Mathematics for

Engineering and
Technology I

Module 5 – Integration
Table of Contents
Module 5: Integration .......................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 2
An Antiderivative of a Function ....................................................................................................... 2
Definition of an Antiderivative ..................................................................................................... 6
General Antiderivative .................................................................................................................. 6
Definition of the General Antiderivative ...................................................................................... 8
Indefinite Integral.............................................................................................................................. 9
Notation and Naming .................................................................................................................... 9
Definition of the Indefinite Integral .............................................................................................. 9
Four Basic Rules of Integration ...................................................................................................... 11
1. Power Rule for Integration ............................................................................................... 11
2. Integration of a Sum of Terms in an Integral ................................................................... 11
3. Integration Including a Multiplied Constant .................................................................... 11
4. General Power Rule for Integration.................................................................................. 13
Integration via Substitution ............................................................................................................. 14
Evaluating the constant of integration ............................................................................................ 19
Solving a simple differential equation ............................................................................................ 26
The definite integral ........................................................................................................................ 30
Definition of the definite integral: .............................................................................................. 30
Some things to remember about definite integrals ..................................................................... 31
Estimating a definite integral using the trapezoidal rule ................................................................ 35
Trapezoidal Rule ......................................................................................................................... 38

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Module 5: Integration

Introduction

Integration is a useful procedure that can be applied to many applications in science and
technology. It can be used to find areas and volumes of complicated shapes, calculating
forces that result due to liquid pressure, finding the work done by variable forces and in
moving fluids Integration is a fundamental tool in the analysis of motion and electrical
problems as well. This module covers basic integration theory and technique, and the next
module will concentrate on the applications of integration.

An Antiderivative of a Function
In the first half of this course the process of differentiation was discussed. Remember this
process allowed calculation of the derivative (slope of the tangent line or instantaneous
slope) of a function. The differentiation produced an equation for the derivative that was
valid for any point on the curve. Now, consider the reverse of this process – namely finding
the original function if the equation of the derivative is given.

This inverse process, called antidifferentiation, or more commonly integration, is a large

body of work that includes many different methods to generate the equation of the original
function. In this module, two basic methods will be discussed that deal primarily with
algebraic functions.

It is often necessary to find the expression for a function when the equation of its derivative
is given. If the derivative of the function is given, then certain procedures can be applied
on the slope equation to get the antiderivative of the slope function (which is the original
function!).

For example, for a typical polynomial function, like y = x 3 , the derivative can be obtained with
the power rule for differentiation.

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 y = x3
dy d (u n )
= 3 ⋅ x 3−1 Power Rule for Derivatives: = n ⋅ u n −1
dx dx
dy
= 3x 2
dx

Notice in this calculation two steps were followed in a specific order:

1. Multiply by the power.
2. Subtract 1 from the power over the variable.

In the antidifferentiation process, at least for power rules, the reverse order and reverse
operation of the above steps must be undertaken, in order to make it an inverse process (one
that undoes whatever the derivative process does).

For power rule antidifferentiation:

1. Add 1 to the power over the variable.
2. Divide by that increased power.

Keep in mind that unlike differentiation, the antiderivative that is produced is not exclusive to
the derivative. Many different original functions can produce the same derivative as a
consequence of addition of a constant. Since the antiderivative generated by this technique
is not unique, it can only be called an antiderivative, not the antiderivative.

If the derivative of a function is given, an antiderivative (a possible original function) can be

deduced.

dy
Example 5-1: The slope of a function is given by = 3 x 2 . Find the original function.
dx
Solution: The power over the variable is 2, so adding 1 to it produces a power of
3. Then divide by that same power.
dy
= 3x 2
dx
 x 2+1 
y = 3 
 2 +1 
y = x3
So, the original function has indeed been regenerated using this
technique. One can always check whether the correct antiderivative
dy
function has been found by taking its derivative, and the given should
dx
be obtained.

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Example 5-2: Find the function for which the derivative is 8x 3 .
Solution: Since the power in the derivative is 3, the power in the original function
must have been 4. Then divide by that same power.
dy
= 8 x3
dx
 x4 
y = 8 
 4 
y = 2 x4

To check, verify the derivative:

y = 2 x4
dy
= 2(4
= x3 ) 8 x3
dx

In the first half of this course, more complicated derivatives than those that produce
monomials were discussed. Of those more complicated derivatives, the chain rule was a
very important method. Recognizing the antiderivatives of powers of functions as well, will
be necessary. In the chain rule, like the power rule for derivatives, to find the derivative the
power over the function is decreased by one.

d (u n ) du
Chain Rule for Derivatives: n u n −1 ⋅
=⋅
dx dx

Therefore, the original equation for the curve should have the power over the function
increased by 1 more than the derivative. The method to do so is fortunately the same
technique as already outlined.

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 Find an antiderivative of the slope equation= x 2 ( x 3 + 1)
dy 4
Example 5-3:
dx
Solution: Notice the derivative contains a function of a power of x 3 + 1 , so it would
be reasonable to assume the original function may also contain a power
of x 3 + 1 . Since in the derivative the power over the function is 4, an
antiderivative would probably have a power of 5. Notice that the
derivative of the x 3 + 1 relation is 3x 2 (of which the x 2 appears as a
leading factor), so that is exactly what is expected from the chain rule.

