COMPUTER NETWORKS

1
THE CONCEPT OF NETWORKING
The idea of networking is probably as old as telecommunications itself.
Nowadays, we have computer talking to each other over vast assemblages of
wires, fiber optics, microwaves etc. in this lesson we would be dealing with the
means and ways by which the process of communication is accomplished through
computers.

We can define network as a collection of computers that are able to

com- municate with each other, often by relying on the services of a number of
dedicated hosts that transmit data between the participants. Hosts are very often
computers but one can also think of intelligent printers as hosts. Small
agglomerations of hosts are also called sites.

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Apart form the centralized computing paradigm dominated by monolith
mainframes until late 1970 s, the initial use of modern networks was for file and
print services in academic environments. With these services users could access
files remotely from a file server and send print requests to a remote printer
controlled by a dedicated machine called print server

Gradually the utility of these network services started getting appreciated-

d in commercial environments and small offices and later large offices started
setting up networks for file and print services. Soon networks were also being used
for application services so that applications could be loaded on the user machine
from a dedicated machine called application server.

With the falling prices of small computers and PCs, system designers
started using these small machines to build large low-cost networks based on what
is called client-server architecture. In this, the user machines are called clients and
the are served by dedicated machines called servers.

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING
There are many advantages offered by networking. some of them are as follows:
• Resource Sharing

The main advantage of the networking is that it enables resource sharing

which is of a great advantage to the organizations in particular. The primary goal
of networking is to make all programs, equipment, and especially data available to
anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the resource and
the user. In other words, the mere fact that a user happens to be 1000 km away
from his data should not prevent him from using the data.

• High Reliability

High reliability is provided by networking by having alternate sources of

supply. For example, all files could be replicated on two or three floppies or
machines in the sense that if one copy has some problem the other can be used
accordingly. For military, banking, air traffic control, and many other applications,
the ability to continue operating in the face of hard ware problems is another hard
disk can rescue the people in such areas from unnecessary trouble.

• Saving Money

Today most of the networks consist mainly of smaller computers rather

than the large mainframes, which used to be the concept in earlier days. this is so
because small computers have a much better price/performance ratio than large
ones. The mainframes are roughly a factor of ten faster than Personal Computers
(PCs), but they cost a thousand times more. This imbalance has caused many
system designers to build systems consisting of personal computers giving rise to
the concept of one computer per user, with data kept on one or more shared file
server machines. The whole arrangement is based on the client-server model.

• Scalability

Another advantage offers by networking is scalability. This can be defined

as the ability of the network to increase system performance gradually as the
workload grows just by adding more processors.

This scalability becomes much easier in case of the smaller computers.

This is so because in case of centralized mainframes, when the system becomes
full, it is replaced by a larger one, usually at great expenses and even causing
disruption to the users. With the new client-server networking model, mew clients
can be added as needed as and whenever needed without causing mush disruption
and inconvenience to the users.

• Communication Medium

A computer network acts as a powerful communication medium among

widely separated people. Today a network has the ability to connect two or more
people placed remotely apart form each other.

In the future, the advantage of network to enhance human-to-human

communication will probably prove more important than technical goals such as
improved reliability. Today the popularity of the internet shows how important is
networking in the communication between the remotely placed people.

• Access To Remote Information

Starting in the 1990s, computer networks began to start delivering services

to private individual at homes thus enabling people to access remote information.
Today access to remote information is coming in many forms. One area in which it
is already happening is the access to financial institutions. Many people pay their
bills, manage their bank accounts, and handle their accounts electronically. Today
our own MTNL has also launched the facility of payment of the bills over the
internet thus saving the people from the pain of standing in the long queues. Today
with the advent of e-commerce, which is business over the network, home
shopping is also becoming popular. This provides the facility to inspect the on-line
catalogs of thousands of companies.

Another application called the World Wide Web provides easy access to
the information systems like the arts, business, cooking, government health,
history, hobbies, recreation, science, sports, travel, and other such million of
topics.

• Person-To-Person Communication

Until now, we have now talked of applications that involve interactions

between a person and a remote database. The second broad category of network
use is person-to-person interactions and this has been made possible with our own
Electronic mail or E-mail, as it is popularly known. Today the E-mail is widely
used by millions of people. In the near future E-mail is going to provide the
facility o exchanging audio and video material over the net besides the textual
part. Real-time E-mail allows remote users to communicate with no delay,
possibly seeing and hearing each other as well. This technology makes it possible
to have virtual meetings called videoconferences among far-flung people. Virtual
meetings could be used for remote school, getting medical opinions from distant
specialists, and numerous other applications. Worldwide newsgroups, which
involve discussions on every conceivable topic, are already finding a
commonplace among a select group of people, and this will grow to include the
whole o the world population at large, In these discussion, one person posts a
message and all the other subscribers of that particular newsgroup, can read it.

• Interactive Entertainment

The third category is entertainment, which is a huge and growing

industry. The most sought after application here is video-on-demand, In the future,
it may be possible to select any movie or television program ever made, in any
country, and have it displayed.
On your screen instantly. New films may become interactive, where
the user is occasionally prompted for the story direction with alternate scenarios
for all cases. Live television may also become interactive, with the audience
participating in quiz shows, choosing among contestants, and on one team trying
to shoot down the players on the opposite team, and so on.

In short, the ability to merge information, communication, and

entertainment will surely give rise to a massive industry based on computer
networking.

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

There are numerous uses of computer networks, all of them are as follows:

• PRIVATE NETWORK
Many organizations have a substantial number of computers in operations,
often located far apart. For example, a company with many factories may have
compute at each location to keep track of inventories, monitor productivity, and do
the local pay roll. The issue hears is resource sharing and the goal is to make all
program, equipment, and especially data available to any one on the network
without regard to the physical location of the resource and the user Network
provides high reliability by having alternative sources of supply. For example, all
files could be replicated on two or three machines; if one of them is unavailable
the copies could be used.
 Networks are helpful in saving money. Small computer have a much better
price/performance ratio than large ones. Mainframes are roughly a factor 10 faster
then personnel computer but they cost a thousand times more. In this model, the
users are called clients and the whole arrangement is called client server model.

• COMMUNICATION
Communication using computer has brought a revolution in the world of
Information Technology, particularly in the field of personal computer. We have
always heard of networking or the term network. A network is a way or means of
transmitting or receiving (exchange) information from one or more sources.

In computing networks, the origin of the information request utilizes the services
of a network to locate and return the information. This is done with addresses. In
the two previous examples of the car salesman and the employment agent, a
telephone number can be considered the address of their associate or client.
Addresses in computer networking are used in the same manner. These addresses
identify the network resource. There are two popular architectures for networking-
hierarchical and peer.

Peer networking does not need pre-defined network addressing. Instead, each
resource on the network is seen as a peer. Each network resource is peer to the
other network resources. When a new network resource joins the network it
introduces it and notifies its peer of any other network resources that it knows
about-peer networks are open and share network information.

• NETWORK HARDWARE
It is now time to turn our attention from the application and social aspect of the
networking to the technical issues involved in network design. There is generally
accepted taxonomy into which all computer networks fit, the tow dimension stands
out as important: transmission technology and scale.

The network hardware components used are

(a) Transmission channel
(b) Network Interface Card (NIC)
(c) Servers
(d) Workstations

(a) Transmission Channel

Generally following four types of channels are used for data communication in a
LAN.

- Open Wire
- Twisted Pair
- Coaxial Cable
- Optical Fiber

(b) Network Interface Card (NIC)

Network interface units connect each device in the LAN network to shared
transmission device. It contains the rules or logic to access the LAN. NIC is also
used to implement LAN protocols and for device attachments. Its function
depends on the type of topology used in LAN. In microcomputers, NIC may be
installed as an add-on card.

(c) Servers

One of the major benefits of implementation of LAN is sharing expensive

resources such as storage devices, printer etc. This is achieved through providing
servers on the LAN. It is a dedicated computer, which controls one or more
resources. This contains both hardware and software interface for LAN. Three
major categories of servers used in LANs are:

(i) File Server

(ii) Printer Server
(iii) Modem Server

• NETWORK SOFTWARE
Operating System is required to operate on the LAN system, manage the
tremendous workload with a number of various types of server attached to it. It has
basically two-aspect (i) Server software (ii) workstation software. As in case of
other multi-user operating systems, LAN operating system also facilitates the
sharing of expensive resources such as printer, storage space etc. among all LAN
users provides security for data and permits connection to other networks. There
are various types of LAN operating system for example Novel Netware,
WINDOWS NT, etc.

The first computer networks were designed with the hardware as the main concern
and the software as an afterthought. This strategy no longer works. Network
software is now highly structured. Most networks are organized as a series of
layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it the number of layers, the
name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the function of each layer differ
from network to network. How ever, in all networks, the purpose of each layer is
to offer services to the higher layers, shielding those layers from the details of how
the offered service are actually implemented. Layer N on one-machine carries on a
conversation with layer on another machine. The rule and conventions used in this
conversation are collective known as the layer N protocol. A protocol is an
agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to
proceed.
 DATACOMMUNICATION 2
INTRODUCTION

Data Communications is the transfer of data or information

between a source and a receiver. The source transmits the data and the receiver
receives it. The actual generation of the information is not part of data
communications nor is the resulting action of the information at the receiver.
Data Communication is interested in the transfer of data, the method of transfer
and the preservation of the data during the transfer process.

In Local Area Networks, we are interested in “connectivity”:

connecting computers together to share resources. Even though the computers
can have different disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations, they
still can communicate to one another and share resources.

The purpose of data communications is to provide the rules and

regulations that allow computers with different disk operating systems,
languages, cabling and locations to share resources. The rules and regulations
are called protocols and standards in the communications.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Source/ Host/
Sender Medium Receiver

Source: The transmitter of data. Examples are:

• Terminals
• Computers
• Mainframes

Medium: The communication stream through which the data is being

transmitted. Examples are:

• Cabling
• Microwave
• fiber optics
• Radio Frequencies (RF)
• Infrared Wireless
Receiver: The receiver of the data transmitted. Examples are:

• Printers
• Terminals
• Mainframes
• Computers

DTE DCE Medium DCE DTE

Source/ Medium Host/

Sender Receiver

DCE: The interface between the Source & the Medium, and the Medium
& the Receiver is called the DCE (Data Communication Equipment) and is a
physical piece of equipment.
DTE: Data Terminal Equipment is the telecommunications name given
to the source and receiver’s equipment.
 An example of this would be your PC dialing into a BBS (Bulletin Board
System):

DTE DCE Medium DCE DTE

Source/ Medium Host/

Sender Receiver

PC+ Modem Phone Modem BBS’s

Communication Lines Computer X
Software

DATA FLOW
Data flow is the flow of data between two points. The direction of the
data flow can be described as:
Simplex: data flows in only one direction on the data communication line
(medium). Examples are radio and television broadcasts. They go from the TV
station to your home television.

Half-Duplex: data flows in both directions but only one direction at a time on the
data communication line. For example, a conversation on walkie-talkies is a
half-duplex data flow. Each person takes turns talking. If both talk at once-
nothing occurs!

Full-Duplex: data flows in both directions simultaneously. Modems are

configured to flow data in both directions.
MODEMS
A modem (Modulator / Demodulator) connects a terminal/computer
(DTE) to the Voice Channel (dial-up line).

