PONDER
1. When a value is given for ac voltage or current, it is ordinarily the rms
value. The voltage across the terminals of an outlet in your room is
normally 240 V. This refers to the rms value of the voltage. The amplitude
of this voltage is

vm = 2V = 2(240) = 340 V
2. The power rating of an element used in ac circuits refers to its average
power rating.
3. The power consumed in an ac circuit is never negative.
4. Both alternating current and direct current are measured in amperes.
But how is the ampere defined for an alternating current? It cannot be
derived from the mutual attraction of two parallel wires carrying ac
currents, as the dc ampere is derived. An ac current changes direction

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with the source frequency and the attractive force would average to
zero. Thus, the ac ampere must be defined in terms of some property
that is independent of the direction of the current. Joule heating
is such a property, and there is one ampere of rms value of
alternating current in a circuit if the current produces the same
average heating effect as one ampere of dc current would produce
under the same conditions.
5. In an ac circuit, while adding voltages across different elements, one
should take care of their phases properly. For example, if V R and VC
are voltages across R and C, respectively in an RC circuit, then the

total voltage across RC combination is VRC = VR2 + VC2 and not

VR + VC since V C is p/2 out of phase of V R.
6. Though in a phasor diagram, voltage and current are represented by
vectors, these quantities are not really vectors themselves. They are
scalar quantities. It so happens that the amplitudes and phases of
harmonically varying scalars combine mathematically in the same
way as do the projections of rotating vectors of corresponding
magnitudes and directions. The ‘rotating vectors’ that represent
harmonically varying scalar quantities are introduced only to provide
us with a simple way of adding these quantities using a rule that
we already know as the law of vector addition.
7. There are no power losses associated with pure capacitances and pure
inductances in an ac circuit. The only element that dissipates energy
in an ac circuit is the resistive element.
8. In a RLC circuit, resonance phenomenon occur when XL = X C or
1
ω0 = . For resonance to occur, the presence of both L and C
LC
elements in the circuit is a must. With only one of these (L or C )
elements, there is no possibility of voltage cancellation and hence,
no resonance is possible.
9. The power factor in a RLC circuit is a measure of how close the
circuit is to expending the maximum power.
10. In generators and motors, the roles of input and output are
reversed. In a motor, electric energy is the input and mechanical
energy is the output. In a generator, mechanical energy is the
input and electric energy is the output. Both devices simply
transfor m energy from one form to another.
11. A transformer (step-up) changes a low-voltage into a high-voltage.
This does not violate the law of conservation of energy. The
current is reduced by the same proportion.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES SUMMARY
1. Maxwell found an inconsistency in the Ampere’s law and suggested the
existence of an additional current, called displacement current, to remove
this inconsistency. This displacement current is due to time-varying electric
field and is given by
dΦΕ
id = ε0
dt
and acts as a source of magnetic field in exactly the same way as conduction
current.
2. An accelerating charge produces electromagnetic waves. An electric charge
oscillating harmonically with frequency n, produces electromagnetic waves
of the same frequency n . An electric dipole is a basic source of
electromagnetic waves.
3. Electromagnetic waves with wavelength of the order of a few metres were
first produced and detected in the laboratory by Hertz in 1887. He thus
verified a basic prediction of Maxwell’s equations.
4. Electric and magnetic fields oscillate sinusoidally in space and time in an
electromagnetic wave. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields, E and
B are perpendicular to each other, and to the direction of propagation of
the electromagnetic wave. For a wave of frequency n, wavelength l ,
propagating along z-direction, we have
E = Ex (t) = E0 sin (kz – w t )

 z    z t 
= E0 sin 2π  λ − νt   = E 0 sin 2π  λ − T  
   
B = By(t) = B0 sin (kz – w t)

 z    z t 
= B0 sin 2π  − νt   = B0 sin 2π  −  
 λ    λ T 
They are related by E0/B0 = c.
5. The speed c of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is related to m0 and e0 (the
free space permeability and permittivity constants) as follows:

