PRINCIPLES OF

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
ENGR. NORLIELA L. BESERIAL, CE, MP
INTRODUCTION

Transportation engineering is a field or branch of civil engineering that deals with the application of
technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation, and management of
facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.
INTRODUCTION

Transportation Engineering is the application of scientific principles to the planning, design, operation,
and management of transportation systems. It is organized around the society’s needs to provide an
adequate transportation system and involves interaction with many other disciplines.

In the United States, it was in 1921 when the title “traffic engineer” was first recognized, although a
number of traffic engineering-related activities were already going on. Table 1.4 shows some of these
activities:
The use of traffic signals for controlling traffic came much earlier. The first recorded use of
traffic signals was in 1868 in Great Britain. The signals were illuminated by town gas.
However, the use of gas was discontinued after an explosion incident. The development of
traffic signal technology is shown in table 1.5.
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
ASSIGNMENT NO. 1

1. What are the 4 classes of Modal Classification and describe/explain each classification.
2. What are the 4 classes of Functional Classification and describe/explain each
classification.
PHILIPPINE
TRANSPORTATION
SYSTEM
ENGR. NORLIELA L. BESERIAL, CE, MP
PHILIPPINE BACKGROUND

The Philippines, a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, is an archipelagic

country consisting of more than 7,100 islands.With a total land area of about 300,000 sq. km, it
has 81 provinces, 136 cities, and 1,494 municipalities (NSCB 2007). Metro Manila is the seat of
the government and the primary center of business and trade. Other urban centers include the
major cities of Cebu and Davao.
The population of the Philippines is about 80 million, with a growth rate of 2.2 percent per
annum. The population density stands at 227 persons/sq. km. Some 80 percent of domestic
passenger traffic and 60 percent of freight traffic currently use the road, and 75 percent of
government expenditures on transport infrastructure goes to road systems (Abueva 2004).The
Philippines has a total road length of about 161,000 km, with an average road density of 0.53
km/sq. km or 2.35 km per 1,000 people. Philippine roads are mostly made of concrete
pavement.
PHILIPPINE BACKGROUND

Due to heavy, overloaded trucks, pavements are often damaged, a factor that contributes to
traffic accidents. Due to a long rainy season, floods occur throughout the Philippines,
Floodwaters often cause damage to road pavements due to inadequate drainage. There are
about 11,500 bridges in the national network (measuring about 335,500 lineal meters), of
which 1,700 bridges are temporary (DPWH 2004).
• Public Transportation
The mode of public transportation in Metro Manila is predominantly road-based,
consisting largely of jeepneys and buses for primary and secondary routes, and motorized
tricycles and pedicabs for feeder routes.
PHILIPPINE BACKGROUND

• Traffic Management
Traffic control devices such as traffic signs and markings generally follow the
international standard, the Philippines being a signatory to the Vienna Convention in 1968.
Traffic signals are commonly installed at major intersections in many cities and towns in the
Philippines although the number is still inadequate. Oftentimes, these signals do not provide
display phase exclusive for pedestrians. Pedestrians have practically no opportunity to cross
the road because of the “uninterrupted” flow of traffic. Without traffic signals controlling
the traffic flow at intersections, driving has become riskier because of frequent
swerving/weaving. There is an urgent need to evaluate the effectiveness of the scheme,
which has the sole purpose of improving speed along the arterials without consideration of
safety.
PHILIPPINE BACKGROUND

• Pedestrian Facilities
Sidewalks are in relatively good condition; however, many obstructions can be
found on them such as illegal vendors, electrical posts, police outpost, etc. With the
sidewalk occupied, pedestrians have to walk on the carriageway.There are still very few
overhead pedestrian bridges even in Metro Manila and at places where these have been
constructed, pedestrians still prefer to risk their lives or limbs by crossing the road at grade
level. Moreover, pedestrian overpasses are often inaccessible to the elderly and the
handicapped.
PHILIPPINE BACKGROUND

• Traffic enforcement
Traffic laws are enforced by the Traffic Management Group (TMG), the traffic
division of each district police, and the LTO. In 1978, Presidential Decree (PD) 1605 was
issued to centralize enforcement matters in Metro Manila to the Metro Manila Commission
(MMC), now the Metro Manila Development Authority.
The TMG, being a national support unit of the PNP, has traffic management offices scattered
in the different regions and provinces nationwide. In selected areas or provinces, especially
in highly urbanized cities/municipalities, the TMG has traffic management teams (TMTs) that
are also capable of performing the functions of the TMG operational support units that are
likewise based in Metro Manila.
PHILIPPINE BACKGROUND