Basic Definition

The modem (DCE-Data Communication Equipment) is connected

between the terminal/computer (DTE-Data Terminal Equipment) and the phone
line (voice channel). A modem converts the DTE (Data Terminal Equipment)
digital signal to an analog signal that the voice channel can use.

A modem is connected to the terminal/computer’s RS-232 serial port (25

pin male D connector) and the outgoing phone line with an RJ11 cable connector
(the same as on a telephone extension cord). Male connectors have pins, female
connectors have sockets.

DIGITAL CONNECTION

The connection between the modem and terminal/computer is a digital

connection. A basic connection consists of a Transmit Data (TXD) line, a
Receive Data (RXD) line and many hardware handshaking control lines.

TXD (2) TXD (2)

RXD (3) RXD (3)

Terminal/Computer Control Lines Modem

The control lines determine whose turn it is to talk (modem or terminal),
if the terminal/computer is turned on, if the modem is turned on, if there is
connection to another modem, etc.
ANALOG CONNECTION
The connection between the modem and the outside world (the phone
line) is an analog connection. The voice channel has bandwidth of 0-4 KHz but
only 300-3400 Hz is usable for data communications.

0 – 4 KHz BW
World
Analog Outside
Modem Voice Band

The modem converts digital information into tones (frequencies) for

transmitting through the phone lines. The tones are in the 300-3400 Hz Voice
Band.

EXTERNAL/INTERNAL MODEMS
There are 2 basic physical types of modems: Internal & External
modems. External modems sit next to the computer and connect to the serial port
using a straight-through serial cable.

An Internal modems is a plug-in circuit board that sits inside the

computer. It incorporates the serial port on-board. They are less expensive than
external modems because they do not require a case, power supply and serial
cable. They appear to the communication programs as if they were an external
modem for all practical purposes.
MODEM TYPES
There are many types of modems, the most common of which are:

i. Optical Modem- Uses optical fiber cable instead of wire. The modem
converts the digital signal to pulses of light to be transmitted over optical lines
(more commonly called a media adapter or transceiver).

ii. Short Haul Modem- A modem used to transmit data over 20 miles or
less. Modems we use at home or to connect computers together among different
offices in the same building are short haul modems.

iii. Acoustic Modem- A modem that couples to the telephone handset with
what looks like suction cups that contain a speaker and microphone. Used by
traveling salespeople to connect to hotel phones.

iv. Smart Modem- A modem with a CPU (microprocessor) on board that

uses the Hayes AT command set. This allows auto-answer & dial capability
rather than manually dialing & answering.

v. Digital Modem- Converts the RS-232 digital signals to digital signals

more suitable for transmission. (also called a media adapter or transceiver)

vi. V.32 Modem- A milestone modem that uses a 2400 baud modem with 4
bit encoding. This results in a 9600 bps (bits per second) transfer rate. It brought
the price of high speed modems below $5,000.
Baud is the speed at which the analog data is changing on the voice channel and
bps is the speed at which the decoded digital data is being transferred.

FEATURES OF MODEMS
1. Speed – The speed at which the modem can send data in bps (bits
per second). Typical modem speeds are: 300, 600, 1200, 2400,
4800, 9600, 14.4K, 19.2K, 28.8K bps.

2. Auto Dial/Redial – Smart modems can dial the phone number and
auto re dial if a busy signal is received.

3. Auto Answer – Most modems have Ring Detect capability and can
automatically answer the telephone when an incoming call comes
in.

4. Self Testing – Newer modems have self-testing features. They can

test the digital connection to the terminal/computer and the analog
connection to a remote modem. They can also check the modem’s
internal electronics.

5. Voice Over Data – Voice Over Data modems allow a voice

conversation to take place while data is being transmitted. This
requires both the source and destination modems to have this
feature.

6. Synchronous or Asynchronous Transmission – Newer modems

allow a choice of synchronous or asynchronous transmission of
data. Normally, modem transmission is asynchronous (we send
individual characters with just start and stop bits). Synchronous
transmission or packet transmission is used in specific
applications.
PHYSICAL CONNECTION
The physical connection determines how many bits (1’s or 0’s) can
be transmitted in a single instance of time. If only 1 bit of information can be
transmitted over the data transmission medium at a time it is considered a serial
communication.

If more than 1 bit of information is transmitted over the data

transmission medium at a time then it is considered a parallel communication.

Parallel Communication

Communications Advantages Disadvantages

Parallel Fast Transfer Rates Short distances only
Serial Long Distances Slow transfer rates

TRANSMISSION MEDIA – GUIDED

There are 2 basic categories of transmission media: guided and unguided.

Guided transmission media uses a cabling system that guides the

data signals along a specific path. The data signals are bound by the cabling
system. Guided media is also known as bound media. “Cabling” is meant in a
generic sense, and is not meant to be interpreted as copper wire cabling only.
 Unguided transmission media consists of a means for the data
signals to travel but nothing to guide them along a specific path. The data signals
are not bound to a cabling media and are therefore often called unbond media.

There 4 basic types of guided media:

a. Open Wire
b. Twisted Pair
c. Coaxial Cable
d. Optical Fiber

OPEN WIRE
Open wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire strung
along power poles. There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or
protection from noise interference is used. We are going to extend the traditional
definition of open wire to include any data signal path without shielding or
protection from noise interference. This can include multi conductor cables or
single wires. This medium is susceptible to a large degree o noise and
interference and consequently is not acceptable for data transmission except for
short distances under 20 ft.

TWISTED PAIR
 The wires in twisted pair cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each
pair consists of a wire used for the +ve data signal and a wire used for the –ve
data signal. Any noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair will also occur on the
other wire. Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out of
phase (180 degrees - phasor definition of opposite polarity). When the noise
appears on both wires, it cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving end, Twisted
pair cables are most effectively used in systems that use a balanced line method
of transmission: polar line coding (Manchester Encoding) as opposed to unipolar
line coding (TTl logic).

UNSHIEDED TWISTED PAIR

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined
specifically by the number of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per
foot reduces the noise interference. To further improve noise rejection, a foil or
wire braid “shield” is woven around the twisted pairs. This shield can be woven
around individual pairs or around a multi-pair conductor (several pairs).

SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR

Cables with a shield are called shielded twisted pair and are
commonly abbreviated STP. Cables without a shield are called unshielded
twisted pair or UTP. Twisting the wires together results in a characteristic
impedance for the cable. A typical impedance for UTP is 100 ohm for Ethernet
10BaseT Cable.
 UTP or unshielded twisted pair cable is used on Ethernet 10BaseT
and can also be used with Token Ring. It uses the RJ line of connectors (Rj45,
RJ11, etc....)

STP or shielded twisted pair is used with the traditional Token Ring
cabling or ICS-IBM Cabling System. It requires a custom connector. IBM STP
(shielded twisted pair) has a characteristic impedance of 150 ohms.

COAXIAL CABLE
Coaxial cable consists of two conductors. The inner conductor is
held inside an insulator with the other conductor woven around it providing a
shield. An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer
conductor.

The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical signals. The
distance between the outer conductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the type
of material used for insulating the inner conductor determine the cable properties
or impedance. Typical impedances for coaxial cables are 75 ohms for Cable TV,
50 ohms for Ethernet Thinnest and Thick net. The excellent control of the
impedance characteristics of the cable allow higher data rates to be transferred
than with twisted pair cable.

OPTICAL FEBER
Optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information
at frequencies in the visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fiber
consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the core. Around the core is a
concentric layer of glass called the cladding. A typical core diameter is 62.5
microns (1 micron = 10-6meters). Typically Cladding has a diameter of 125
microns. Coating the cladding is protective coating consisting of plastic, it is
called the jacket.
 Jacket Cladding Core

Side View End View

An important characteristic of fiber optics is refraction. Refraction is

the characteristic of a material to either pass or reflect light. When light passes
through a medium, it “bends” as it passes from one medium to the other. An
example of this is when we look into a pond of water.

If the angle of incidence is small, the light rays are reflected and do
not pass into the water. If the angle of incident is great, light passes through the
media but is bent or refracted.

Incident Ray Light

Rays Incident Ray
Light
 Rays
Angle of Incidence Air Angle of Incidence
q q Air

Water Water

Refraction Reflection

Optical fibers work on the principle that the core refracts the light
and the cladding reflects the light. The core refracts the light and guides the light
along its path. The cladding reflects any light back into the core and stops light
from escaping through it – it bounds the medium!

OPTICAL TRANSMISSION MODES

There are three primary types of transmission modes using optical fiber. They
are

a. Step Index

b. Graded Index

c. Single Mode

Step index has a large core, so the light rays tend to bounce around inside
the core, reflecting off the cladding. This causes some rays to take a longer or
shorter path through the core. Some take the direct path with hardly any
reflections while others bounce back and forth taking a longer path. The result is
that the light rays arrive at different times. The signal becomes longer than the
original signal. LED light sources are used. Typical core: 62.5 microns.
STEP INDEX MODE
Graded index has a gradual change in the core’s refractive index. This
causes the light rays to be gradually bent back into the core path. This is
represented by a curved reflective path in the attached drawing. The result is a
better receive signal than with step index. LED light sources are used. Typical
Core: 62.5 microns.

GRADED INDEX MODE

Note: Both step index and graded index allow more than one light source
to be used (different colors simultaneously), so multiple channels of data can be
run be run at the same time!

Single mode has separate distinct refractive indexes for the cladding and
core. The light ray passes through the core with relatively few reflections off the
cladding. Single mode is used for a single source of light (one color) operation.
It requires a laser and the core is very small: 9 microns.

SINGLE MODE
Comparison of Optical Fibers
 We don’t use frequency to talk about speed any more, we use
wavelengths instead. The wavelength of light sources is measured in nanometers
or 1 billionth of a meter.

Indoor cable specifications:

• LED (Light Emitting Diode) light source

• 3.5 db/km Attenuation (loses 3.5 dB of signal per kilometer)
• 850 nM – wavelength of light source
• Typically 62.5/125 (core dia/cladding dia)
• Multimode – can run many light sources.

Outdoor cable specification:

• Laser Light Source

• 1dB/Km Attenuation (loses 1dB of signal per kilometer)
• 1170 nM - wavelength of light source
• Monomode (single mode)

Advantages of Optical Fiber:

• Noise immunity: RFI and EMI immune (RFI – Radio Frequency

Interference, EMI – Electro Magnetic Interference)
• Security: cannot tap into cable.
• Large Capacity due to BW (bandwidth)
• No corrosion
• Longer distances than copper wire
• Smaller and lighter than copper wire
• Faster transmission rate

Disadvantages of optical fiber:

• Physical vibration will show up as signal noise!

• Limited physical are of cable. Bend it too much and it will break!
• Difficult to splice

The cost of optical fiber is a trade – off between capacity and cost.
At higher transmission capacity, it is cheaper than copper. at lower transmission
capacity, it is more expensive.

MEDIA VERSUS BANDWIDTH

The following table compares the usable bandwidth of the different
guided transmission media.