c = 1/ µ0 ε 0 . The value of c equals the speed of light obtained from

optical measurements.
Light is an electromagnetic wave; c is, therefore, also the speed of light.
Electromagnetic waves other than light also have the same velocity c in
free space.
The speed of light, or of electromagnetic waves in a material medium is
given by v = 1/ µ ε
where m is the permeability of the medium and e its permittivity.
6. The spectrum of electromagnetic waves stretches, in principle, over an
infinite range of wavelengths. Different regions are known by different
names; g-rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible rays, infrared rays,
microwaves and radio waves in order of increasing wavelength from 10–2 Å
or 10–12 m to 106 m.
They interact with matter via their electric and magnetic fields which set
in oscillation charges present in all matter. The detailed interaction and
so the mechanism of absorption, scattering, etc., depend on the wavelength
of the electromagnetic wave, and the nature of the atoms and molecules
in the medium.

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POINTS TO PONDER

1. The basic difference between various types of electromagnetic waves

lies in their wavelengths or frequencies since all of them travel through
vacuum with the same speed. Consequently, the waves differ
considerably in their mode of interaction with matter.
2. Accelerated charged particles radiate electromagnetic waves. The
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave is often correlated with the
characteristic size of the system that radiates. Thus, gamma radiation,
having wavelength of 10–14 m to 10–15 m, typically originate from an
atomic nucleus. X-rays are emitted from heavy atoms. Radio waves
are produced by accelerating electrons in a circuit. A transmitting
antenna can most efficiently radiate waves having a wavelength of
about the same size as the antenna. Visible radiation emitted by atoms
is, however, much longer in wavelength than atomic size.
3. Infrared waves, with frequencies lower than those of visible light,
vibrate not only the electrons, but entire atoms or molecules of a
substance. This vibration increases the internal energy and
consequently, the temperature of the substance. This is why infrared
waves are often called heat waves.
4. The centre of sensitivity of our eyes coincides with the centre of the
wavelength distribution of the sun. It is because humans have evolved
with visions most sensitive to the strongest wavelengths from
the sun.

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RAY OPTICS AND

AAI ATC

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
SUMMARY
1. Reflection is governed by the equation Ði = Ðr¢ and refraction by the
Snell’s law, sini/sinr = n, where the incident ray, reflected ray, refracted
ray and normal lie in the same plane. Angles of incidence, reflection
and refraction are i, r ¢ and r, respectively.
2. The critical angle of incidence ic for a ray incident from a denser to rarer
medium, is that angle for which the angle of refraction is 90°. For
i > ic, total internal reflection occurs. Multiple internal reflections in
diamond (ic @ 24.4°), totally reflecting prisms and mirage, are some
examples of total internal reflection. Optical fibres consist of glass
fibres coated with a thin layer of material of lower refractive index.
Light incident at an angle at one end comes out at the other, after
multiple internal reflections, even if the fibre is bent.
3. Cartesian sign convention: Distances measured in the same direction
as the incident light are positive; those measured in the opposite
direction are negative. All distances are measured from the pole/optic
centre of the mirror/lens on the principal axis. The heights measured
upwards above x-axis and normal to the principal axis of the mirror/
lens are taken as positive. The heights measured downwards are taken
as negative.
4. Mirror equation:

1 1 1
+ =
v u f

where u and v are object and image distances, respectively and f is the
focal length of the mirror. f is (approximately) half the radius of
curvature R. f is negative for concave mirror; f is positive for a convex
mirror.

5. For a prism of the angle A, of refractive index n 2 placed in a medium

of refractive index n1,

n 2 sin ( A + D m ) / 2 
n 21 = =
n1 sin ( A / 2)
where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation.