• Traffic enforcement
Each Regional Traffic Management Office (RTMO) can dispatch personnel to
strategic choke points and major thoroughfares to conduct traffic direction and control to
ensure the smooth flow of traffic. In Metro Manila, the TMG and the MMDA assist each
other in traffic management, especially when on-going infrastructure projects cause heavy
congestion. Alongside this function, the personnel of TMG render the following tasks: traffic
accident investigation, and the traffic safety education through seminars and conferences,
etc.
PHILIPPINE BACKGROUND

• Legislative Framework
Republic Act 4136, otherwise known as the Land Transportation and Traffic Code,
provides for the system of registration of motor vehicles, checks on accessories of vehicles,
and defines road traffic rules and regulations.
Commonwealth Act 146, otherwise known as Pubic Service Act, rests on the
regulatory body (LTFRB) the power to compel any public service provider to furnish safe,
adequate, and proper service as regards the manner of furnishing the same as well as the
maintenance of necessary materials and equipment.
PHILIPPINE BACKGROUND

• Legislative Framework
Executive Order (EO) 125 reorganized the then Ministry of Transportation and
Communications into a Department and defined its powers and functions, including the
establishment of the Land Transportation Office as the sectoral agency responsible for
implementing and carrying out policies, rules, and regulations governing the land
transportation system of the country.
Executive Order (EO) 202 created the Land Transportation Franchising and
Regulatory Board with the main function of regulating the land transport industry pursuant
to the Public Service Act.
PHILIPPINE BACKGROUND

• Legislative Framework
Republic Act 6975 established the Department of the Interior and Local
Government (DILG), including the creation of the PNP under which the Traffic Management
Group has been reorganized as the traffic enforcement arm of the PNP covering national
roads.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING IN THE PHILIPPINES

The traffic engineering practice in the Philippines is still new. Most intersections
were previously controlled by traffic police officers or by manually operated traffic signals.
Outside Metro Manila, manually operated semaphore signals displaying STOP or GO
message were installed on top of police outposts located at the center of the intersection.
In 1977, the Traffic Engineering and Management (TEAM) Project first implemented an area
traffic control system in Metro Manila. It was almost at the same period when the Traffic
Control Center, later renamed as the Traffic Engineering Center (TEC), was established. The
center was responsible for the implementation of various traffic engineering and
management measures such as traffic signalization, geometric improvement of intersections,
etc.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING IN THE PHILIPPINES

In 1976, the Transport Training Center (TTC) was established in the University of
the Philippines with assistance from Japan through the Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA). TTC started its training program in 1978 in the fields of traffic engineering,
transportation planning, and traffic management for traffic law enforcers. TTC was renamed
as the National Center for Transportation Studies and became a regular unit of UP Diliman
in 1993, with research and support to graduate programs in the fields of transportation
engineering and transportation planning as additional functions.
TRANSPORTATION
PLANNING
ENGR. NORLIELA L. BESERIAL, CE, MP
HIGHWAY PLANNING

Highway design is only one element in the overall highway development process.
Historically, detailed design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the preceding
phases of planning and project development with the subsequent phases of right-of-way
acquisition, construction, and maintenance. It is during the first three stages, planning,
project development, and design, that designers and communities, working together, can
have the greatest impact on the final design features of the project.
Although the names may vary by State, the five basic stages in the highway development
process are: planning, project development (preliminary design), final design, right of way,
and construction. After construction is completed, ongoing operation and maintenance
activities continue throughout the life of the facility
HIGHWAY PLANNING
HIGHWAY PLANNING PROCESS
• Planning
The initial definition of the need for any highway or bridge improvement project takes place
during the planning stage. This problem definition occurs at the State, regional, or local level,
depending on the scale of the proposed improvement. This is the key time to get the public
involved and provide input into the decision making process.The problems identified usually fall
into one or more of the following four categories:
1. The existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement (structure repair).
2. Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and access to
transportation and mobility need to be increased (capacity).
3. The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and accident problems that can
only be resolved through physical, geometric changes (safety).
4. Developmental pressures along the route make a reexamination of the number, location,
and physical design of access points necessary (access).
HIGHWAY PLANNING PROCESS
• Project Development
After a project has been planned and programmed for implementation, it moves into the
project development phase. At this stage, the environmental analysis intensifies. The level of
environmental review varies widely, depending on the scale and impact of the project. It can
range from a multiyear effort to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement
(a comprehensive document that analyzes the potential impact of proposed alternatives) to
a modest environmental review completed in a matter of weeks. Regardless of the level of
detail or duration, the product of the project development process generally includes a
description of the location and major design features of the recommended project that is
to be further designed and constructed, while continually trying to avoid, minimize, and
mitigate environmental impact.
HIGHWAY PLANNING PROCESS
• Final Design
After a preferred alternative has been selected and the project description agreed upon as
stated in the environmental document, a project can move into the final design stage. The
product of this stage is a complete set of plans, specifications, and estimates (PS&Es) of required
quantities of materials ready for the solicitation of construction bids and subsequent
construction. Depending on the scale and complexity of the project, the final design process may
take from a few months to several years.
The following paragraphs discuss some important considerations of design, including:
• Developing a concept
• Considering scale and
• Detailing the design.
HIGHWAY PLANNING PROCESS
• Right-of-way, Construction, And Maintenance