Cable Type Bandwidth

Open Cable 0 -5 MHz
Twisted Pair 0 -100 MHz
Coaxial Cable 0 – 600 MHz
Optical fiber 0 -1 GHz

TRANSMISSION MEDIA – UNGUIDED

Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through the air.
They are not guided or bond to a channel to follow. They are classified by the
type of wave propagation.

RF Propagation

There are three types of RF (radio frequency) propagation:

• Ground Wave
• Ionospheric
• Line of Sight (LOS)

Ground wave propagation follows the curvature of the Earth.

Ground waves have carrier frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM radio is an example of
ground wave propagation.

Ionospheric propagation bounces off of the Earth’s ionospheric

layer in the upper atmosphere. It is sometimes called double hop propagation. It
operates in the frequency range of 30-85 MHz. Because it depends on the
Earth’s ionosphere, it changes with the weather and time of day. The signal
bounces off of the ionosphere and back to earth. Ham radios operate in this
range.

Line of sight propagation transmits exactly in the line of sight. The

receive station must be in the view of the transmit station. It is sometimes called
space waves or tropospheric propagation. It is limited by the curvature of the
Earth for ground – based stations (100 km, from horizon to horizon). Reflected
waves can cause problems. Examples of line of sight propagation are: FM radio,
microwave and satellite.
RADIO FREQUENCIES
The frequency spectrum operates from 0 Hz (DC) to gamma rays
(1019 Hz)

Name Frequency (Hertz) Examples

Gamma Rays 1019 +
X-Rays 1017
Ultra -Violet Light 7.5 x 1015
Visible Light 4.3 x 1014
Infrared Light 3 x 1011
EHF – Extremely High 30 GHz (Giga = 109) Radar
Frequencies
SHF – Super High 3 GHz Satellite & Microwaves
Frequencies
UHF – Ultra High 300 MHz (Mega = 106) UHF TV (Ch. 14-83)
Frequencies
VHF – Very High 30 MHz FM & TV (Ch2 – 13)
Frequencies
HF - High Frequencies 3 MHz2 Short Wave Radio
MF - Medium 300 kHz (kilo = 103) AM Radio
Frequencies
LF – Low Frequencies 30 kHz Navigation
VLF - Very Low 3 k Hz Submarine
Frequencies Communications
VF – Voice Frequencies 300 Hz Audio
ELF – Extremely Low 30 Hz Power Transmission
Frequencies
 Radio frequencies are in the range of 300 kHz to 10 GHz. We are
seeing an emerging technology called wireless LANs. Some use radio
frequencies to connect the workstations together, some use infrared technology.

MICROWAVE
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit
station must be in visible contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the
distance between stations depending on the local geography. Typically the line
of sight due to the Earth’s curvature is only 50 Km to the horizon! Repeater
stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the
country.

Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This

allows them to carry large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.

Advantages:

a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.

b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high
operating frequencies.
c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.
d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.

Disadvantages:

a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.

b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects.

d. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from

receiver.
SATELLITE
Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and
retransmit on another) that are set in geostationary orbits directly over the
equator. These geostationary orbits are 36,000 Km from the Earth’s surface. At
this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the centrifugal force of Earth’s
rotation are balanced and cancel each other out. Centrifugal force is the
rotational force placed on the satellite that wants to fling it out into space.

The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the
receiver of data. Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations because
they are located on the Earth. The footprint is the “shadow” that the satellite can
transmit to, the shadow being the area that can receive the satellite’s transmitted
signal.

IRIDIUM TELECOM SYSTEM

The Iridium Telecom System is a new satellite system that will be the
largest private aerospace project. It is a mobile telecom system intended to
compete with cellular phones. It relies on satellites in lower Earth orbit (LEO).
The satellites will orbit at an altitude of 900 – 10,000 Km in a polar, non-
stationary orbit. Sixty-six satellites are planned. The user’s handset will require
less power and will be cheaper than cellular phones. There will be 100%
coverage of the Earth.

Unfortunately, although the Iridium project was planned for 1996-1998,

with 1.5 million subscribers by end of the decade, at the time of this writing, it
looked very financially unstable.
 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET 3
WHAT IS INTERNET?
The Internet is a computer network made up of thousands of
networks worldwide. No one knows exactly how many computers are connected
to the Internet, however, that these number in the millions.

No one is in charge of the Internet. There are organizations which

develop technical aspects of this network and set standards for creating
applications on it, but no governing body is in control. The Internet backbone,
through which Internet traffic flows, is owned by private companies.
All computers on the Internet communicate with one another using the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol suite, abbreviated to TCP/IP.
Computers on the Internet use a client/server architecture. This means that the
remote server machine provides files and services to the user’s local client
machine. Software can be installed on a client computer to take advantage of the
latest access technology.

An Internet user has access to a wide variety of services: electronic

mail, file transfer, vast information resources, interest group membership,
interactive collaboration, multimedia displays, real-time broadcasting, shopping
opportunities, breaking news, and much more.

The Internet consists primarily of a variety of access protocols.

Many of these protocols feature programs that allow users to search for and
retrieve material made available by the protocol.

It’s a collection of networks- a network of networks-computers

sharing information via a common set of networking and software protocols.

HISTORY AND OVERVIEW OF THE INTERNET

1969 – Birth of a Network

The Internet as we know it today, in the mid – 1990s, traces it

origins back to a Defence Department project in 1969. The subject of the project
was wartime digital communications. At that time the telephone system was
about the only theater – scale communications system in use. A major problem
had been identified in its design – its dependence on switching stations that
could be targeted during an attack. Would it be possible to design a network that
could quickly reroute digital traffic around failed nodes? A possible solution had
been identified in theory. That was to build a “web” of datagram network, called
a “catenet”, and use dynamic routing protocols to constantly adjust the flow of
traffic through the catenet. The Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency
(SARPA) launched the DARPA Internet Program.

1970 - Infancy

DARPA Internet, largely the plaything of academic and military

researchers, spent more than a decade in relative obscurity. As Vietnam,
Watergate, the Oil Crisis, and the Iranian Hostage Crisis rolled over the nation,
several Internet research teams preceded through a gradual evolution of
protocols. In 1975, DARPA declared the project a success and handed its
management over to the Defense Communications Agency. Several of today’s
key protocols (including IP and TCP) were stable by 1980, and adopted
throughout ARPANET by 1983.

Mid 1980 – The Research Net

Let’s outline key features, circa- 1983, of what was then called
ARPANET. A small computer was a PDP-11/45, and a PDP-11/45 does not fit
on your desk. Some sites had a hundred computers attached to the Internet. Most
had a dozen or so, probably with something like a VAX doing most of the work
– mail, news, EGP routing. Users did their work using DEC VT- 100 terminals.
FORTRAN was the word of the day. Few companies had Internet access, relying
instead on SNA and IBN mainframes. Rather, the Internet community was
dominated by universities and military research sites. It’s most popular service
was the rapid email it made possible with distant colleagues. In August 1983,
there were 562 registered ARIANET hosts (RFC 1296).

UNIX deserves at least an honorable mention, since almost all the

initial Internet protocols were developed first for UNIX, largely due to the
availability of kernel source (for a price) and the relative ease of implementation
(relative to things like VMS or MVS). The University of California at Berkeley
(UCB) deserves special mention, because their Computer Science Research
Group (CSRG) developed the BSD variants of AT&T’s UNIX operating system.
BSD UNIX and its derivatives would become the most common Internet
programming platform.

Many key features of the Internet were already in place, including

the IP and TCP protocols; ARPANET was fundamentally unreliable in nature, as
the Internet is still today. This principle of unreliable delivery means that the
Internet only makes a best-effort attempt to deliver packets. The network can
drop a packet without any notification to sender or receiver. Remember, the
Internet was designed for military survivability. The software running on either
end must be prepared to recognize data loss, retransmitting data as often as
necessary to achieve its ultimate delivery.

Late 1980 – The PC Revolution

Driven largely by the development of the PC and LAN technology,

subnetting was standardized in 1985 when RFC 950 was released. LAN
technology made the idea of a “catenet” feasible – an internet work of networks.
Subnetting opened the possibilities of interconnecting LANs with WANs.

The National Science Foundation (NSF) started the Supercomputer

Centers program in 1986. Until then, supercomputers such as Cray’s were
largely the playthings of large, well-funded universities and military research
centers. NSF’s idea was to make supercomputer resources available to those of
more modest means by constructing five supercomputer centers around the
country and building a network linking them with potential users. NSF decided
to base their network on the Internet protocols, and NSFNET was born . For the
next decade, NSFNET would be the core of the U.S. Internet, until its
privatization and ultimate retirement in 1995.

Domain naming was stable by 1987 when RFC 1034 was released.
Until then, hostnames were mapped to IP address using static tables, but the
Internet’s exponential growth had made this practice infeasible.

In the late 1980s, important advances related poor network

performance with poor TCP performance, and a string of papers by the likes of
Nagle and Van Jacobson (RFC 896, RFC 1072, RFC 1144, RFC 1323) present
key insights into TCP performance. The 1987 Internet Worm was the largest
security failure in the history of the Internet. More information can be found in
RFC 1135. All things considered, it could happen again.

Early 1990 – Address Exhaustion and the Web

In the early 90s, the first address exhaustion crisis hit the Internet
technical community. The present solution, CIDR, will sustain the Internet for a
few more years by making more efficient use of IP’s existing 32-bit address
space. For a more lasting solution, IETF is looking at IPv6 and its 128-bit
address space, but CIDR is here to stay.

Crisis aside, the World Wide Web (WWW) has been one of
Internet’s most exciting recent developments. The idea of hypertext has been
around for more than a decade, but in 1989 a team at the European Center for
Particle Research (CERN) in Switzerland developed a set of protocols for
transferring hypertext via the Internet. In the early 1990s it was enhanced by a
team at the National center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the
University of Illinois – one of NSF’s supercomputer centers. The result was
NCSA Mosaic, a graphical, point-and-click hypertext browser that made Internet
easy. The resulting explosion in “Web sites” drove the Internet into the public
eye.

Mid 1990s – The New Internet

Of at least as much interest as Internet’s technical progress in the

1990s has been its sociological progress. It has already become part of the
national vocabulary, and seems headed for even greater prominence. It has been
accepted by the business community, with a resulting explosion of service
providers, consultants, books, and TV coverage. It has given birth to the Free
Software Movement.

The Free Software Movement owes much to bulletin board systems,

but really came into its own on the Internet, due to a combination of forces. The
public nature of the Internet’s early funding ensured that much of its networking
software was non – proprietary. The emergence of anonymous FTP sites
provided a distribution mechanism that almost anyone could use. Network
newsgroups and mailing lists offered an open communication medium. Last but
not least were individualists like Richard Stallman, who wrote EMACS,
launched the GNU Project and founded the Free Software Foundation. In the
1990s, Linus Torvalds wrote Linux, the popular (and free) UNIX clone
operating system.

The explosion of capitalist conservatism, combined with a growing

awareness of Internet’s business value, has led to major changes in the Internet
community. Many of them have not been for the good.

First, there seems to be a growing departure from Internet’s history

of open protocols, published as RFCs. Many new protocols are being developed
in an increasingly proprietary manner. IGRP, a trademark of Cisco Systems, has
the dubious distinction as the most successful proprietary Internet routing
protocol, capable only of operation between Cisco routers. Other protocols, such
as BGP, are published as RFCs, but with important operational details
omitted.The notoriously mis-named Open Software Foundation have introduced
a whole suite of “open” protocols whose specifications are available – for a price
– and not on the net. I am forced to wonder: 1) why do we need a new RPC? and
2)why won’t OSF tell us how it works?