6. For refraction through a spherical interface (from medium 1 to 2 of

refractive index n1 and n 2, respectively)

n 2 n1 n 2 − n1
− =
v u R
Thin lens formula
1 1 1
− =
v u f
Lens maker’s formula

1 (n 2 − n1 )  1 1 
=  R − R 
f n1 1 2

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R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of the lens surfaces. f is positive
for a converging lens; f is negative for a diverging lens. The power of a
lens P = 1/f.
The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D): 1 D = 1 m–1.
If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2, f3,.. are in contact, the
effective focal length of their combination, is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + +
f f1 f2 f3 …
The total power of a combination of several lenses is
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …

7. Dispersion is the splitting of light into its constituent colour.

8. Magnifying power m of a simple microscope is given by m = 1 + (D/f),
where D = 25 cm is the least distance of distinct vision and f is the
focal length of the convex lens. If the image is at infinity, m = D/f. For
a compound microscope, the magnifying power is given by m = me × m0
where me = 1 + (D/fe), is the magnification due to the eyepiece and mo
is the magnification produced by the objective. Approximately,
L D
m= ×
fo fe
where fo and fe are the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece,
respectively, and L is the distance between their focal points.
9. Magnifying power m of a telescope is the ratio of the angle b subtended
at the eye by the image to the angle a subtended at the eye by the
object.
β f
m = = o
α fe
where f0 and fe are the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece,
respectively.

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The laws of reflection and refraction are true for all surfaces and
pairs of media at the point of the incidence.
2. The real image of an object placed between f and 2f from a convex lens
can be seen on a screen placed at the image location. If the screen is
removed, is the image still there? This question puzzles many, because
it is difficult to reconcile ourselves with an image suspended in air
without a screen. But the image does exist. Rays from a given point
on the object are converging to an image point in space and diverging
away. The screen simply diffuses these rays, some of which reach our
eye and we see the image. This can be seen by the images formed in
air during a laser show.
3. Image formation needs regular reflection/refraction. In principle, all
rays from a given point should reach the same image point. This is
why you do not see your image by an irregular reflecting object, say
the page of a book.
4. Thick lenses give coloured images due to dispersion. The variety in
colour of objects we see around us is due to the constituent colours
of the light incident on them. A monochromatic light may produce an
entirely different perception about the colours on an object as seen in
white light.
5. For a simple microscope, the angular size of the object equals the
angular size of the image. Yet it offers magnification because we can
keep the small object much closer to the eye than 25 cm and hence
have it subtend a large angle. The image is at 25 cm which we can see.
Without the microscope, you would need to keep the small object at
25 cm which would subtend a very small angle.

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WAVE OPTICS SUMMARY

1. Huygens’ principle tells us that each point on a wavefront is a source
of secondary waves, which add up to give the wavefront at a later time.
2. Huygens’ construction tells us that the new wavefront is the forward
envelope of the secondary waves. When the speed of light is
independent of direction, the secondary waves are spherical. The rays
are then perpendicular to both the wavefronts and the time of travel
is the same measured along any ray. This principle leads to the well
known laws of reflection and refraction.
3. The principle of superposition of waves applies whenever two or more
sources of light illuminate the same point. When we consider the
intensity of light due to these sources at the given point, there is an
interference term in addition to the sum of the individual intensities.
But this term is important only if it has a non-zero average, which
occurs only if the sources have the same frequency and a stable phase
difference.
4. Young’s double slit of separation d gives equally spaced interference
fringes.
5. A single slit of width a gives a diffraction pattern with a central
λ 2λ
maximum. The intensity falls to zero at angles of ± , ± , etc.,
a a
with successively weaker secondary maxima in between.
6. Natural light, e.g., from the sun is unpolarised. This means the electric
vector takes all possible directions in the transverse plane, rapidly
and randomly, during a measurement. A polaroid transmits only one
component (parallel to a special axis). The resulting light is called
linearly polarised or plane polarised. When this kind of light is viewed
through a second polaroid whose axis turns through 2p, two maxima
and minima of intensity are seen.