So, making a guess using the rules that the original function gives:
(x + 1)
3 5

y=
5
Compute the derivative to see if this is reasonable:
= ⋅ 5 ⋅ ( x 3 + 1) ( 3 x 2 )
dy 1 4

dx 5
= 3 x 2 ( x 3 + 1)
dy 4

dx

Notice this derivative has an additional factor of 3 compared to the

derivative given. Thus, to reconcile, divide the guess by a factor of three:
(x + 1)
3 5

y=
15
Check
⋅ 5 ⋅ ( x 3 + 1) ( 3 x 2 )
dy 1 4
=
dx 15
= x 2 ( x 3 + 1)
dy 4

dx
It works!

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Definition of an Antiderivative

If f ( x) is the slope of a function, a possible original function (an antiderivative) F ( x) exists if

F ′( x) = f ( x) .

In the next section, some techniques and formulas will be introduced that will simplify this
process immensely. In fact, a substitution technique will be introduced that will eliminate any
guessing in regards to the factors in front of the generated original function.

General Antiderivative

Note that in the previous section that one possible solution for the antiderivative was
generated, but no mention of other solutions was undertaken. In order to generalize this
process, consider the functions y = x 2 , =
y x2 + 4 , =
y x 2 − 2 . Their graphs are illustrated
below:

Figure 5-1: Graphs of three functions differing by a constant

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Notice for any value of x, the three functions all have the same slope. This is not surprising,
since all three functions have the same derivative:

Function Derivative
dy
y = x2 = 2x
dx
dy
=
y x2 + 4 = 2x
dx
dy
=
y x2 − 2 = 2x
dx

Thus, if an antiderivative of the relation 2x is to be found, any of the three functions illustrated
would work. Notice the three functions only differ by an additive constant.

Hence, one can say that the general antiderivative of 2x would be a function of the form
=y x 2 + c , where c is a constant, consisting of the entire family curves that all have the correct
slope. The constant that is added has only the effect of shifting the sketch of the curve
vertically and has no effect on slope!

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Definition of the General Antiderivative

If f ( x) is the slope of a function, the family of all possible antiderivative functions, called the
general antiderivative, F ( x) + c exists if F ′( x) = f ( x) , where c is an unknown constant.

dy
Example 5-4: Determine the general antiderivative of the slope = x
dx
Solution: Rewrite the problem using exponents:
dy
= x1/2
dx
Using the techniques previously outlined, add one to the power, and
divide by the same power.
x1/2+1
y= 1
2
+1
x 3/2
y=
3/ 2
Dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal:
2
y = x 3/2
3
To make it a general antiderivative, add the unknown constant c:
2 3/2
= y x +c
3
It can be verified that this function, no matter what the value for c, does
dy
indeed have a derivative of = x.
dx

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Indefinite Integral
An equivalent phrase for a general antiderivative is the indefinite integral.

Notation and Naming

Some notation has been developed to minimize the writing done in the process of integration.

The English statement “find the general antiderivative of the function f(x) with respect to the
variable x” can be shortened with mathematical notation to the following:

∫ f ( x)dx
where

∫ means “find the general antiderivative”, and is called an integration sign

f ( x) means the relation that the antiderivative process is operating upon, it is the
function that represents the slope of the relation that is to be found
dx means “with respect to variable x”. This is also the previously discussed
differential of x, and its importance will be illustrated later.

Instead of calling the obtained function from the process a “general antiderivative” the word
“indefinite integral” will be preferentially used. “Integral” means that the process of
integration/antidifferentiation is to be applied, and “indefinite” refers to the fact that the
function is only one of a possible infinite set of solutions (since the value of c is not known).

Also, the additive constant c will be referred to as the constant of integration, to specifically
delineate it from other constants that may appear in the functions. Therefore, using notation
previously discussed:

Definition of the Indefinite Integral

∫ f ( x=
)dx F ( x) + c is the indefinite integral of f ( x) , where F ′( x) = f ( x) , and c is an unknown
constant.

With this new notation, the indefinite integral (general antiderivative) of relations can be
found.

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Example 5-5: Find the indefinite integral I = ∫ x 5 dx .
Solution: Remember this is to be interpreted as “find the general antiderivative of
the function x 5 with respect to the variable x.” Since it is a power rule:
I = ∫ x5 dx
x5+1
=I +c
5 +1
1 6
=I x +c
6
Check
1 6
If= I x + c , the derivative should be equivalent to the given x 5 .
6
= I′
1
6
( 6 x5 ) + 0

I ′ = x5
It works!

Note: Once the integration process is complete, both the integration symbol and the
differential disappear, and the indefinite integral solution is all that remains.