Once the final designs have been prepared and needed right-of-way is purchased, construction
bid packages are made available, a contractor is selected, and construction is initiated. During
the right-of-way acquisition and construction stages, minor adjustments in the design may be
necessary; therefore, there should be continuous involvement of the design team throughout
these stages. Construction may be simple or complex and may require a few months to several
years.
Once construction has been completed, the facility is ready to begin its normal sequence of
operations and maintenance.
TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT
ENGR. NORLIELA L. BESERIAL, CE, MP
INTRODUCTION

Traffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken by a highway

transportation agency to improve roadway system safety, efficiency and effectiveness for
both providers and consumers of transportation services. There are two distinct types of
traffic management. The first one is through the use of traditional traffic engineering tools
or simple devices to regulate and control traffic. The second relies more on simple devices
to regulate and control traffic. The second relies more on advanced technology through the
use of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). Advancement of ITS has been the primary
goal of many developed countries. The more conventional applications are common in
developing countries.
TRAFFIC REGULATIONS

Traffic regulation must cover all aspects of the control of both vehicle (registration,
ownership, mechanical fitness, accessories, size, and weight) and driver (age, ability to
operate specific types of vehicles, financial responsibility).
Traffic regulations must be reasonable and effective. This can only be achieved through
careful study. Facts must be sought through the conduct of traffic studies, accident analysis,
keeping driver records, and other data.
All traffic regulations are dependent upon the laws of the states and local governments,
especially the ordinances of cities. Legislative bodies and traffic authorities must keep in
mind that unreasonable restrictions or regulations are not likely to last very long.
EFFECTIVE TRAFFIC REGULATION
There are fundamental requirements for traffic regulation to be effective. These are as follows:
1. Regulation should be rational.
Irrational regulations cannot be enforces except by tremendous effort and expense.

2. Regulations should be developed progressively.

Regulations must be planned over a long period of time, and the effects must be carefully observed so
that alterations can be made as experience dictates.

3. Regulations alone often are not enough.

Regulations constitute but one approach to the overall traffic problem. When public acceptance is
poor and enforcement is lax, regulations may be totally ineffective.
THREE ELEMENTS OF THE ROAD SYSTEM
The road system consists of the following, a balance among the three elements, i.e., a
breakdown or deficiency in one can lead to the failure of the entire system.

a. The road
b. The vehicle
c. The driver
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

Traffic control devices are means by which the road user is advised as to detailed
requirements or conditions affecting road use at specific places and times to that proper
action may be taken and accident or delay avoided.
There are three distinct functional groups of traffic control devices:
a. Regulatory devices the authority of law and impose precise requirements upon the actions of the road user

b. Warning devices used to inform road users of potentially hazardous roadway conditions

c. Guiding devices to inform the road user of route, destination, and other pertinent traffic
TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS

Traffic signs are employed more frequently than any other devices to regulate, warn, or
guide road users. Traffic markings normally consist of lines, patterns, words, symbols,
reflectors, etc. They may be considered as specialized types of traffic signs in which the
message is in contrast with the color and brightness of the pavement or other background.
Philippine traffic signs conform to the 1968 Vienna Conventions of the United Nations on
Road Traffic and Road Signs, which the country officially adopted on June 6, 1973. Traffic
signs are necessary to give information as to routes, directions, destinations, etc. Their
function becomes more relevant when used to warn road users of hazards and regulate any
prohibitive action at specific places and/or at specified times.
TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS

Traffic signs are classified depending on their intended uses;

a. Informative: the signs are intended to guide users while they are traveling.
b. Regulatory: the signs are intended to inform users of special obligations, restrictions, or
prohibitions with which they must comply.
c. Warning: these signs are intended to warn users of a danger on the road and to inform
them of its nature
ELEMENTS OF SIGNS AND MARKINGS

Elements of Design
Uniformity in design includes shape, color, dimension, symbols, wording, lettering, and
illumination or reflectorizing.
1. Shape