POINTS TO PONDER
1. Waves from a point source spread out in all directions, while light was
seen to travel along narrow rays. It required the insight and experiment
of Huygens, Young and Fresnel to understand how a wave theory could
explain all aspects of the behaviour of light.
2. The crucial new feature of waves is interference of amplitudes from different
sources which can be both constructive and destructive, as shown in
Young’s experiment.
3. Diffraction phenomena define the limits of ray optics. The limit of the
ability of microscopes and telescopes to distinguish very close objects is
set by the wavelength of light.
4. Most interference and diffraction effects exist even for longitudinal waves
like sound in air. But polarisation phenomena are special to transverse
waves like light waves.

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DUAL NATURE OF
RADIATION AND MATTER SUMMARY
1. The minimum energy needed by an electron to come out from a metal
surface is called the work function of the metal. Energy (greater than
the work function (fo) required for electron emission from the metal
surface can be supplied by suitably heating or applying strong electric
field or irradiating it by light of suitable frequency.
2. Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission of electrons by metals
when illuminated by light of suitable frequency. Certain metals respond
to ultraviolet light while others are sensitive even to the visible light.
Photoelectric effect involves conversion of light energy into electrical
energy. It follows the law of conservation of energy. The photoelectric
emission is an instantaneous process and possesses certain special
features.
3. Photoelectric current depends on (i) the intensity of incident light, (ii)
the potential difference applied between the two electrodes, and (iii)
the nature of the emitter material.
4. The stopping potential (Vo) depends on (i) the frequency of incident
light, and (ii) the nature of the emitter material. For a given frequency
of incident light, it is independent of its intensity. The stopping potential
is directly related to the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted:
e V0 = (1/2) m v 2max = Kmax.
5. Below a certain frequency (threshold frequency) n 0 , characteristic of
the metal, no photoelectric emission takes place, no matter how large
the intensity may be.
6. The classical wave theory could not explain the main features of
photoelectric effect. Its picture of continuous absorption of energy
from radiation could not explain the independence of K max on
intensity, the existence of n o and the instantaneous nature of the
process. Einstein explained these features on the basis of photon
picture of light. According to this, light is composed of discrete
packets of energy called quanta or photons. Each photon carries an
energy E (= h n ) and momentum p (= h/l), which depend on the
frequency (n ) of incident light and not on its intensity. Photoelectric
emission from the metal surface occurs due to absorption of a photon
by an electron.
7. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is in accordance with the energy
conservation law as applied to the photon absorption by an electron in
the metal. The maximum kinetic energy (1/2)m v 2max is equal to
the photon energy (hn ) minus the work function f0 (= hn0 ) of the
target metal:

1
m v 2max = V0 e = hn – f0 = h (n – n0 )
2
This photoelectric equation explains all the features of the photoelectric
effect. Millikan’s first precise measurements confirmed the Einstein’s
photoelectric equation and obtained an accurate value of Planck’s
constant h . This led to the acceptance of particle or photon description
(nature) of electromagnetic radiation, introduced by Einstein.
8. Radiation has dual nature: wave and particle. The nature of experiment
determines whether a wave or particle description is best suited for
understanding the experimental result. Reasoning that radiation and
matter should be symmetrical in nature, Louis Victor de Broglie

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attributed a wave-like character to matter (material particles). The waves
associated with the moving material particles are called matter waves
or de Broglie waves.
9. The de Broglie wavelength (l) associated with a moving particle is
related to its momentum p as: l = h/p. The dualism of matter is
inherent in the de Broglie relation which contains a wave concept
( l ) and a particle concept (p). The de Broglie wavelength is
independent of the charge and nature of the material particle. It is
significantly measurable (of the order of the atomic-planes spacing
in crystals) only in case of sub-atomic particles like electrons,
protons, etc. (due to smallness of their masses and hence, momenta).
However, it is indeed very small, quite beyond measurement, in case
of macroscopic objects, commonly encountered in everyday life.