8
Example 5-6: Solve R = ∫ dt .
t
Solution: Rewriting the radical as a power:
R = ∫ 8t −1/2 dt
t −1/2+1
R= 8⋅ +c
−1/ 2 + 1
t1/2
R= 8⋅ +c
1/ 2
=R 16 t + c

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Four Basic Rules of Integration
Now, just as in the case of differentiation, one can summarize the basic integration process
into four rules that provide formulas for easy computation. The first three are covered below,
followed by some examples:

1. Power Rule for Integration

x n +1
∫ x= +c where n ≠ −1
n
dx
n +1

This has already been explained, it is the basic rule required to integrate simple powers of x.
It is just rewritten here in indefinite integral notation. Notice that the power in the integral
cannot be -1 in order to use this formula, or it would generate an undefined division by 0 error
(actually, this case can be integrated analytically, but its proof and solution are beyond the
scope of this course).

2. Integration of a Sum of Terms in an Integral

∫ [ f ( x) + g ( x)]dx = ∫ f ( x)dx + ∫ g ( x)dx

Anytime there are several terms inside the integral (which by definition are separated by
either a + or – sign, represented by any functions f(x) and g(x)) they can be individually
integrated, and the result is the sum of the integrals.

3. Integration Including a Multiplied Constant

∫ c ⋅ f ( x)dx =
c ∫ f ( x)dx

If an integral has a constant multiplied by the entire function to be integrated, the constant
can be factored outside the integral sign, and assumed to be multiplied by the integral of the
function.

Example 5-7: Find =

I ∫ x ⋅ dx .
= ∫x ⋅ dx
1
Solution: I
x2
=
I +c
2

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 I= ∫(x + x 4 ) ⋅ dx
2
Example 5-8: Find
I= ∫x ⋅ dx + ∫ x 4 ⋅ dx
2
Solution:
x3 x5
I= + +c
3 5

In this case, even though there is more than one integral, and each integral theoretically has
a constant of integration, consider all of the added integration constants to be combined into
a single integration constant c.

Find= ∫ 8z ⋅ dz
3
Example 5-9: M
Solution:
= ∫ 8z ⋅ dz
3
M
=
M 8∫ z 3
⋅ dz
z4
=
M 8 +c
4
=
M 2z4 + c

 2 4
Example 5-10: Find T = ∫  6 − r 2
+  ⋅ dr
r3 
Solution:
 4
2
T= ∫  6 − r r3 
2
+
 ⋅ dr
2 4
T =∫ 6dr − ∫ 2 dr + ∫ 3 dr
r r
T =6 ∫ r 0 dr − 2 ∫ r −2 dr + 4 ∫ r −3 dr
 r1   r −1   r −2 
T =6   − 2   + 4 +c
 1   −1   −2 
2 2
T = 6r + − 2 + c
r r

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The last rule of integration for this course applies to derivatives that consist of powers of
functions. It is basically the reverse of the chain rule for differentiation:

4. General Power Rule for Integration

u n +1
∫ = +c
n
u du
n +1
=where u u ( x), and n ≠ −1

To use this rule, one must notice that there is a power of a function in the integral. The
critical part, however, is that the differential of the function that is raised to a power
must also be in the integral. If this differential is not present, another integration technique
must be used. A guessing technique was previously discussed which showed how to get an
antiderivative for a function of this form. However, since this is an extremely important
integral form, in fact critical for further studies in mathematics, there is a substitution method
that has been developed that greatly simplifies the analysis and removes the need for
guesswork.

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Integration via Substitution
In this technique, if it is recognized that a function is raised to a power in the integral, and its
differential is present, identify u for the function, and find the differential du. Both u and du
can be substituted into the integral, replacing the complicated terms that are there, simplifying
the integral. This technique only rewrites the integral, it doesn’t actually solve it, and solving
the new integral form can take place. Unlike the antiderivative technique that was discussed
earlier, no guessing is required with this substitution method.

∫ x(x + 1) dx
4
Example 5-11: Find=I 2

Solution: Notice this integral is not of the form of any of the first three rules as it
isn’t a simple power of x (unless the whole term is expanded, yielding a
multi-term polynomial consisting of power rules, which eventually can be
factored, but this is a lot of algebra), there is only one term, and there is
no multiplied constant, so only the fourth rule is available.

Recognize there is a function in the integral that is raised to a power,

namely ( x 2 + 1) which is raised to a power of 4. Also recognize that the
differential of this function, 2x ⋅ dx is also present (within a multiplied
factor, which can be addressed with Rule 3).
∫ x ( x + 1) dx
4
=I 2

let =
u x2 + 1 the function will be replaced by u
determine = 2 x ⋅ dx
du

In the original problem, only x ⋅ dx is seen, so divide both sides by 2.

du du
= x ⋅ dx x ⋅ dx will be replaced by
2 2

With the two substitutions that are boxed above, the integral becomes:
∫(x + 1) x ⋅ dx
4
I= 2

du
= ∫ (u ) ⋅
4
I
2
1 4
2∫
=I u ⋅ du

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 Use the general power rule
1 4
2∫
= I u ⋅ du

1 u5
= I +c
2 5
1 5
= I u +c
10
Now undo the original substitution to return to the original variable x.