People forget that businesses have tried to run digital

communications networks in the past. IBM and DEC both developed proprietary
networking schemes that only ran on their hardware. Several information
providers did very well for themselves in the 80s, including LEXIS/NEXIS,
Dialog, and Dow Jones. Public data networks were constructed by companies
like Tymnet and run into every major US city. CompuServe and others built
large bulletin board – like systems. Many of these services still offer a quality
and depth of coverage unparalleled on the Internet (examine Dialog if you are
skeptical of this claim). But none of them offered nudie GIFs that anyone could
download. None of them let you read through the RFCs and then write a Perl
script to tweak the one little thing you needed to adjust. None of them gave birth
to a Free Software Movement. None of them caught people’s imagination.

The very existence of the Free Software Movement is part of the

Internet saga, because free software would not exist without the net.
“Movements” tend to arise when progress offers us new freedoms and we find
new ways to explore and, sometimes, to exploit them. The Free Software
Movement has offered what would be unimaginable when the Internet was
formed – games, editors, windowing systems, compilers, networking software,
and even entire operating systems available for anyone who wants them, without
licensing fees, with complete source code, and all you need is Internet access. It
also offers challenges, forcing us to ask what changes are needed in our society
to support these new freedoms that have touched so many people. And it offers
chances at exploitation, from the businesses using free software development
platforms for commercial code, to the Internet Worm and security risks of open
systems.

People wonder whether progress is better served through

government funding or private industry. The Internet defies the popular wisdom
of “business is better”. Both business and government tried to build large data
communication networks in the 1980s. Business depended on good market
decisions; the government researchers based their system on openness,
imagination and freedom. Business failed; Internet succeeded. Our reward has
been its commercialization.

For the next few years, the Internet will almost certainly be content
– driven. Although new protocols are always under development, we have barely
begun to explore the potential of just the existing ones. Chief among these is
these Word Wide Web, with its potential for simple on – line access to almost
any information imaginable. Yet even as the Internet intrudes into society,
remember that over the last two decades “The Net” has developed a culture o fits
own, one that may collide with society’s. Already business is making its pitch to
dominate the Internet. Already Congress has deemed it necessary to regulate the
Web.
WHO OWNS THE INTERNET?
No one actually owns the internet, and no single person or
organisation controls the internet in its entirety. More of a concept than an actual
tangible entity, the internet relies on a physical infrastructure that connects
networks to other networks. There are many organisations, corporations,
governments, schools, private citizens and service providers that own pieces of
infrastructure, but there is no one body that owns it all. There are however,
organisations that oversee and standardise what happens on internet and assigns
IP addresses and domain names, such as the national science foundation, the
internet engineering task force, icann, internic and internet architecture board.

WHO PUTS INFORMATION THE INTERNET?

Individuals and organizations make information available through
the internet for a variety of reasons. Some of this information is freely available
to the general public, while some of it is restricted to a particular user
community. The following are some of the people who put information on the
internet, and the types of information they make freely available.
1. Governments often have a mandate to make information freely available
to their citizens, and are publishing a wealth of statistical and other information
on the web.

2. University researchers, educators and students make available various

types of academic information, including unpublished articles.

3. Non- profit organizations post information on various topics.

4. Commercial companies provide useful supplementary information on

their commercial web sites, sometimes providing the general public with limited
access to databases.

5. Publishers provide excerpts of their print publications, usually periodical

issues. There are also a growing number of free e-zines and e-journals.

6. Archives and Libraries are digitizing publications for which copyright

has expired and making them available on the web.

7. Libraries also often make catalogues of their holdings freely available.

8. Individuals post information about topics of personal interest.

GROWTH OF INTERNET
The Internet has changed much in the two decades since it came
into existence. It was conceived in the era of time-sharing, but has survived intp
the era of personal computers, client server and peer-to-peer computing, and the
network computer. It was designed before LAN’s existed, but has
accommodated that new network technology, as well as the more recent ATM
and frame switched services. It was envisioned as supporting a range of
functions from file sharing and remote login to resource sharing and
collaboration, and has spawned electronic mail and more recently the World
Wide Web. But most important, it started as the creation of a small band of
dedicated researchers, and has grown to be a commercial success with billions of
dollars of annual investment.

One should not conclude that the Internet has now finished
changing. The Internet, although a network in name and geography, is a creature
of the computer, not the traditional network of the telephone or television
industry. It will, indeed it must, continue to change and evolve at the speed of
the computer industry if it is to remain relevant. It is now changing to provide
such new services as real time transport, in order to support, for example, audio
and video streams. The availability of pervasive networking (i.e., the Internet)
along with powerful affordable computing and communications in portable form
(i.e., laptop computers, two-way pagers, PDA’s, cellular phones), is making
possible a new paradigm of nomadic computing and communications.

This evolution will bring us new applications – Internet telephone

and, slightly further out, Internet television. It is evolving to permit more
sophisticated forms of pricing and cost recovery, a perhaps painful requirement
in this commercial world. It is changing to accommodate yet another generation
of underlying network technologies with different characteristics and
requirements, from broadband residential access to satellites. New modes of
access and new forms of service will spawn new applications, which in turn will
drive further evolution of the net itself.

COMPONENTS OF THE INTERNET

WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web (abbreviated as the Web or WWW) is a
system of Internet servers that supports hypertext to access several Internet
protocols on a single interface. Almost every protocol type available on the
Internet is accessible on the Web. This includes e-mail, FTP, Telnet, and Usenet
News. In addition to these, the World Wide Web has its own protocol: Hyper
Text Transfer Protocol, or HTTP. These protocols will be explained later in this
document.

The World Wide Web provides a single interface for accessing all
these protocols. This creates a convenient and user – friendly environment. It is
no longer necessary to be conversant in these protocols within separate,
command – level environments. The Web gathers together these protocols into a
single system. Because of this feature, and because of the Web’s ability to work
with multimedia and advanced programming language, the Web is the fastest-
growing component of the Internet.

The operation of the Web relies primarily on hypertext as its means

of information retrieval. Hyper Text is a document containing words that
connect to other documents. These words are called links and are selectable by
the user. A single hypertext document can contain links to many documents. In
the context of the Web, words or graphics may serve as links to other
documents, images, video, and sound. Links may or may not follow a logical
path, as each connection is programmed by the creator of the source document.
Overall, the Web contains a complex virtual web of connections among a vast
number of documents, graphics, videos, and sounds.

Producing hypertext for the Web is accomplished by creating

documents with a language called Hyper Text Markup Language, or HTML.
With HTML, tags are placed within the text to accomplish document formatting,
visual features such as font size, italics and bold, and the creation of hypertext
links. Graphics and multimedia may also be incorporated into an HTML
document. HTML is an evolving language, with new tags being added as each
upgrade of the language is developed and released. The World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), led by Web founder Tim Berners-Lee, coordinates the
efforts of standardizing HTML. The W3C now calls the language XHTML and
considers it to be an application of the XML language standard.

The World Wide Web consists of files, called pages or home pages,
containing links to documents and resources throughout the Internet.

The Web provides a vast array of experiences including multimedia

presentations, real-time collaboration, interactive pages, radio and television
broadcasts, and the automatic “push” of information to a client computer.
Programming languages such as Java, JavaScript, Visual Basic, Cold Fusion and
XML are extending the capabilities of the Web. A growing amount of
information on the Web is served dynamically from content stored in databases.
The Web is therefore not a fixed entity, but one that is in a constant state of
development and flux.

E-MAIL
Electronic mail, or e-mail, allows computer users locally and
worldwide to exchange messages. Each user of e-mail has a mailbox address to
which messages are sent. Messages sent though e-mail can arrive within a matter
of seconds.

A powerful aspect of e-mail is the option to send electronic files to

a person’s e-mail address. Non – ASCII files, known as binary files, may be
attached to e-mail messages. These files are referred to as MIME attachments.
MIME stands for Multimedia Internet Mail Extension, and was developed to
help e-mail software handle a variety of file types. For example, a document
created in Microsoft Outlook, offer the ability to read files written in HTML,
which is itself a MIME type.

TELNET
Telnet is a program that allows you to log into computers on the
Internet and use online databases, library catalogs, chat services, and more.
There are no graphics in Telnet sessions, just text. To Telnet to a computer, you
must know its address. This can consist of words (locis.loc.gov) or numbers
(140.147.254.3). Some services require you to connect to a specific port on the
remote computer. In this case, type the port number after the Internet address.
Example: telnet nri.reston.va. Us 185.

Telnet is available on the World Wide Web. Probably the most

common Web-based resources available through Telnet have been library
catalogs, though most catalogs have since migrated to the Web. A link to a
Telnet program must be installed on your local computer and configured to your
Web browser in order to work.

With the increasing popularity of the Web, Telnet has become less
frequently used as a means of access to information on the Internet.

FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This is both a program and
the method used to transfer files between computers. Anonymous FTP is an
option that allows users to transfer files from thousands of host computers on the
Internet to their personal computer account. FTP sites contain books, articles,
software, games, images, sounds, multimedia, course work, data sets, and more.

If your computer is directly connected to the Internet via an

Ethernet cable, you can use one of several PC software programs, such as
WS_FTP for Windows, to conduct a file transfer.

FTP transfers can be performed on the World Wide Web without

the need for special software. In this case, the Web browser will suffice.
Whenever you download software from a Wed site to your local machine, you
are using FTP. You can also retrieve FTP files via search engines such as
FtpFind, located at http://WWW.ftpfind.com/THis option is easiest because you
do not need to know FTP program commands.
E-MAIL DISCUSSION GROUPS
One of the benefits of the Internet is the opportunity it offers to
people worldwide to communicate via e-mail. The Internet is home to a large
community of individuals who carry out active discussion organized around
topic-oriented forums distributed by e-mail. These are administered by software
programs. Probably the most common program is the listserv.

A great variety of topics are covered by listservs, many of them

academic in nature. When you subscribe to a listserv, messages from other
subscribers are automatically sent to your electronic mailbox. You subscribe to a
listserv by sending an e-mail message to a computer program called a list server.
List servers are located on computer networks throughout the world. This
program handles subscription information and distributes messages to and from
subscribers. You must have a e-mail account to participate in a listserv
discussion group. Visit Tile.net at http://tile.net/ to see and example of a site that
offers a searchable collection of e-mail discussion groups.

Majordomo and Listproc are two other programs that administer e-

mail discussion groups. The commands for subscribing to and managing your
list memberships are similar to those of listserv.

USENET NEWS
Usenet News is a global electronic bulletin board system in which millions of
computer users exchange information on a vast range of topics. The major
difference between Usenet News and e-mail discussion groups is the fact that
Usenet messages are stored on central computers, and users must connect to
these computers to read or download the messages posted to these groups. This
is distinct from e-mail distribution, in which messages arrive in the electronic
mail-boxes of each list member.

Usenet itself is a set of machines that exchanges messages, or

articles, from Usenet discussion forums, called newsgroups. Usenet
administrators control their own sites, and decide which (if any) newsgroups to
sponsor and which remote newsgroups to allow into the system.