Physical Symbol Dimensions Unit Remarks

Quantity

Planck’s h [ML2 T –1] Js E = hn

constant
Stopping V0 [ML2 T –3A–1] V e V0= Kmax
potential
Work f0 [ML2 T –2] J; eV Kmax = E –f0
function
Threshold n0 [T –1] Hz n0 = f0 /h
frequency
de Broglie l [L] m  = h/p
wavelength

POINTS TO PONDER

1. Free electrons in a metal are free in the sense that they move inside the
metal in a constant potential (This is only an approximation). They are
not free to move out of the metal. They need additional energy to get
out of the metal.
2. Free electrons in a metal do not all have the same energy. Like molecules
in a gas jar, the electrons have a certain energy distribution at a given
temperature. This distribution is different from the usual Maxwell’s
distribution that you have learnt in the study of kinetic theory of gases.
You will learn about it in later courses, but the difference has to do
with the fact that electrons obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.
3. Because of the energy distribution of free electrons in a metal, the energy
required by an electron to come out of the metal is different for different
electrons. Electrons with higher energy require less additional energy to
come out of the metal than those with lower energies. Work function is
the least energy required by an electron to come out of the metal.
4. Observations on photoelectric effect imply that in the event of matter-
light interaction, absorption of energy takes place in discrete units of hn.
This is not quite the same as saying that light consists of particles,
each of energy hn.
5. Observations on the stopping potential (its independence of intensity
and dependence on frequency) are the crucial discriminator between
the wave-picture and photon-picture of photoelectric effect.
h
6. The wavelength of a matter wave given by λ = has physical
p
significance; its phase velocity vp has no physical significance. However,
the group velocity of the matter wave is physically meaningful and
equals the velocity of the particle.

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ATOMS SUMMARY
1. Atom, as a whole, is electrically neutral and therefore contains equal
amount of positive and negative charges.
2. In Thomson’s model, an atom is a spherical cloud of positive charges
with electrons embedded in it.
3. In Rutherford’s model, most of the mass of the atom and all its positive
charge are concentrated in a tiny nucleus (typically one by ten thousand
the size of an atom), and the electrons revolve around it.
4. Rutherford nuclear model has two main difficulties in explaining the
structure of atom: (a) It predicts that atoms are unstable because the
accelerated electrons revolving around the nucleus must spiral into
the nucleus. This contradicts the stability of matter. (b) It cannot
explain the characteristic line spectra of atoms of different elements.
5. Atoms of most of the elements are stable and emit characteristic
spectrum. The spectrum consists of a set of isolated parallel lines
termed as line spectrum. It provides useful information about the
atomic structure.
6. To explain the line spectra emitted by atoms, as well as the stability
of atoms, Niel’s Bohr proposed a model for hydrogenic (single elctron)
atoms. He introduced three postulates and laid the foundations of
quantum mechanics:
(a) In a hydrogen atom, an electron revolves in certain stable orbits
(called stationary orbits) without the emission of radiant energy.
(b) The stationary orbits are those for which the angular momentum
is some integral multiple of h/2p. (Bohr’s quantisation condition.)
That is L = nh/2p, where n is an integer called the principal
quantum number.
(c) The third postulate states that an electron might make a transition
from one of its specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower
energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal
to the energy difference between the initial and final states. The
frequency (n) of the emitted photon is then given by
hn = Ei – Ef
An atom absorbs radiation of the same frequency the atom emits,
in which case the electron is transferred to an orbit with a higher
value of n.
Ei + hn = Ef
7. As a result of the quantisation condition of angular momentum, the
electron orbits the nucleus at only specific radii. For a hydrogen atom
it is given by
 n 2   h  4 πε 0
2

rn =    
 m   2π  e 2
The total energy is also quantised:
me 4
En = −
8n 2 ε02h 2
= –13.6 eV/n2
The n = 1 state is called ground state. In hydrogen atom the ground
state energy is –13.6 eV. Higher values of n correspond to excited
states (n > 1). Atoms are excited to these higher states by collisions
with other atoms or electrons or by absorption of a photon of right
frequency.
8. de Broglie’s hypothesis that electrons have a wavelength l = h/mv gave
an explanation for Bohr’s quantised orbits by bringing in the wave-
particle duality. The orbits correspond to circular standing waves in
which the circumference of the orbit equals a whole number of
wavelengths.