(
1 2
x + 1) + c
5
=I
10
Check

(
1 2
x + 1) + c
5
=I
10
(5) ( x 2 + 1) (2 x) + 0
1 4
If I ′=
10
I ′ x ( x 2 + 1)
4
=
It works!

Notice this technique may require a little more time than it would take to just use the
“guessing” method outlined earlier when antidifferentiation was discussed. But it is
necessary to formally write down the substitutions. The advantage with this method is that
there is no guesswork as to the factor that appears in front of the solution, and it will be
extremely useful when integration procedures become much more complicated in any
subsequent calculus courses.

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 ∫ 8m (1 − m )
4 2
Example 5-12: =
Find J 3
dm

∫ 8m (1 − m )
4 2
Solution: =J 3
dm
Recognize there is a function in the integral that is raised to a power,
namely (1 − m 4 ) which is raised to a power of 2. Also recognize that the
differential of this function, −4m3 ⋅ dm is also present (within a multiplied
factor, which can be addressed with Rule 3).
∫ 8m (1 − m )
4 2
=J 3
dm

let u = 1 − m4 the function will be replaced by u

determine du = −4m ⋅ dm
3

In the original problem, 8m3 ⋅ dm is seen, so multiply both sides by -2.

−2 ⋅ du
= 8m3 ⋅ dm

With the two substitutions that are boxed above, the integral becomes:
∫ (1 − m ) (8m ⋅ dm )
2
J= 4 3

= ∫u (−2 ⋅ du )
2
J

−2 ∫ u 2 ⋅ du
J=
u3
J=
−2 + c
3
− (1 − m 4 ) + c
2 3
J=
3

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 t
Example 5-13: Find s=∫ dt .
(1 + t )2 2

Solution:
t
s=∫ dt
(1 + t ) 2 2

∫ (1 + t ) ( t ⋅ dt )
2 −2
s=
let u = 1+ t2
du= 2t ⋅ dt
du
= t ⋅ dt
2
−2  du 
s = ∫ (u )  
 2 
1 −2
2∫
=s u ⋅ du

1 u −1
=s +c
2 −1
1
s= − +c
2u
1
s= − +c
2 (1 + t 2 )

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Example 5-14: Find =
y ∫ x − 4 ⋅ dx
Solution: Rewrite the radical as a power:
y = ∫ ( x − 4 ) ⋅ dx
1/2

let u= x − 4
du = dx
= ∫u ⋅ du
1/2
y
u 3/2
=y +c
3/ 2
2 3/2
=y u +c
3
2
y = ( x − 4)3/2 + c
3

x −1
Example 5-15: =
Find y ∫ x2 − 2 x + 1
⋅ dx

Solution: Rewrite the radical as a power:

∫(x − 2 x + 1)
−1/2
=
y 2
( x − 1) ⋅ dx
let u = x2 − 2 x + 1
du = (2 x − 2) ⋅ dx
du
= ( x − 1) ⋅ dx
2
−1/2  du 
y = ∫ (u )  
 2 
1 −1/2
2∫
= y u ⋅ du

⋅ ( 2u1/2 ) + c
1
y=
2
= y u +c
=
y x2 − 2x + 1 + c

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Example 5-16: Find=
y ∫x x + 2 ⋅ dx
Solution: Rewrite the radical as a power:
y = ∫ x ( x + 2 ) ⋅ dx
1/2

let u= x + 2
du = dx
x= u − 2 need to replace for x and x+2
= ∫ (u − 2) ( u ) du
1/2
y
y= ∫ ( u − 2u ) ⋅ du
3/2 1/2

2 5/2 2 
=
y u − 2 ⋅  u 3/2  + c
5 3 
2 4
y = ( x + 2)5/2 − ( x + 2)3/2 + c
5 3

Evaluating the constant of integration

Previously, in all of the questions involving integration, the general antiderivative (indefinite
integral) contained an unknown constant of integration, c. The constant of integration can
be calculated if additional information about the original curve is known. This information is
collectively known as a boundary condition because it binds the curve to a specific location
or specific behaviour.

A boundary condition could be information like a point that the curve passes through (an
ordered pair), or it could be initial conditions that define where the curve begins, or list a
certain behaviour that the curve has at a specific location. To use a boundary condition, one
only needs to substitute for the variables defined by the boundary condition and solve for the
integration constant.

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Example 5-17: Determine the equation of a curve that has slope of 2x that passes
through the point (1, 4), by evaluating the constant of integration.

dy
Solution: = 2x
dx
Therefore, the original function will be the integral of this slope with
respect to x .
= y ∫ 2 x ⋅ dx
 x2 
= y 2  + c
 2
=
y x +c2

This function solves the family of curves that all have slope of 2x . Or,
another way to say it is that this is the general solution for the function
y . In order to solve for the integration constant, additional information
concerning the particular curve of interest is known, namely that the
curve passes through the point (1, 4). One can substitute the values
from this boundary condition to find the particular solution for y that is
needed.
=
y x2 + c General Solution for y
or Indefinite Integral

Use x = 1, y = 4 from the boundary condition:

4= 12 + c
c=3

Substituting into the general solution:

=
y x2 + 3 Particular Solution for y
or Particular Integral

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 Figure 5-2: The particular solution of=y ∫ 2 x ⋅ dx
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y x2 + 3 , =
Three curves are sketched ( y = x 2 , = y x 2 + 6 ), all of which have a slope of 2x .
However, only one of them passes through the point (1,4), which is = y x 2 + 3 denoted by the
green line.