There are thousands of Usenet newsgroups in existence. While

many are academic in nature, numerous newsgroups are organized around
recreational topics. Much serious computer related work takes place in Usenet
discussions. A small number of e-mail discussion groups also exist as Usenet
newsgroups.

The Usenet news feed can be read by a variety of newsreader

software programs. For example, the Netscape suite comes with a newsreader
program called Messenger. Newsreaders are also available as standalone
products.

FAQ, RFC, FYI

FAQ stands for Frequently Asked Questions. These are periodic
postings to Usenet newsgroups that contain a wealth of information related to the
topic of the newsgroup. Many FAQs are quite extensive. FAQs are available by
subscribing to individual Usenet newsgroups. A Web-based collection of FAQ
resources has been collected by The Internet FAQ Consortium and is available at
http://www.faqs.org/

RFC stands for Request for Comments. These are documents

created by and distributed to the Internet community to help define the nuts and
bolts of the Internet. They contain both technical specifications and general
information.

FYI stands for For Your Information. These notes are a subset of
RFCs and contain information of interest to new Internet users.

Links to indexes of all three of these information resources are

available on the University Libraries Web site at
http://library.albany.edu/internet/reference/faqs.html

CHAT & INSTANT MESSAGING

Chat programs allow users on the Internet to communicate with
each other by typing in real time. They are sometimes included as a feature of a
Web site, where users can log into the “chat room” to exchange comments and
information about the topics addressed on the site. Chat may take other, more
wide-ranging forms. For example, America Online is well known for sponsoring
a number of topical chat rooms.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a service through which participants

can communicate to each other on hundreds of channels. These channels are
usually based on specific topics. While many topics are frivolous, substantive
conversations are also taking place. To access IRC, you must use an IRC
software program.

A variation of chat is the phenomenon of instant messenging. With

instant messenging, a user on the Web can contact another user currently logged
in and type a conversation. Most famous is America Online’s Instant Messenger.
ICQ, MSN and Yahoo also offer chat programs.

Other types of real-time communication are addressed in the

tutorial Understanding the World Wide Web.

COMMON WEB TERMINOLOGY

bps (bits per second): A measurement of the speed at which data travels from
one place to another. A 57,600 bps modem can theoretically transmit about
57,600 bits of data per second.

client: A program that requests services from other programs or computers that
are functioning as servers or hosts.

DNS (Domain Name Service): DNS servers translate symbolic machine names
(such as doeace.org) into numerical addresses (128.223.142.14).

Email (electronic mail): Messages sent and received via a computer network.
FAQ (frequently asked questions): A document that answers common
questions about a particular subject.

Flame: A “flame” usually refers to any message or article that contains strong
criticism, usually irrational or highly emotional

ftp (file transfer protocol): A way to transfer files from one computer to
another via the Internet. Many sites on the Internet have repositories of software
and files that you can download using an ftp client like Fetch or WS_FTP.

home page: The main or leading web page of an organization’s or individual’s

web site.

host: A computer that provides services to other client computers on a network.

On the Internet a single computer often provides multiple host functions, such as
processing email, serving web pages, and running applications
HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) : The language of the World Wide
Web...a set of codes that tells a computer how to display the text, graphics, and
other objects that comprise a web page. The central functional element of HTML
is the Hyper Text link, which is a word or picture you can click on to retrieve
another web page and display it on your computer screen.

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): A popular method used by

programs like Outlook, Eudora, and Netscape to retrieve email from an email
server.

IP address: A computer’s unique Internet address, which usually looks like this:
128.223.142.14. Most computers also have a domain name assigned to them,
which represents cryptic IP addresses with words that are easier to remember
(e.g.,gladstone.uoregon.edu). mailing list. An email-based forum for discussing a
particular topic. Mailing lists are administrated by a central program that
distributes messages to all participants.

MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions): A system for encoding

binary data so it can be included with text messages sent across the Internet.
Email programs often use MIME to encode attachments.

network: Two or more computing devices connected together by wiring, fiber

optic cable, wireless circuits, or other means. The Internet is a network that
connects thousands of computer networks.

POP (Post Office Protocol): An older method used by programs like Eudora or
Netscape to retrieve email from a mail server.

protocol: A precise definition of how computers interact with one another on a

network. In order for the Internet to work reliably, participants agree to set up
their systems in accordance with a specific set of protocols, ensuring
compatibility between systems.

server: A computer, or application that provides files, data, or some other

central body of in formation to multiple client computers by means of a network.

ssh: Secure Shell software that encrypts communications over the Internet.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): These are two of

the main protocols of the Internet. In order for a computer to connect to the
Internet, it must have some kind of TCP/IP communication software installed on
it.

Telnet: A way for users to create an unencrypted terminal session with a remote
system.

USENET: A worldwide collection of discussion groups that use the Internet to

transfer tens of thousands of messages among a network of servers set up at sites
around the world.

URL (Uniform Resource Locator): A fancy term for the address of a World
Wide Web page or other resource.

World Wide Web: A system of linked servers that distribute text, graphics, and
multimedia information to users all over the world.

GUIDELINES FOR INTERNET COMMUNICATION

Write concise messages:

There is a large amount of messages that are transmitted on the

internet everyday. To help reduce the amount of traffic on the Internet and ease
the load of correspondence on the recipients, you must keep the length of your
messages to a minimum.

Compose relevant responses:

When replying to message, only include the sections of the

previous message that are relevant to your response. You can use some of the
conventions or abbreviations of email communication such as FYI (for your
information), BTW (by the way), and :-) (a smiley face) for conveying tone and
feeling in messages.

Include Return Address Information:

Configure your email client to include the return email address.

When signing a message, include alternate modes of communication, such as
your telephone number or street address. Most email programs include the
capability to create a signature file that automatically inserts your name and
other pertinent information at the end of a message.
Make Subject Lines Descriptive:

A message with a generic subject like Information, or lack of a

subject line, will often be overlooked over by a recipient who gets a large
number of email messages. Use a short descriptive phrase that summarizes your
message

When Replying, Reference to the Original Message:

When you are replying to a message, first delete the unnecessary

parts of the original mail and retain specific points to which you need to respond.
Then insert your response after each related point.

Acknowledge when you receive an Email:

Ensure that you notify the sender that you have received their
message.

Check Your Email on a Regular Basis:

Senders of email expect a prompt response. Check your email

account every few days to ensure that all of your mails are attended to.

Reply in a Timely Manner:

Process mail and respond to messages immediately. If you fail to

check your emails regularly, the large numbers of email will be unmanageable.
If you regularly receive a large load of email, you can manage the email by using
an add-on utility.

Don’t Send Personal Messages Via Newsgroup or Mailing Lists:

If a message is meant for one individual only, do not send it to

them via a newsgroup or list that goes to many recipients. Always look at the
address line on the top of your message to make sure you are responding only to
those person(s) you wish to receive the message.

Learn to Properly Convey Irony, Sarcasm, and Humor:

 Often, a good-natured attempt to be witty can be misunderstood.
Use a conversational tone in your messages only when the recipient is familiar
with your personal style of communication.

Don’t Publicly Criticize Other Users:

Civil discourse is better than emotive or vulgar communication. In

case an issue requires a harsh response, avoid using email. Instead communicate
directly with the person.

WHAT IS ECOMMERCE?
The basic elements of electronic commerce.

Business includes processes such as recruiting, hiring, and

managing, besides buying and selling. The Internet and related technologies
provide a medium for businesses to exchange information about processes. For
example, the product range and specifications can be disseminated to retailers
from a manufacturer.

ECommerce is the abbreviated form of electronic commerce. This

term can be defined as business activities that are conducted by using electronic
data transmission via the Internet and the World Wide Web.

In B2C transactions, an individual consumer selects and purchases

a product or service over the Internet. For example, Amazon.com conducts B2C
transactions over the Web. In a business-to-business or B2B transaction, two
businesses conduct their transactions via the Internet. B2B transactions account
for a much larger proportion of revenue generated directly by than B2C
transactions. In addition, business processes that are not directly involved in
selling and purchasing account for the majority of business activities on the
Internet. For example, a subsidiary company can place purchase orders for its
raw materials form a manufacturing company.
 B2B transactions over networks pre-date the emergence of the
World Wide. Since the 1960s, some businesses have electronic data interchange
(EDI) to exchange data related to purchasing and billing between corporate
information systems. However, traditional EDI was expensive, and the Internet
coupled with the World Wide Web offer a cheaper and universal approach to
B2B transactions.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELECTRONIC COMMERCE

AND TRADITIONAL COMMERCE
Commerce is the exchange of goods and services and involves
several interdependent business processes. A concept of a good or service must
be designed or invented. The concept must be produced though manufacturing if
it is a good, or implemented if it is a service. Buyers need to be informed about
the existence and value of a seller’s goods and service through marketing and
promotions. The good or service must be shipped or otherwise transferred from
the seller to the buyer. Accounting systems are needed to track expenses and
payments.

Underlying each of these business processes is the creation and

transmission of information. In traditional commerce, this information was
generally exchanged through paper, verbally, or though first-hand experience.
For example, if you were interested in buying a television, you would probably
visit a dealership and talk to a salesperson. In addition, you can test the features
to gain first-hand experience or read a review in a magazine.

In electronic commerce, some or all of this information have been

moved to the Internet. In the example of purchasing a new car, you could view
information online that you would have to visit a dealership before to access.
Because you would not have to spend time traveling to each dealership, you
could more easily compare prices form several sources. You might also find
reviews online from other people about the cars they own. This might not
replace the need for a test drive, but it might assist you in narrowing your
selection of what cares to test drive.

WHAT IS EGOVERNANCE
eGovernment is he use of Information and Communications Technologies
(ICT’s) to promote more efficient governance by allowing:

1. Better delivery of public services

2. Improved access to information

3. Increased accountability of government to its citizens

The five major goals of eGovernment are:

1. Efficient citizen grievance redressal

2. Strengthening good governance

3. Broadening public participation

4. Improving productivity and efficiency of the bureaucracy

5. Promoting economic growth

IMPACT OF INTERNET
The Internet an “enabling technology.” When its introduction is
sensitive to local values and committed to local capacity – building, it offers
important opportunities to:

Open dialogue. Facilitates knowledge sharing, awareness of

alternative perspectives, and open exchange by enabling low cost networking.
Improve governance. Raises efficiency, transparency, and participatory systems
Improve social and human rights conditions. Expands access to better quality
education, healthcare, and disaster relief capacity.

Reduce poverty. Opens new opportunities for bypassed groups such

as women, the poor, rural populations, and children. Introduce economic
opportunities. Develops E-commerce and Information and Communications
Technologies (ICT) sector. Improve environmental management. Supports GIS
and food security early warning systems Support indigenous knowledge.
Documents knowledge within communities.

GROWTH RATE OF INTERNET IN INDIA.

During the first three years of VSNL monopoly, the Internet
subscriber base increased slowly. By the end of March 1998, there were almost
1, 40,000 subscribers. At the end of VSNL’s monopoly things changed
dramatically. Among other factors, the entry of private players, unlimited and
open competition, and the lowering of tariffs, led to the phenomenal surge in the
subscriber base growth. Between March ’99 and March’01, the subscriber base
grew by more than 200 percent per year, from 2, 80,000 to 30, 00,000.