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9. Bohr’s model is applicable only to hydrogenic (single electron) atoms.
It cannot be extended to even two electron atoms such as helium.
This model is also unable to explain for the relative intensities of the
frequencies emitted even by hydrogenic atoms.

POINTS TO PONDER
1. Both the Thomson’s as well as the Rutherford’s models constitute an
unstable system. Thomson’s model is unstable electrostatically, while
Rutherford’s model is unstable because of electromagnetic radiation
of orbiting electrons.
2. What made Bohr quantise angular momentum (second postulate) and
not some other quantity? Note, h has dimensions of angular
momentum, and for circular orbits, angular momentum is a very
relevant quantity. The second postulate is then so natural!
3. The orbital picture in Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom was
inconsistent with the uncertainty principle. It was replaced by modern
quantum mechanics in which Bohr’s orbits are regions where the
electron may be found with large probability.
4. Unlike the situation in the solar system, where planet-planet
gravitational forces are very small as compared to the gravitational
force of the sun on each planet (because the mass of the sun is so
much greater than the mass of any of the planets), the electron-electron
electric force interaction is comparable in magnitude to the electron-
nucleus electrical force, because the charges and distances are of the
same order of magnitude. This is the reason why the Bohr’s model
with its planet-like electron is not applicable to many electron atoms.
5. Bohr laid the foundation of the quantum theory by postulating specific
orbits in which electrons do not radiate. Bohr’s model include only
one quantum number n. The new theory called quantum mechanics
supportes Bohr’s postulate. However in quantum mechanics (more
generally accepted), a given energy level may not correspond to just
one quantum state. For example, a state is characterised by four
quantum numbers (n, l, m, and s), but for a pure Coulomb potential
(as in hydrogen atom) the energy depends only on n.
6. In Bohr model, contrary to ordinary classical expectation, the frequency
of revolution of an electron in its orbit is not connected to the frequency
of spectral line. The later is the difference between two orbital energies
divided by h. For transitions between large quantum numbers (n to n
– 1, n very large), however, the two coincide as expected.
7. Bohr’s semiclassical model based on some aspects of classical physics
and some aspects of modern physics also does not provide a true picture
of the simplest hydrogenic atoms. The true picture is quantum
mechanical affair which differs from Bohr model in a number of
fundamental ways. But then if the Bohr model is not strictly correct,
why do we bother about it? The reasons which make Bohr’s model
still useful are:
(i) The model is based on just three postulates but accounts for almost
all the general features of the hydrogen spectrum.
(ii) The model incorporates many of the concepts we have learnt in
classical physics.
(iii) The model demonstrates how a theoretical physicist occasionally
must quite literally ignore certain problems of approach in hopes
of being able to make some predictions. If the predictions of the
theory or model agree with experiment, a theoretician then must
somehow hope to explain away or rationalise the problems that
were ignored along the way.