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 dy
Example 5-18: Find the original function y ( x) given that = x 2 + 4 and the curve
dx
passes through (2, 5).
dy
Solution: Since the slope function is = x 2 + 4 , the original equation must be the
dx
integral of this statement with respect to x, or:
y= ∫ ( x 2 + 4 ) ⋅ dx
x3
y= + 4x + c General solution
3
Applying the boundary condition that x = 2, and y = 5 (from the given ordered pair):
23
5 = + 4(2) + c
3
8
5 = +8+c
3
8
c =−3 −
3
9 8
c =− −
3 3
17
c= −
3
3
x 17
y= + 4x − Particular Solution
3 3

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Example 5-19: Find the expression for the displacement of a rocket s (t ) , given that the
time rate of change of displacement is t t 2 + 4 and it is known that the
rocket has s = 0 at t = 0 .
ds
Solution: Since the slope function is = t t 2 + 4 , the original equation must be
dt
the integral of this statement with respect to t, or:
=s ∫t t 2 + 4 ⋅ dt
let u= t 2 + 4
du= 2t ⋅ dt
du
= t ⋅ dt
2
du
=s ∫ u⋅
2
1 1/2
2∫
=s u ⋅ du

1  2 3/2 
= s  u +c
23 
s = (t 2 + 4) + c
1 3/2
General Solution
3
Applying the boundary condition that s = 0, and t = 0:
0 = ( 02 + 4 ) + c
1 3/2

3
1 3/2
= 0 ( 4) + c
3
8
c= −
3
s = (t 2 + 4) −
1 3/2 8
Particular Solution
3 3

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 1
Example 5-20: Find the equation of the curve whose slope is and passes
8x + 9
through (2, 3).
dy
Since the slope function is = ( 8 x + 9 ) , the original equation must be
−1/2
Solution:
dx
the integral of this statement with respect to x, or:
y ∫ ( 8 x + 9 ) dx
−1/2
=
let =
u 8x + 9
du = 8 ⋅ dx
du
= dx
8
du
y = ∫ (u )
−1/2

8
1 −1/2
8∫
=y u ⋅ du

= y
1
8
( 2u1/2 ) + c

1
=y 8x + 9 + c General Solution
4
Applying the boundary condition that x = 2, and y = 3:
1
= 3 8(2) + 9 + c
4
1
= 3 25 + c
4
5
c= 3 −
4
7
c=
4
1 7
=y 8x + 9 +
4 4
Particular Solution
= y
1
4
(
8x + 9 + 7 )

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Example 5-21: The rate of change of the amount of light L (in lumens) that is absorbed
by a specific CCD with respect to the angle of incidence θ is
dL
=−0.900 ⋅ θ 2 . Find L as a function of θ , if L = 10 lumens for θ = 0
dθ
radians.
dL
Solution: Since the slope function is =−0.900 ⋅ θ 2 , the original equation must
dθ
be the integral of this statement with respect to θ , or:
L =∫ −0.900 ⋅ θ 2 ⋅ dθ
−0.9 ∫ θ 2 ⋅ dθ
L=
θ3
L=
−0.9 +c
3
L= −0.3θ 3 + c General solution
Applying the boundary condition that L = 10 and θ = 0 :
10 = −0.3(0)3 + c
c = 10
L= −0.3θ 3 + 10 Particular Solution

25 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

Solving a simple differential equation
A differential equation is any equation that contains differentials or derivatives. Many
problems that come up in science and engineering involve changes of one quantity with
respect to another, and so equations that contain derivatives or differentials are common. In
this course, only the most basic of differential equations will be introduced. These simple
first-order differential equations only contain the first derivative, and often can be
rearranged for the solution by using the integration techniques already discussed.

Three examples of some simple first-order differential equations are:

dy
= x2
dx
1 x3 ⋅ y′
=
9 y′
− 4x + 3 = 0
y2

In most differential equations, the goal is to solve for the missing function y that satisfies the
equation. For very simple cases, the equation can be rearranged for the differential dy .
Remember the differential dy represents an infinitesimal change in y , but it also represents
the differential of the function y . Since integration and differentiation are inverse
processes, applying the integration process to the differential can yield the original function.

For example, it is known that the integral of the differential dx is:

x1
∫ dx = ∫ 1⋅ dx =∫ x ⋅ dx = 1 + c
0

∫ dx= x + c
It can be interpreted when the application of the integration process ∫ is adjacent to the
differential process d these two processes in effect cancel out (with the addition of an
integration constant) since they are inverse processes, as in:

∫ dx =
∫ d ( x) =
∫ d ( x) =
x+c

Therefore, dy (the differential of y ) can be isolated, integration should yield the function y .