However, form April 2001; the growth rate started declining on all
over India. The current Internet subscriber base in India is 3.3 million and the
user base is 16.5 million. The planned projection is 230 million by the end of the
year 2007.

WHAT IS INTERNET FRAUD?

The term “Internet fraud” refers to any type of fraudulent scheme
that uses a component of the Internet to conduct fraudulent transactions, or to
transmit the proceeds of fraud to financial institutions or to others connected
with the scheme. The Internet components include chat rooms, email, message
boards, or Web sites.

People can access the Internet at all times. This availability of the
Internet increases the time in which people can browse the Internet for business
decisions, information-searching, and personal interactions. Unfortunately,
people who engage in fraud can also access the Internet 24 hours of the day.
They can use the capabilities of the Internet such as sending e-mail messages
worldwide in seconds or posting Web site information to carry out fraudulent
schemes.

WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF INTERNET FRAUD?

The fraud schemes of the non-Internet era have been tuned to suit
the Internet era and continue to confound consumers and investors. With the
explosive growth of the Internet, and ecommerce in particular, online criminals
try to present fraudulent schemes in ways that look, as much as possible, like the
goods and services that the vast majority of legitimate e-commerce merchants
offer. In the process, they not only cause harm to consumers and investors, but
also undermine consumer confidence in legitimate e-commerce and the Internet.
Here are some of the major types of Internet fraud that law enforcement and
regulatory authorities and consumer organizations are seeing:

Auction and Retail Schemes Online. According to the Federal Trade

Commission and Internet Fraud Watch, fraudulent schemes appearing on online
auction sites are the most frequently reported form of Internet fraud. These
schemes, and similar schemes for online retail goods, typically claim to offer
high-value items that range from Carter watches to computers to collectibles
such as Beanie Babies®, that are likely to attract many consumers. These
schemes induce their victims to send money for the promised items, but then
deliver nothing or only an item far less valuable than what was promised.

Business Opportunity/”Work-at-Home” Schemes Online.

Fraudulent schemes often use the Internet to advertise business opportunities that
will allow individuals to earn thousands of dollars a month in “work-at-home”
ventures. These schemes typically require the individuals to pay anywhere from
$35 to several hundred dollars or more, but fail to deliver the materials or
information that would be needed to make the work-at-home opportunity a
potentially viable business.

Identity Theft and Fraud. Some Internet fraud schemes also involve
identity theft. Identity theft is the wrongful obtaining and using of someone
else’s personal data in some way that involves fraud or deception. In one federal
prosecution, the defendants allegedly obtained the names and Social Security
numbers of U.S. military officers from a Web site, and then used more than 100
of those names and numbers to apply via the Internet for credit cards with a
Delaware bank. In another federal prosecution, the defendant allegedly obtained
personal data from a federal agency’s Web site, and then used the personal data
to submit 14 car loan applications online to a Florida bank.

Internet Technology And Protocols 4

WHAT ARE PROTOCOLS?

A protocol is a standard format for transmitting data between two devices.

The protocol determines the following:

1. The type of error checking to be used

2. Data compression method, if any
3. The method by which the sending device will indicate that the transmission
is complete

A protocol describes the format that a message must take and the way
in which computers must exchange a message within the context of a particular
activity. The activities include sending messages across networks, exchanging e-
mail, establishing remote connections, and transferring files. Two networking
models support open systems interconnection. The first model, TCP/IP, is based
on a suite of protocols in which each protocol solves a particular network
communications problem. The second model, OSI, is based on international
standards.

WHAT IS TCP/IP?
The name TCP/IP refers to a suite of data communication protocols.
The name is misleading because TCP and IP are only two of the several protocols
that compose the suite. The name TCP/IP comes from two of the more important
protocols in the suit: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet
Protocol (IP).

TCP/IP originated out of the investigative research into networking

protocols that the Department of Defense (DOD) initiated in 1969. In 1968, the
DOD Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) began researching the
network technology that is now called packet switching. The original focus of this
research was to facilitate communication among the DOD community. The
network that was initially constructed as a result of this research, and then called
ARPANET, gradually became known as the Internet. The TCP/IP protocols
played an important role in the development of the Internet. In the early 1980s, the
TCP/IP protocols were developed. In 1983, they became standard protocols for the
ARPANET. Owing to the history of the TCP/IP protocol suite, it is often referred
to as the Internet protocol suite.

HOW TCP/IP WORKS?

The design of TCP/IP hides the function of this layer from users and
is concerned with getting data across a specific type of physical network such as
Ethernet and Token Ring. The TCP/IP design reduces the need to rewrite higher
levels of a TCP/IP stack when new physical network technologies, such as ATM
and Frame Relay, are introduced.

The functions performed at the TCP/IP level include encapsulating

the IP data grams into frames that are transmitted by the network. TCP/IP also
maps the IP addresses to the physical addresses used by the network. One of the
strengths of TCP/IP is its addressing scheme, which uniquely identifies every
computer on the network. This IP address must be converted into an address that is
appropriate for the physical network over which the data gram is transmitted. Data
to be transmitted is received from the inter network layer. The network access
layer is responsible for routing and must add its routing information to the data.
The network access layer information is added in the form of a header, which is
appended to the beginning of the data. In Windows NT, the protocols in this layer
appear as NDIS drivers and related programs. The modules that are identified with
network device names usually encapsulate and deliver the data to the network,
while separate programs perform related functions such as address mapping.

The first model, TCP/IP, is based on a suit of protocols in which each protocol
solves a particular network communications problem. This model contains

1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Interface Layer
5. Physical Layer

APPLICATION LAYER
A user invokes an application program the accesses a service
available across a TCP/IP internet. The application passes data to and receives data
from the transport layer.

TRANSPORT LAYER
This layer provides services that permit an application program on
one host to communicate with an application program on a remote host. The
transport layer divides the stream of data into packets, adds a destination address,
and passes the packets to the next layer. The transport uses two protocols, TCP
and UDP,

INTERNET LAYER
This layer ensures that data is routed to the correct destination. The
internet layer encapsulates the packet received form the transport layer into a
datagram, adds a header, and determines the routing requirement. For incoming
datagram, it determines which transport protocol should handle the packet.
NETWORK INTERFACELAYER
This layer controls access to network transmission mechanisms. The
network interface is responsible for accepting IP datagram and transmitting them
over a specific network. The interface can be a device driver (connected to a LAN)
or a subsystem with its own data link protocol.

PHYSICALLAYER
The hardware connection provides the physical interconnection
between the host and the network

INTERNET PROTOCOL
IP is a connectionless protocol, which means that IP does not
exchange control information, called a handshake, to establish an end-to-end
connection before transmitting data. In contrast, a connection – oriented protocol
exchanges control information with the remote computer to verify that it is ready
to receive data before sending it. When the handshake is successful, the computers
are said to have established a connection. IP relies on protocols in other layers to
establish the connection if connection-oriented services are required. IP also relies
on protocols in another layer to provide error detection and error recovery. IP is
sometimes called an unreliable protocol because it contains no error detection or
recovery code.

IP ADDRESSING
As with any other network-layer protocol, the IP addressing scheme
is integral to the process of routing IP datagrams though an internetwork. Each IP
address has specific components and follows a basic format. These IP addresses
can be subdivided and used to create addresses for subnetworks, as discussed in
more detail later in this chapter.

Each host on a TCP/IP network is assigned a unique 32-bit logical

address that is divided into two main parts: the network number and the host
number. The network number identifies a network and must be assigned by the
Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) if the network is to be part of the
Internet. An Internet Service Provider (ISP) can obtain blocks of network
addresses form the InterNIC and can itself assign address space as necessary. The
host number identifies a host on a network and is assigned by the local network
administrator.

IP ADDRESS FORMAT
The 32-bit IP address is grouped eight bits at a time, separated by
dots, and represented in decimal format (known as dotted decimal notation). Each
bit in the octet has a binary weight (128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1). The minimum
value for an octet is 0, and the maximum value for an octet is 255. Figure 30-3
illustrates the basic format of an IP address.

IP FORMAT
32 Bits

Network Host

8 Bits 8 Bits 8 Bits 8 Bits

Dotted
Decimal
Notation 172 16 122 204

IP ADDRESS CLASSES
IP addressing supports five different address classes: A, B, C, D, and
E. Only classes A, B and C are available for commercial use.

IP Address Class Purpose Address Range Max. Hosts

A Few large organizations 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0 16,777,2142 (224-2)

B Medium-size organizations 128.1.0.0 to 65, 543 (216 – 2)

191.254.0.0
C Relatively small organizations 192.0.1.0 to 245 (28 - 2)
223.255.254.0
D Multicast groups (RFC 1112) 224.0.0.0 to N/A
239.255.255.255
E Experimental 240.0.0.0 to N/A
 254.255.255.255

SERIAL LINE IP (SLIP) AND COMPRESSED SERIAL LINE IP

(CSLIP)
SLIP is a minimal protocol used to send to send datagrams for
transmission across a serial line such as a telephone circuit. (SLIP is not an
Internet standard.) SLIP is used only when both hosts know each other’s address
and only when IP datagrams are being transmitted. When a host makes a
connection, the SLIP server behaves like a router for TCP/IP traffic. Once
connected, the SLIP host sends all network traffic over the serial interface.

Because network traffic is exchanged over the telephone link,

performance is an issue for applications that handle numerous graphics, file
sharing, or hypermedia. Compressed SLIP (CSLIP) improves SLIP performance
by compressing the TCP/IP headers.

POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL (PPP)

PPP was developed as an Internet standard to address the weaknesses
of SLIP. Often used for dialup remote LAN access, PPP allows the remote host to
connect to the network and use IP network protocols. PPP is defined as a three-
layered protocol as follows:

1. Data Link Layer, a modified version of the High-Level Data Link

Control (HDLC) that guarantees reliable delivery over any type of
serial line.

2. Link Control, used to establish the connection, negotiate configuration

parameters (including compression), check link quality, and close the
connection.

3. Network Control Protocols, individual protocols that provide

configuration and control information for the Network Layer protocols.

THE PORTS
 Many TCP/IP programs can be initiated over the Internet. Most of
these are client/server oriented. As each connection request is received, inetd starts
a server program, which then communicates with the requesting client machine.

To facilitate this process, each application (FTP or Telnet, for

example) is assigned a unique address. This address is called a port. The
application in question is bound to that particular port and, when any connection
request is made to that port, the corresponding application is launched (inetd is the
program that launches it).

There are thousands of ports on the average Internet server. For

purposes of convenience and efficiency, a standard framework has been developed
for port assignment. (In other words, although a system administrator can bind
services to the port of his or her choice, services are generally bound to recognized
ports. These are commonly referred to as well-known ports.)

COMMON PORTS AND THEIR CORRESPONDING

SERVICES OR APPLICATIONS.
Service or Application Port

File Transfer Protocol (FTP): 21

Telnet: 23
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): 25
Gopher: 70
Finger: 79
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): 80
Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP): 119

OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION (OSI)

Introduction to the ISO – OSI Model

The ISO (International Standards Organization) has created a layered

model, called the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) mode, to describe defined
layers in a network operating system. The purpose of the layers is to provide
clearly defined functions that can improve Internetwork connectivity between
“computer” manufacturing companies. Each layer has a standard defined input and
a standard defined output.