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NUCLEI SUMMARY
1. An atom has a nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged. The radius
of the nucleus is smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor of
104. More than 99.9% mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
2. On the atomic scale, mass is measured in atomic mass units (u). By
definition, 1 atomic mass unit (1u) is 1/12th mass of one atom of 12C;
1u = 1.660563 × 10–27 kg.
3. A nucleus contains a neutral particle called neutron. Its mass is almost
the same as that of proton
4. The atomic number Z is the number of protons in the atomic nucleus
of an element. The mass number A is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the atomic nucleus; A = Z+N; Here N denotes the number
of neutrons in the nucleus.
A
A nuclear species or a nuclide is represented as Z X , where X is the
chemical symbol of the species.
Nuclides with the same atomic number Z, but different neutron number
N are called isotopes. Nuclides with the same A are isobars and those
with the same N are isotones.
Most elements are mixtures of two or more isotopes. The atomic mass
of an element is a weighted average of the masses of its isotopes and
calculated in accordance to the relative abundances of the isotopes.
5. A nucleus can be considered to be spherical in shape and assigned a
radius. Electron scattering experiments allow determination of the
nuclear radius; it is found that radii of nuclei fit the formula
R = R0 A1/3,
where R0 = a constant = 1.2 fm. This implies that the nuclear density
is independent of A. It is of the order of 1017 kg/m3.
6. Neutrons and protons are bound in a nucleus by the short-range strong
nuclear force. The nuclear force does not distinguish between neutron
and proton.
7. The nuclear mass M is always less than the total mass, Sm, of its
constituents. The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents
is called the mass defect,
DM = (Z mp + ( A – Z )mn ) – M
Using Einstein’s mass energy relation, we express this mass difference
in terms of energy as
DEb = DM c2
The energy DEb represents the binding energy of the nucleus. In the
mass number range A = 30 to 170, the binding energy per nucleon is
nearly constant, about 8 MeV/nucleon.
8. Energies associated with nuclear processes are about a million times
larger than chemical process.
9. The Q-value of a nuclear process is
Q = final kinetic energy – initial kinetic energy.
Due to conservation of mass-energy, this is also,
Q = (sum of initial masses – sum of final masses)c2
10. Radioactivity is the phenomenon in which nuclei of a given species
transform by giving out a or b or g rays; a-rays are helium nuclei;
b-rays are electrons. g-rays are electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths
shorter than X-rays.
11. Energy is released when less tightly bound nuclei are transmuted into
235
more tightly bound nuclei. In fission, a heavy nucleus like 92 U breaks
into two smaller fragments, e.g., 235
92 U+ n →
1
0
133
51 Sb + 99
41 Nb + 4 10 n
12. In fusion, lighter nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus. Fusion of
hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei is the source of energy of all stars
including our sun.

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Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions Units Remarks

Atomic mass unit [M] u Unit of mass for
expressing atomic or
nuclear masses. One
atomic mass unit equals
1/12th of the mass of 12C
atom.
Disintegration or l [T –1] s–1
decay constant
Half-life T1/2 [T] s Time taken for the decay
of one-half of the initial
number of nuclei present
in a radioactive sample.
Mean life t [T] s Time at which number of
nuclei has been reduced to
e–1 of its initial value
Activity of a radio- R [ T–1] Bq Measure of the activity
active sample of a radioactive source.

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The density of nuclear matter is independent of the size of the nucleus.
The mass density of the atom does not follow this rule.
2. The radius of a nucleus determined by electron scattering is found to
be slightly different from that determined by alpha-particle scattering.
This is because electron scattering senses the charge distribution of
the nucleus, whereas alpha and similar particles sense the nuclear
matter.
3. After Einstein showed the equivalence of mass and energy, E = mc 2,
we cannot any longer speak of separate laws of conservation of mass
and conservation of energy, but we have to speak of a unified law of
conservation of mass and energy. The most convincing evidence that
this principle operates in nature comes from nuclear physics. It is
central to our understanding of nuclear energy and harnessing it as a
source of power. Using the principle, Q of a nuclear process (decay or
reaction) can be expressed also in terms of initial and final masses.
4. The nature of the binding energy (per nucleon) curve shows that
exothermic nuclear reactions are possible, when two light nuclei fuse
or when a heavy nucleus undergoes fission into nuclei with intermediate
mass.
5. For fusion, the light nuclei must have sufficient initial energy to
overcome the coulomb potential barrier. That is why fusion requires
very high temperatures.
6. Although the binding energy (per nucleon) curve is smooth and slowly
varying, it shows peaks at nuclides like 4He, 16O etc. This is considered
as evidence of atom-like shell structure in nuclei.
7. Electrons and positron are a particle-antiparticle pair. They are
identical in mass; their charges are equal in magnitude and opposite.
( It is found that when an electron and a positron come together, they
annihilate each other giving energy in the form of gamma-ray photons.)
8. Radioactivity is an indication of the instability of nuclei. Stability
requires the ratio of neutron to proton to be around 1:1 for light
nuclei. This ratio increases to about 3:2 for heavy nuclei. (More
neutrons are required to overcome the effect of repulsion among the
protons.) Nuclei which are away from the stability ratio, i.e., nuclei
which have an excess of neutrons or protons are unstable. In fact,
only about 10% of knon isotopes (of all elements), are stable. Others
have been either artificially produced in the laboratory by bombarding
a, p, d, n or other particles on targets of stable nuclear species or
identified in astronomical observations of matter in the universe.