2. Color
3. Size
4. Illumination and reflectorization

5. Placement and height of signs

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:

a) Equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal shall be used for danger warning
signs.
b) Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic.
c) Rectangular shape shall be used for informative signs.
d) Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs only.
e) Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for YIELD signs only.
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
Color
a. Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or white background with black symbols and red border.
b. Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall have a white background with black symbols and red
border.
c. Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP and YIELD signs shall have a blue background and white
symbols.
d. STOP signs shall have a red background and white symbols.
e. YIELD signs shall have a yellow background and red border.
f. Informative signs shall have a white or light-colored symbol on a dark-colored (blue or black)
background or a blue or dark-colored symbol on a white or light-colored background.
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
Size
The minimum dimensions of signs depend upon the intended applications. Larger sizes are
necessary at wider roadways and on high speed highways. According to section 2.5 of DPWH
Highway Safety Design Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual, regulatory
signs are of four sizes based on the speed of the facility as follows:

a. A for urban low-speed roads 600mmx600mm

b. B for rural roads with speed limits between 60 kph and 70 kph 750mmx750mm
c. C for high-speed rural highways 900mmx900mm
d. D for expressways -
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

• Illumination and reflectorization

Signs are intended to convey messages during both daytime and night time. During hours of
darkness, this can be achieved through illumination or by using reflective materials for signs.

• Placement and height of signs

In general, signs shall be mounted approximately at right angles to the direction, and facing
the traffic they intended to serve. Each location must be carefully studied so as to achieve the most
advantageous position. Signs are generally placed on the right side of the roadway. On wider roads,
overhead signs are often necessary. On roads with medians, signs may be placed on both sides. Signs
may also be placed on channelized islands.
STANDARD TRAFFIC SIGNS

• Warning Signs
The Vienna Convention allows two forms for the warning sign – one is triangular on shape with a red border and
the other is a diamond in shape (table 2.2). Upon signing in the convention, the signatory has to state which shape
is to be adopted. In the Philippines, the first form is the one being used although the second may still be found in
rural areas. The coloring may also differ in each form. However, the choice of color is left to discretion of the
signing body.
• Priority Signs
Priority signs have various forms. The two most commonly used priority signs are the STOP and YIELD signs
• Prohibition Signs
Prohibition signs are round with a red border and either a white or a yellow background. Access restrictions signs
can have a red bar from low right to top left. Parking prohibitions have a blue background. The signs that signal the
end of a prohibition are white or yellow with a small black border and a black bar form left below to right top.
The bar can be replaced by a series of small bars. In addition, the symbol for which the end of prohibition is
intended is given in gray.
STANDARD TRAFFIC SIGNS

• Obligatory Signs
The obligatory signs are round and in blue colors.
• Other Prescription Signs
These signs are, in general, rectangular with either a blue base with a white background, or with a light base with a
dark foreground. These signs give prohibitions, obligations, or danger messages for particular lanes on a multilane
road. Each lane is represented by an arrow, to which the appropriate sign is affixed. The background color blue is
used for major roads, white for minor roads, and within built-up areas, and yellow for road works.
• Information Signs
These signs are rectangular with a white or yellow plate with a symbol that stands for the service involved. The
signs can be either blue or green.
• Direction Signs
A profusion of colors and forms is available. In general, the forms shown must be adopted, and in some cases even
the color shown must be used and not be changed.
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
PAVEMENT MARKINGS
ENGR. NORLIELA L. BESERIAL, CE, MP
PAVEMENT MARKINGS

A system of clear and effective pavement markings is essential for the guidance and control of
vehicles and pedestrians.They take the form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals, and may be
set into the surface of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement. Pavement markings have
some definite limitations:
a. They are subject to traffic wear and require proper maintenance.
b. b. They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or dusty (e.g., near shoulder edge or
median).
c. c. They may be obscured by traffic.
d. d. Their effect on skid resistance requires careful choice of materials. e. They cannot be
applied on unsealed roads.
TYPES OF MARKINGS

Markings are classified into the following groups:

• Pavement and curb markings
• Object markings
• Reflector markings
TYPES OF MARKINGS
• Pavement and curb markings
a. Longitudinal lines are those laid in the direction of travel. These include Center Line, Lane
Line, Double Yellow Line, “No-Passing” Zone Markings, Pavement Edge Line, Continuity
Lines, and Transition Line.
b. Transverse lines are those laid across the direction of travel. These include Stop Line,Yield
(Give Way) Lines, and Pedestrian Crossing Markings.
c. Other lines, which include Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted Median Islands, and Bus & PUJ
Lane Lines.
d. Other markings, which include Approach Markings to Islands and Obstructions, Chevron
Markings, Diagonal Markings, Markings on Exit and Entrance Ramps, Curb Markings for
Parking Restrictions, Approach to Railroad Crossings, Messages, and Symbols and Pavement
Arrows.
TYPES OF MARKINGS