∫ dy= y+c

Even if the differential dy cannot be isolated, as long as the left side contains the differential
and any function of y , it might still be integrable! If the differential equation can be
manipulated so that each variable and related differentials are separated onto their own side

26 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

of the equation in a separation of variables technique (one side containing a function of y
and its differential, and one containing a function of x and its differential) it might be solvable.

It turns out that this differential interpretation of the integral will be a key concept in the
development of the applications of areas under curves, and volumes by revolution, and many
other integration applications.

dy
Example 5-22: Solve for y if = x2 .
dx
Solution: This type of problem has already been solved previously, but it can now
be approached from a differential perspective. Isolating the dy term in
the equation by cross-multiplying:
dy= x 2 ⋅ dx
Now, the differential of y is alone, so application of the integration
process should “undo” the differential process, and produce the function
y alone:
∫=
dy ∫ x ⋅ dx
2

=y ∫x 2
⋅ dx
Since there is an indefinite integral on the right side of the equation, an
integration constant will be introduced on that side, so there is no loss
of generality if the integration constant from the left side is not written (it
will be contained within the constant that will be introduced on the right
side). Now the problem is a regular integration problem.
= y ∫ x 2 ⋅ dx
x3
=
y +c
3
The general solution for y can in this way be obtained. It can be verified
that its derivative does indeed satisfy the original differential equation by
substitution.

27 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

Example 5-23: 1 x3 ⋅ y′ , if x = 1 when y = 3 .
Solve =
Solution:
1 x3 ⋅ y′
=
1
y′ =
x3
dy 1
=
dx x3
dx
dy = 3
x
∫ dy = ∫ x
−3
dx
x −2
=
y +c
−2
1
y= − 2 +c General Solution
2x

Using boundary conditions that x = 1 when y = 3 .:

1
3= − +c
2(1) 2
1
c= 3 +
2
7
c=
2
1 7
y= − 2+ Particular Solution
2x 2

28 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

 9 y′
Example 5-24: Solve − 4x + 3 =0
y2
Solution:
9 y′
− 4x + 3 = 0
y2
9 y′
= 3 − 4x
y2
9 dy
⋅ =3 − 4 x
y 2 dx
9
⋅ dy = ( 3 − 4 x ) dx
y2

∫9y ∫ ( 3 − 4 x ) dx
−2
⋅ dy =
9 y −1 x2
=3 x − 4 + c
−1 2
9
− = 3x − 2 x 2 + c
y
9
y= −
3x − 2 x 2 + c

29 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

The definite integral
Some applications that use integration yield a numerical answer instead of a function. The
definite integral is an application of integration that yields a number as the result, rather
than a function (like the indefinite integral). The definite integral is very useful in applications
like calculating areas between curves, volumes of revolution, and many others.

The definite integral, like the indefinite integral, uses the antiderivative function F ( x) , but one
evaluates this function between two limits, thereby generating a numerical answer.

Definition of the definite integral:

∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx=
a
F (b) − F (a )

where F ′( x) = f ( x) as previously defined. In this notation, a is called the lower limit of

integration, and b is called the upper limit of integration. To evaluate the integral, take
the antiderivative function F ( x) , evaluate it at the value x = a , and subtract the value of the
function at x = b .

In subsequent parts of this course, it will be seen that the definite integral can be interpreted
as a summation process, where the sizes of the pieces that are summed are infinitesimally
small.
2
Find= ∫x ⋅ dx
2
Example 5-25: J
1
Solution:
2
= ∫x ⋅ dx
2
J
1
2
x3
J=
3 1
23 13
=
J −
3 3
8 1
J= −
3 3
2
7
J= ∫x ⋅ dx =
2

1
3

30 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

Some things to remember about definite integrals:

1. The solution is a finite numerical result, not a function depending upon variables.

2. After the integration is completed, there is a vertical line that denotes the resulting
function is to be evaluated between two limits.

3. The integration constant is not present after integration. This is for conciseness,
because the integration constant could be written in as part of the function, but it
will always cancel out algebraically, so it is superfluous. For example, the integral
evaluated at the upper limit x = b should really be
F (b) + c
and the integral evaluated at the lower limit x = a should be
F (a) + c
But when the values are subtracted, the integration constant (which is the same in
each case since it’s the same function) will always cancel out.
[ F (b) + c ] − [ F (a) + c=] F (b) + c − F (a) − c
= F (b) − F (a )

3
1
Example 5-26: Solve =
E ∫x
2
2
⋅ dx

Solution:
3
1
=
E ∫x
2
2
⋅ dx

∫x
−2
=
E ⋅ dx
2
3
x −1
E=
−1 2
3
1
E= −
x2
 1  1
E = − −− 
 3  2
1 1
E =− +
3 2
3
1 1
E = ∫ 2 ⋅ dx =
2
x 6