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SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS,
DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS SUMMARY
1. Semiconductors are the basic materials used in the present solid state
electronic devices like diode, transistor, ICs, etc.
2. Lattice structure and the atomic structure of constituent elements
decide whether a particular material will be insulator, metal or
semiconductor.
3. Metals have low resistivity (10–2 to 10–8 W m), insulators have very high
resistivity (>108 W m–1), while semiconductors have intermediate values
of resistivity.
4. Semiconductors are elemental (Si, Ge) as well as compound (GaAs,
CdS, etc.).
5. Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. The presence
of charge carriers (electrons and holes) is an ‘intrinsic’ property of the
material and these are obtained as a result of thermal excitation. The
number of electrons (ne ) is equal to the number of holes (nh ) in intrinsic
conductors. Holes are essentially electron vacancies with an effective
positive charge.
6. The number of charge carriers can be changed by ‘doping’ of a suitable
impurity in pure semiconductors. Such semiconductors are known as
extrinsic semiconductors. These are of two types (n-type and p-type).
7. In n-type semiconductors, ne >> nh while in p-type semiconductors nh >> ne.
8. n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with pentavalent
atoms (donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type Si or Ge can be obtained
by doping with trivalent atom (acceptors) like B, Al, In etc.
9. nenh = ni2 in all cases. Further, the material possesses an overall charge
neutrality.
10. There are two distinct band of energies (called valence band and
conduction band) in which the electrons in a material lie. Valence
band energies are low as compared to conduction band energies. All
energy levels in the valence band are filled while energy levels in the
conduction band may be fully empty or partially filled. The electrons in
the conduction band are free to move in a solid and are responsible for
the conductivity. The extent of conductivity depends upon the energy
gap (Eg ) between the top of valence band (EV ) and the bottom of the
conduction band EC. The electrons from valence band can be excited by
heat, light or electrical energy to the conduction band and thus, produce
a change in the current flowing in a semiconductor.
11. For insulators Eg > 3 eV, for semiconductors Eg is 0.2 eV to 3 eV, while
for metals Eg » 0.
12. p-n junction is the ‘key’ to all semiconductor devices. When such a
junction is made, a ‘depletion layer’ is formed consisting of immobile
ion-cores devoid of their electrons or holes. This is responsible for a
junction potential barrier.
13. By changing the external applied voltage, junction barriers can be
changed. In forward bias (n-side is connected to negative terminal of the
battery and p-side is connected to the positive), the barrier is decreased
while the barrier increases in reverse bias. Hence, forward bias current
is more (mA) while it is very small (mA) in a p-n junction diode.
14. Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting the ac voltage
to one direction). With the help of a capacitor or a suitable filter, a dc
voltage can be obtained.

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POINTS TO PONDER
1. The energy bands (EC or EV ) in the semiconductors are space delocalised
which means that these are not located in any specific place inside the
solid. The energies are the overall averages. When you see a picture in
which EC or EV are drawn as straight lines, then they should be
respectively taken simply as the bottom of conduction band energy levels
and top of valence band energy levels.
2. In elemental semiconductors (Si or Ge), the n-type or p-type
semiconductors are obtained by introducing ‘dopants’ as defects. In
compound semiconductors, the change in relative stoichiometric ratio
can also change the type of semiconductor. For example, in ideal GaAs
the ratio of Ga:As is 1:1 but in Ga-rich or As-rich GaAs it could
respectively be Ga1.1 As0.9 or Ga0.9 As1.1. In general, the presence of
defects control the properties of semiconductors in many ways.

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