OSI Model Explained

 This is a top-down explanation of the OSI Model. It starts with the
user’s PC and it follows what happens to the user’s file as it passes though the
different OSI Model layers. The top-down approach was selected specifically (vs.
starting at the Physical Layer and working up to the Application Layer) for ease of
understanding. It is used here to show how the user’s files are transformed
(through the layers) into a bit stream for transmission on the network.

These are the 7 Layers of the OSI model:

• 7. Application Layer (Top Layer)

• 6. Presentation Layer
• 5. Session Layer
• 4. Transport Layer
• 3. Network Layer
• 2. Data Link Layer
• 1. Physical Layer (Bottom Layer)

Layer 7 – Application Layer

Keyboard

CPU DOS C: local Hard-

Drive
Software
Program

Basic PC Logical Flowchart

A basic PC logic flowchart is shown in Fig. The Keyboard &

Application are shown as inputs to the CPU (requesting access to the hard disk).
The Keyboard requests accesses through user inquiries (such as “DIR” commands)
and the Application seeks access through “File Openings” and “Saves”. The CPU,
through the Disk Operating System, sends and receives data from the local hard
disk (“C:” in this example).
 Keyboard

CPU Network DOS C: local Hard-

Redirector Drive
Software
Program

NOS

G: Network
Hard-Drive

Simple Network Redirection

A PC setup as a network workstation has a software “Network

Redirector” (the actual name depends on the network – we will use a generic term
here) placed between the CPU and DOS (as shown in Fig 2.). The Network
Redirector is a TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) program: it presents the
network hard disk as another local hard disk (“G:” in this example) to the CPU.
All CPU requests are intercepted by the “Network Redirector”. The Network
Redirector checks to see if either a local or a network drive is requested; the
request is passed on to DOS. However, if a network drive is requested, the request
is then passed on to the network operating system (NOS).

Electronic mail (E-Mail), client-sever databases, games played over

the network, print and file servers, remote logons, and network management
programs (or any “network aware” applications) are all aware of the network
redirector. They have the ability to communicate directly with other “network
applications” on the network. The “Network Aware Applications” and the
“Network Redirector” make up Layer 7 (the Application layer of the OSI Model,
as shown in Fig).
 Network a Wace
Application
Application
Keyboard Layer

CPU Network DOS C: local Hard-

Redirector Drive
Software
Program
Operating System
File Envelope

NOS

Network G: Network
Applications Hard-Drive

PC Workstation with Network Aware Software

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The Network Redirector sends CPU operating system native code

to the network operating system: the coding and format of the data is not
recognizable by the network operating system. The data consists of file transfers
and network calls by network aware programs.

For example, when a dumb terminal is used as a workstation (in a

mainframe or minicomputer network), the network data is translated into (and
from) the format that the terminal can use. The Presentation layer presents data
to and from the terminal using special control characters to control the screen
display (LF-line feed, CR-carriage return, cursor movement, etc...). The
presentation of data on the screen would depend on the type of terminal that’s
used: VT100, VT52, VT420, etc.
 Network
Redirector Application Layer

Operating System
File Envelop

Presentation
Layer

Stripped
Contiguous File

Similarly, The Presentation layer strips the pertinent file from the workstation
operating system’s file envelope. The control characters, screen formatting, and
workstation operating system envelope are all stripped or added to the file (if the
workstation is receiving or transmitting data to the network). This could also
include translating ASCII file characters from a PC world to EBCDIC in an IBN
Mainframe world.

The Presentation Layer also controls security at the file level: this
provides both file locking and user security. The DOS Share program is often
used for file locking. When a file is in use, it is locked form other users to
prevent 2 copies of the same file from being generated. If 2 users both modified
the same file, and User A saved it, then User B saved it, then User A’s changes
would be erased! At this point, the data is contiguous and complete (i.e. one
large data file). See Fig.

Layer 5 – Session Layer

The Session layer manages the communications between the

workstation and the network. The Session layer directs the information to the
correct destination, and identifies the source to the destination. The Session layer
identifies the type of information as data or control. The Session layer manages
the initial start-up of a session, and the orderly closing of a session. The Session
layer also manages Log on procedures and Password recognition
 Stripped
Contiguous File

Session Logon &

Layer Password Recognition

Source Dest Control file

Port Port

Session Layer

Layer 4 – Transport Layer

In order for the data to be sent across the network, the file must be
broken up into usable small data segments (typically 512 – 18k bytes). The
Transport layer breaks up the file into segments for transport to the network, and
combines incoming segments into a contiguous file. The Transport layer does
this logically, not physically, and it is done in software as opposed to hardware.

Source Dest Control File

Port Port

Create Segments
Transport Checks order
Layer

Source Dest Control Data

PCS
Port Port

Source Dest Control Data

Segments

The Transport layer provides error checking at the segment level

(frame control sequence). This makes sure that the data grams are in the correct
order: the Transport layer will correct out of order datagrams. The Transport
layer guarantees an error-free host to host connection. It is not concerned with
the path between machines.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

The Network layer is concerned with the path through the network. It is
responsible for routing, switching, and controlling the flow of information
between hosts. The Network layer converts the segments into smaller datagrams
than the network can handle: network hardware source and destination addresses
are also added. The Network layer does not guarantee that the datagram will
reach its destination.

Source Dest Control Data PCS

Port Port

Source Dest Control Data PCS Segments

Port Port

Network Datagram
Layer Routing

Source Dest Control

Data PCS
Poct Poct

Network Layer

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer

The Data Link layer is a firmware layer of the network interface

card. The Data Link layer puts the datagrams into packets (frames of bits: 1s &
0s) for transmission, and assembles received packets into datagrams. The Data
Link layer works at the bit level, and adds start / stop flags and bit error checking
(CRC or parity) to the packet frame. Error checking is at the bit level only:
packets with errors are discarded and a request for re-transmission is sent out.
The Data Link layer is primarily concerned with bit sequence.

Source Dest Control Data PCS

Port Port

Network Datagram
Layer Routing

Start Source Dest Control Data PCS Stop

Flag Add Add Flag

1’s & 0s

Data Link Layer

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The Physical layer concerns itself with the transmission of bits. It

also manages the network card’s hardware interface to the network. The
hardware interface involves the type of cabling (coax, twisted pair, etc.),
frequency of operation (1 Mbps, 10Mbps, etc.), voltage levels, cable
terminations, topography (star, bus, ting, etc.), etc. Examples of Physical layer
protocols are as follows: 10Base5 – Thicknet, 10Base2 – Thinnet, 10BaseT –
twisted pair, ArcNet, FDDI, etc. (see Fig. 9).
 Start Source Dest Control Data PCS Stop
Flag Add Add Flag

1’s & 0s

Physical Cables, Frequency,

Layer Voltages, Topology

10100110010101001

Physical Layer

LAYER-SPECIFIC COMMUNICATION

Each layer may add a Header and a Trailer to its Data (which
consists of the next higher layer’s Header, Trailer and Data as it moves through
the layers). The Headers contain information that specifically addresses layer-to-
layer communication. For example, the Transport Header (TH) contains
information that only the Transport layer sees. All other layers below the
Transport layer pass the Transport Header as part of their Data.
 Application Layer PDU AH File AT

Presentation Layer PDU PH Presentation Data PT

Session Layer PDU SH Session Data ST

Transport Segment TH Transport Data TT

Network Datagram NH Network Data NT

Data Link Packet DH Data Link Data DT

Physical Bits Physical Layer Packer

PDU – Protocol Data Unit (a fancy name for Layer Frame

 OSI Model Function Drawing

Network A ware
program Application
Layer
Keyboard

Network C: Local
CPU Redirector DOS Hard-Drive

Software
Program Operating System
File Envelope

Presentation Security File

Layer Formatting/stripping

Stripped
Contiguous File

Session Logon & Password

Layer Recognition

Source Dest Control File

Post Post

Transport Create Segments

Layer Checks order

Source Dest Control Data PCS

Post Post Segments

Source Dest Control Data PCS

Post Post

Network Datagram
Layer Routing

Source Dest Control Data PCS

Post Post

Data Link
Bit Level Error Checking
Network Layer
Interface
Card
Start Source Dest Control Data PCS Stop
Flag Add Add Flag

1s & 0s
 OSI Model
Functional Layer Drawing

Physical Cables, Frequency,

Layer Voltages, Topography

ONE CLIENT
10100110010101001

NETWORK

Other
File NOS Workstations
Server

Network G: Network
Application Hard - Drive

WHAT IS FDDI?

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a multi-vendor local

area network standard developed by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI). It offers an industry-standard solution for organizations that need a
high-speed LAN with high capacity and performance.

FDDI is based on dual counter-rotating token passing rings that are

connected by optical fibers that transmit data at the rate of 100 Mbps. At this
speed, the ring can support upto 500 nodes with a spacing of 2km between
adjacent nodes. The basic operation of FDDI is similar to that of token ring.
Since it is very difficult to tap into a fiber, a ring was the logical solution. FDDI
groups stations, including workstations, bridges, and routers, into a ring. Each
station has an input fiber form the previous station and an output to the

Due to the historical higher costs of its adapters and fiber optics,
FDDI has been used primarily in backbone networks and for high-speed
communications between host processors. The higher bandwidths offered by
ATM, Fast Ethernet, and FDDI technologies complement each other, and are
expected to coexist in virtually all organizations for many years to come.

FDDI was primarily designed to carry computer data. Beyond

FDDI, FDDI-II is being developed to cater for a mix of voice, data and video
traffic.

TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW

Token Ring and Ethernet are the two dominant LAN standards that
are being widely utilized to connect users in a workgroup to each other and to
common resources. The rapid increase in the speed and performance of personal
computers and workstations has initiated a demand for a corresponding increase
in LAN bandwidth. To meet this demand the ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) committee had developed the FDDI standard that is being
widely used.

Why use FDDI?

With growing demands on network systems, the search for a “high

– bandwidth LAN” has gained importance in many organizations. The increased
demands are coming from two areas: First, the number of network users has
increased in recent years, creating congestion in system traffic. Second, the
increasing use of peer-to-peer network architecture means that more information
gets passed between users, instead of passing though a central server.

The need for networks to handle more data, more quickly than eve,
is becoming urgent. As a result, several contenders are vying for throne of high-
speed networking. While ATM and Fast Ethernet have gained the most attention,
FDDI is the popular choice. FDDI is a full-fledged technology compared to the
emerging high-speed networking technologies, such as ATM and Fast Ethernet.
In addition, FDDI has established standard interoperability, and product
availability.

WHAT IS ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)?

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a technology that arises
from international standards. The standards relate to the transmission of data,
voice, and video simultaneously over a network at speeds that are greater than
the transmission rate without the standards. ATM can transport electronic
communications from sources that range from phone calls through movies to
targets such as email and files. The targets are contained on a gopher or a World
Wide Web server.