31 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

 3
= ∫ (m + 2 ) ⋅ dm
4
Example 5-27: Solve M
−1
Solution:
3
= ∫ (m + 2 ) ⋅ dm
4
M
−1
3
 m5 
=
M  + 2m 
 5  −1
 35   (−1)5 
M =  + 2(3)  −  + 2(−1) 
5   5 
 243   −1 
M=  + 6 −  − 2
 5   5 
273  −11 
=
M − 
5  5 
284
=
M = 56.8
5

32 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

 5
= ∫x 5 x 3 + 4 ⋅ dx
2
Example 5-28: Solve I
0

Solution: Rewrite the radical as a power:

5

∫ x (5x + 4 ) dx
1/2
=I 2 3

let =
u 5 x3 + 4
=
du 15 x 2 ⋅ dx
du
= x 2 ⋅ dx
15
b
1
I = ∫ ( u ) du
1/2

15 a
b
1 2 
I =  u 3/2 
15  3 a

( ) 0
2 3/2 5
=I 5 x 3
+ 4
45
2 2
= ( 629 ) − ( 4 )
3/2 3/2
I
45 45
=
I 701.1217664 − 0.3555... = 700.7662108
I  701

When using substitution in a definite integral, the variable changes. Therefore, the limits
must also change. They can be left as unknown limits (e.g. a and b ), but they cannot remain
as the original limits when the variable changes.

33 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

 4
t
Example 5-29: =
Solve W ∫ ⋅ dt
(t − 7)
2 3
3

Solution: Rewrite as
4
W =∫ ( t 2 − 7 ) (t ⋅ dt )
−3

let u= t 2 − 7
du= 2t ⋅ dt
du
= t ⋅ dt
2
b
1 −3
2 ∫a
=
W u ⋅ du

b
1  u −2 
W=  
2  −2  a
b
1
W= −
4u 2 a
4
1
W= − 2
4(t − 7) 2 3

1  1 
W =− −− 
4(9)  4(2) 2 
2

1 1
W= − +  = 0.0594135802
324  16 
W  0.0594

34 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

Estimating a definite integral using the trapezoidal rule
One can estimate the value of a definite integral using various techniques. Most of them
involve a numerical summation of a finite number of terms. Some functions cannot be
integrated with available methods and so these numerical summation techniques can be
used to estimate the value of the integral. One advantage of these is that a computer can
be programmed with these numerical techniques and can arrive at an answer for a definite
integral to a specified precision, without using analytical integration! Most scientific
calculators use a similar numerical approximation technique when reporting the answers to
definite integrals. It turns out that the definite integral can be visualized as the area under
the curve that is being integrated, between the two limits that are the limits for the integral.
To estimate the area under a curve, one could break the region into a series of familiar
shapes (e.g. rectangles, triangles, trapezoids, etc.) for which the formulae for area are
known. Then summing up the areas of the familiar shapes would give an estimate for the
area under a curve. One particularly efficient method, called the trapezoidal rule, uses
trapezoids as the constituent shape, and will be discussed here. The exact area under a
curve will be an application of integration discussed in Module 6.
.

Consider the area under the curve y = f ( x) , from x = a to x = b .

Figure 5-3: The Area Under a Curve

© 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

35 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

The shaded region represents the area desired. One could superimpose rectangles over the
area and use the total area of the rectangles as an approximation to the actual area under
the curve. The sketch below has broken the area into four sections, with each section being
a rectangle of height equal to the value of the curve at the left-hand point in the rectangle.

Figure 5-4: Breaking the Area Under a Curve Into n = 4 Rectangles

© 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

The sum of the areas of the rectangles in this case would be a small underestimate of the
actual area, since the unshaded regions above the rectangles are not being considered. The
length of any one rectangle is a constant, which means that over the interval width of each
rectangle, that the value of the curve is estimated to be constant. For any curve that is
changing, however, this is not a particularly good estimate, unless a very large number of
rectangles is used.

A better method would be to take into account the behaviour of the curve over the width of
each section, in order to compensate for changes in the value of the function. There are
various approximation techniques that could be used: if the curve is approximated in each
section with a straight line, this would form trapezoidal sections, hence this method is called
the Trapezoidal Rule; if the curve is approximated in each section with a parabolic arc, the
method is called Simpson’s Rule. Any technique that attempts to model the behaviour of

36 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

the function over each interval will likely be more efficient than just the technique that just
uses rectangles; it will produce an estimate closer to the actual value than would an estimate
with an equivalent number of rectangles.

To use the trapezoidal rule to approximate the definite integral, divide the x -axis between
x = a and x = b under the curve into sections of equal width. For this demonstration, the
area will be broken into four sections. A line is drawn from the x -axis to the curve at the
boundaries of each of these sections. At the top of each section, a line segment is drawn
from the left-hand intersection of the curve with the section division lines to the right-hand
intersection of the curve with the section division lines (the red line segments shown). This
divides the area into a number of distinct trapezoids (which look like a rectangle with a right
triangle on top).