• Object markings
a. Object within the roadway
b. Object adjacent to the roadway

• Reflector markings
a. Retro-reflector raised pavement markers
b. Hazard markers
c. Delineators
MATERIALS

Road markings should be of non-skid materials and should not protrude more than 6 mm
above the level of the carriageway. Raised pavement markings should not protrude more
than 15 mm above the level of the carriageway.The following are the commonly used
materials for road markings:
• Paint
• Thermoplastic materials
• Pre-cut sheeting
• Raised pavement markers
MATERIALS

• Paint
Paint with or without glass beads embedded or premixed can be applied either by hand or
with line marking machines, For proper reflectorization at night, the amount of glass beads used
should be less than 0.45 kg and no more than 0.50 kg per liter of mixed paint.

• Thermoplastic materials
Use of thermoplastic materials with or without reflective properties is recommended at
locations subject to extreme traffic property is recommended at locations subject to extreme traffic
wear. The average service life of thermoplastic materials has been experienced to be equivalent to
eight times that of beaded traffic paints.
MATERIALS

• Pre-cut sheeting
Pre-cut materials both with or without reflective properties are used. It is usually in
adhesive tape form, with aggregate, pigment, and plastic rubber combined on one side and adhesive on
the other side.

• Raised pavement markers

These are studs of plastic, ceramic, aluminum, cast iron, etc. that are embodied into the
carriageway or attached to the road surface with adhesive. They may be reflective or nonreflective.
COLOR

The color of pavement markings shall be white, except for the alternative uses of yellow in the
following cases:
a. Double yellow “no-passing” lines
b. Unbroken portion of “no-parking” lines
c. Curb markings for prohibition of parking
d. On island in line of traffic
e. Bus and PUJ lanes
Black may be used in combination with white or yellow in hazard markers to warn drivers at
locations where the protruding objects – such as bridge piers, traffic islands, or other protruding
objects – on or near the roadway. However, the use of black does not establish it as a standard
color for pavement marking.
TYPES OF LINES

Depending on the direction that lines are marked on the pavement, lines may be
longitudinal, transverse, or oblique. And depending on the use and meaning of such lines,
they are either broken or solid lines.
A broken line shall consist of line segments of equal lengths separated by uniform gaps. The
speed of vehicles on the section of road or in the area in question should be taken into
account in determining the lengths of the strokes and of the gaps between them.
A solid unbroken line is used where crossing of the line is either discouraged or prohibited.
It is generally used to replace or supplement a broken line where required, e.g., barrier
lines, center lines, etc. Solid lines may be either yellow or white, depending whether
crossing the line is legally prohibited or not.
WIDTH OF LINES & MESSAGES

• Width of Lines
The width of solid or broken lines varies from 100 mm to 300 mm, depending on the usage of
the specified line.Transverse lines are usually wider because of the angle at which the driver sees
markings on the carriageway.
• Messages
Messages when used should be limited to as few words as possible, never more than three. they
shall only be used so supplement other traffic control devices. Messages are white in color.
Letters or numerals used on roads in urban areas shall measure at least 2.5 m; oh high-speed
highways, they may need to be at least 5 m. Messages generally in use are STOP, KEEP CLEAR,
SCHOOL PED XING, RAILROD XING, SIGNAL AHEAD, NO RIGHT (LEFT) TURN, BUS
LANE, and PUJ LANE.
SYMBOLS

a. Give way (yield) symbol The symbol used to supplement the give way sign consists of
isosceles triangle having two equal sides of 3.1 m and a base of 1 m. Outline width is 450
mm at the base and 150 mm for the sides.The distance of the symbol from the holding line
is between 5 m and 25 m, depending on the location and vehicle speeds on that road.
b. Pavement arrows Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in color, they are
generally 5m in length on urban roads and 7.5m on high-speed roads. For half-turn
movements, the stems of the straight arrows can be bent to suit the particular direction of
movements. The first set of arrows should be placed at a distance of 15m from the stop bar,
and the supplement sets should be placed at 45m apart.
c. Numerals The only numerals that should be used are those associated with speed limits at
location to supplement limit signs, which are continuously disregarded by drivers.
ASSIGNMENT NO. 2

1. Give 10 sample with their designation, for the following signs and markings used in the
Philippines.
a. Warning Sign
b. Prohibition Sign
c. Obligatory Sign
d. Other Signs