Figure 5-5: Area Under a Curve Broken into n = 4 Trapezoids

© 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

The area under the curve will be estimated by summing the areas of the trapezoids. Notice
that the interval between x = a and x = b was divided into equal parts, so the width of each
b−a
trapezoid will be the same, ∆x = , where n is the number of sections. The formula for
n
1
the area of a trapezoid is known to be A = b ⋅ ( h1 + h2 ) , where b represents the width of the
2
trapezoid and h1 and h2 represent the lengths of the two sides of the trapezoid. The estimate

37 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

for the definite integral (area under the curve) above (which has four sections) can be written
as:

∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx
a
= A  A1 + A2 + A3 + A4

b
1 1 1 1
∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx  2 ∆x ⋅ ( y
a
0 + y1 ) + ∆x ⋅ ( y1 + y2 ) + ∆x ⋅ ( y2 + y3 ) + ∆x ⋅ ( y3 + y4 )
2 2 2

1
There is a common factor of ∆x here, which can be divided out of each term:
2
b
1
∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx  2 ∆x ( y
a
0 + y1 ) + ( y1 + y2 ) + ( y2 + y3 ) + ( y3 + y4 ) 

b
1
∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx  2 ∆x [ y
a
0 + 2 y1 + 2 y2 + 2 y3 + y4 ]

Notice since the trapezoid area formula uses both side lengths of the trapezoids that the
values of y at each interval point will be counted twice (the right-hand side of trapezoid 1 is
the same as the left-hand side of trapezoid 2, and so on), except the first and last values
(since these are on the outer edges of the area, only on the boundaries of the first and last
trapezoid respectively). This allows generalization of the equation into a standard form.

As the number of trapezoids increases (from 4 to very large numbers), the estimate for the
definite integral will get closer and closer to the actual value. So, for n trapezoids, the
summation of the areas would be:

Trapezoidal Rule

b
1
∫ f ( x) ⋅ dx  2 ∆x [ y
a
0 + 2 y1 + 2 y2 + ... + 2 yn −1 + yn ]

This is known as the trapezoidal rule approximation for the definite integral.

38 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

 4

Example 5-30: Approximate the value of the definite integral ∫

0
16 − x 2 ⋅ dx using the

trapezoidal rule, with n = 4 trapezoids.

Solution: The sketch of the curve is not required, though that does help to
visualize the problem. The region between x = 0 and x = 4 needs to
be broken into 4 sections, so:
b−a
∆x =
n
4−0
∆
=x = 1
4
Using the function =y 16 − x 2
y0 = f (0) = 16 − 02 = 4
y1 = f (1)= 16 − 12 = 15
y2 = f (2) = 16 − 22 = 12
y3 = f (3) = 16 − 32 = 7
y4 = f (4) = 16 − 42 = 0

Figure 5-6 Trapezoidal Approximation to ∫

0
16 − x 2 ⋅ dx
© 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

39 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

 Using the trapezoidal rule:
4
1
∫ 16 − x 2 ⋅ dx  ∆x [ y0 + 2 y1 + 2 y2 + 2 y3 + y4 ]
0
2
4
1 
∫ 16 − x 2 ⋅ dx  (1) 4 + 2 15 + 2 12 + 2 7 + 0
0
2 
4
1
∫ 16 − x 2 ⋅ dx  [ 23.96567254]
0
2
4

∫
0
16 − x 2 ⋅ dx  11.98283627  12.0

For comparison purposes, the actual result determined analytically is

12.56637082.

40 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

 6
24
Example 5-31: Approximate the value of the definite integral ∫ x + 4 ⋅ dx
2
using the

trapezoidal rule, with n = 8 trapezoids.

Solution: The region between x = 2 and x = 6 needs to be broken into 8 sections,
so:
b−a
∆x =
n
6−2 1
∆x = = = 0.5
8 2
24
Using the function y =
x+4
24
= y0 f= (2) = 4
2+4
24 48
= y1 f= (2.5) =
2.5 + 4 13
24 24
= y2 f= (3) =
3+ 4 7
24 16
= y3 f= (3.5) =
3.5 + 4 5
24
= y4 f= (4) = 3
4+4
24 48
= y5 f= (4.5) =
4.5 + 4 17
24 8
= y6 f= (5) =
5+ 4 3
24 48
= y7 f= (5.5) =
5.5 + 4 19
24 12
= y8 f= (6) =
6+4 5

41 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

 Using the trapezoidal rule:
6
24 1
∫ x + 4 ⋅ dx  2 ∆x [ y
2
0 + 2 y1 + 2 y2 + 2 y3 + 2 y4 + 2 y5 + 2 y6 + 2 y7 + y8 ]

  48   24   16   48  8  48   12  
6
24 1
∫ x + 4 ⋅ dx  2 ( 0.5) 4 + 2  13  + 2 
2
7 
 + 2   + 2(3) + 2   + 2   + 2   +   
 5  17  3  19   5  
6
24
∫ x + 4 ⋅ dx  (0.25) [ 49.07478198]
2
6
24
∫ x + 4 ⋅ dx  12.26869549  12.3
2

For comparison purposes, the actual result determined analytically is

12.25981497 ≈ 12.3.

42 © 2018, Southern Alberta Institute of Technology