ATM can transport electronic communication at a rate of hundreds

of megabits per second. This transfer rate is faster than the ethernet technology
that is available on local area networks. The rate of transfer b using the ATM
technology allows the integration of speech, motion, and data into multimedia
presentations in offices and schools. Although, ATM is still in its infancy, the
technology is being deployed across the country. ATM and future enhancements
will lead to a global information system over the next decade and will become a
central feature of the Information Superhighway that is being developed across
the world. The use of the ATM technology in public schools is being
investigated. OWL ink will be among the first projects that implements the
capabilities of the ATM.

ETHERNET
Ethernet is one of the standard’s of local area network (LAN)
technology that transmits information between computers at speed of 10 & 100
million bits per second (mbps). Currently the most widely used version of
ethernet technology is the 10 Mbps twisted pair variety. It includes the original
thick coaxial system, as well as thin coaxial, twisted pair, and fiber optic
systems. The most recent ethernet standard defines the new 100 mbps as the fast
ethernet system which operates over twisted pair and fiber optic media.

HISTORY
Ethernet was invented at the Xerox Palo alto research centre in the
1970s by Dr. Robert M Metcalfe. It was designed to support research on the
office of the future, which included one of the world first personal workstations,
the Xerox alto. The first ethernet system ran at approximately 3Mbps and was
known as “experimental ethernet.” There are several Lan technologies in use
today, but ethernet is by far the most popular. Industry estimates indicates that as
of 1994, over 40 million ethernet nodes had been installed worldwide. The
widespread popularity of the ethernet ensures that there is a large market for
ethernet equipment, which also helps to keep the technology competitively
priced.

Elements of the ethernet system

The ethernet system consists of there basic elements

1. The physical medium used to carry ethernet signals between

computers

2. A set of medium access control rules embedded in each ethernet

interface that allows multiple computers to fairly arbitrate access to
the shared ethernet channel

3. An ethernet frame that consists of a standardized set of bits used to

carry data over the system

OPERATION OF ETHERNET
Each ethernet equipped computer, also known as a station operates
independently of all stations on the network: there is no central controller. All
stations attached to an ethernet are connected to a shared signaling system, also
called the medium. Ethernet signals are transmitted serially, one bit at a time,
over the shared signal channel is idle, the station transmits its data in the form of
an ethernet frame or packet.

NETWORKS

It makes sense, most often for financial reasons but also for others,
to network groups of computers where they share a common workload. All the
computers in an administrative office, all the computers to do with a certain
ward or discipline. Networking computers means that the people using them can
share files easily, send each other messages and share each other’s printers. This
idea has developed into Local Area Networks (LANs.) Nowadays most
organizations have a local area network. LAN’s can be as small as just one
shared office or as large as a whole city.

Wide Area Networks

In some cases an organization is spread over a large area, and you

do not have the easy concentration of computing to provide a LAN for. In this
instance computers may be connected by a Wide Area Network (WAN). The
difference between a WAN and a LAN is partly one of scale (although this is
relative) but also relates to the technology. With a LAN you will typically get a
fast network that can network PC file servers. With a WAN the network will
often be much slower and will usually involve some mainframe computer as the
server rather than a PC.

Combined Networks

LAN’s and WAN’s are not mutually exclusive. In fact they

combine very well together. Many organizations now have both, where a WAN
has been created by connecting up a series of LAN’s. A good example of this is
the Academic Community. Every University has it’s own LAN providing email,
printing, file sharing and other facilities. Then every University is connected to
the joint Academic Network (JANET) which is a WAN running the length of the
country.

LAN TOPOLOGIES
The application in use, such as multimedia, database updates, e-
mail, or file and print sharing, generally determines the type of data
transmission.

LAN transmissions fit into one of three categories:

• Unicast
• Multicast
• Broadcast

UNICAST

With unicast transmissions, a single packet is sent form the source

to a destination on a network. The source-node addresses the packet by using the
network address of the destination node. The packet is then forwarded to the
destination network and the network passes the packet to its final destination.
Figure 2-1 is an example of a unicast network.
 Server

Client Client Client

Unicast Network

MULTICAST

With a multicast transmission, a single data packet is copied and

forwarded to a specific subset of nodes on the network. The source node
addresses the packet by using a multicast address. For example, the TCP/IP suite
uses 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. The packet is then sent to the network, which
makes copies of the packet and sends a copy to each segment with a node that is
part of the multicast address. Figure 2-2 is an example of a multicast network.
 Server

Clint Client Client

Multicast Network

BROADCAST

Broadcasts are found in LAN environments. Broadcasts do not

traverse a WAN unless the Layer 3 edge-routing device is configured with a
helper address (or the like) to direct these broadcasts to a specified network
address. This Layer 3 routing device acts as an interface between the local-area
network (LAN) and the wide-area network (WAN).
 Server

Client Client Client

Broadcast Network

Multimedia broadcast traffic is a much more bandwidth-intensive

broadcast traffic type. Multimedia broadcasts, unlike data broadcasts, typically
are several megabits in size; therefore, they can quickly consume network and
bandwidth resources. Broadcast-based protocols are not preferred because every
network device on the network must expend CPU cycles to process each data
frame and packet to determine if that device is the intended recipient. Data
broadcasts are necessary in a LAN environment, but they have minimal impact
because the data broadcast frames that are traversing the network are typically
small. Broadcast storms can cripple a network in no time because the
broadcasting device uses whatever available bandwidth is on the network.

An example of a data broadcast on a LAN could be a host searching

for server resources, such as Novell’s IPX GNS (Get Nearest Server) or Apple
Talk’s Chooser application. Unlike data broadcasts, which are usually made up
of small frames, multimedia broadcasts are typically several megabits in size. As
a result, multimedia broadcasts can quickly consume all available band – width
on a network, bringing a network and its attached devices to a crawl, if not
render them inoperable.

Four LAN topologies exist:

• Star (Hub-and-Spoke)
• Ring
• Bus
• Tree

STAR (HUB-AND-SPOKE) TOPOLOGY

All stations are attached by cable to a central point, usually a wiring

hub or other device operating in a similar function. Several different cable types
can be used for this point-to-point link, such as shielded twisted-pair (STP),
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP), and fiber-optic cabling. Wireless media can also
be used for communications links.

The advantage of the star topology is that no cable segment is a

single point of failure impacting the entire network. This allows for better
management of the LAN. If one of the cables develops a problem, only that
LAN-attached station is affected; all other stations remain operational. The
disadvantage of a star (hub-and-spoke) topology is the central hub device. This
central hub is a single point-of –failure in that if it fails, every attached station is
out of service. These central hubs, or concentrators, have changed over the years.
Today, it is common to deploy hubs with built-in redundancy. Such redundancy
is designed to isolate a faulty or failed component, such as the backplane or
power supply. Figure 2-4 is an example of a star (hub-and-spoke) topology.
 This example demonstrates a star topology with a file server,
printer, and two workstations. If a cable to one of the workstation fails, the rest
of the devices are unaffected unless they need to access resources from the
“disconnected” device.

Ring Topology

All stations in a ring topology are considered repeaters and are

enclosed in a loop. Unlike the star (hub-and-spoke) topology has no end points.
The repeater in this case is a function of the LAN-attached station’s network
interface card (NIC). Because each NIC in a LAN-attached station is a repeater,
each LAN station will repeat any signal that is on the network, regardless of
whether it is destined for that particular station. If a LAN-attached station’s NIC
fails to perform this repeater function, the entire network could come down. The
NIC controller is capable of recognizing and handling the defective repeater and
can pull itself off the ring, allowing the ring to stabilize and continue operating.
Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) best represents a ring topology. Although the physical
cabling is considered to be a star topology, Token Ring is a ring in logical
topology, as demonstrated by the following figures. Although physical topology
is a physical layer attribute, the media access method used at the data link layer
determines the logical topology. Token Ring defines a logical ring and
contention, as Ethernet defines a logical bus. Even when attached to a hub, when
one Ethernet device transmits, everyone hears the transmission, just as though on
a bus.
Fiber Data Distributed Interface (FDDI) is another example of a ring topology
implementation Like Token Ring, FDDI rings are physically cabled in a star
topology. FDDI stations can be configured either as a single attachment station
(SAS) or as a dual attachment station (DAS). SASs are connected to one of the
two FDDI rings, whereas DASs are connected to both rings via an A and B port
on the FDDI stations and concentrator. Token Ring and FDDI LANs will be
discussed in greater detail in Chapters 6, “Token Ring/IEEE 802.5,” and 7,
“FDDI.”

Bus Topology

Sometimes referred to as linear-bus topology, Bus is a simple

design that utilizes a single length of cable, also known as the medium, with
directly attached LAN stations. All stations share this cable segment. Every
station on this segment sees transmissions form every other stations on the cable
segment; this is known as a broadcast medium. The LAN attachment stations are
definite endpoints to the cable segment and are known as bus network
termination points. This single cable segment lends itself to being a single point
of failure. If the cable is broken, no LAN station will have connectivity or the
ability to transmit and receive. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) best represents this
topology. Ethernet has the ability to utilize many different cable schemes.

LAN Node LAN Node

Bus Topology
TREE TOPOLOGY

The tree topology is a logical extension of the bus topology and

could be described as multiple interconnected bus networks. The physical
(cable) plant is known as a branching tree with all stations attached to it. The tree
begins at the root, the pinnacle point, and expands to the network endpoints. This
topology allows a network to expand dynamically with only one active data path
between any two network endpoints.

A tree topology network is one that does not employ loops in its
topology. An example of a tree topology network is a bridged or switched
network running the spanning tree algorithm, usually found with Ethernet (IEEE
802.3) networks. The spanning tree algorithm disables loops in what would
otherwise be a looped topology. Spanning tree expands though the network and
ensures that only one active path exists between any two LAN-attached stations.
DNS (Domain Name System)

DNS (Domain Name Server) is the system used in Internet to be

able to assign and universally use unequivocal names to refer to systems
connected to the net. Thus both human users and applications can used DNS
names instead of the numeric addresses of the IP net. This represents great
advantages, among others the fact that it is easier and less burdensome for us to
use names and not numbers and it allows an organization to make the name of
machines, services, email addresses etc independent from the specific number
addresses which working systems may have at a given time in function of
changing elements such as the topology of the net and the provider of access to
Internet.

Technically DNS is an immense data base distributed hierarchically

throughout Internet: there are innumerable servers which interact among
themselves to find and provide for the customer applications which consult them
the translation of a name to its associated PI address, to which the desired
connection may be made. Each part of the data base has a replica in at least two
servers and this ensures the proper redundancy factor. The reason which
motivated the development and implementation of DNS in Internet was the great
growth in the number of machines connected. Previously, the link between
numbers and IP addresses was made via lists kept centrally is a single file
(Host.txt) which had to be constantly updated with each new system connected
u[ and to be present in all the computers connected to Internet.

Name Servers:

In large installations, there are a number of different collections of

names that have to be managed. This includes users and their passwords, names
and network addresses for computers, and accounts. It becomes very tedious to
keep this data up to date on all of the computers. Thus the databases are kept on
a small number of systems.
 The objective of DNS is to allow the scaling down, from both the
administrative and technical points of view, of the system of Internet names by
means of a hierarchical distribution of delegated domains. The domains are
administrative entities the object of which is to divide up the management load
of central administrative entities the object of which is to divide up the
management load of a central administrator and share it out among the sub
administrators. The latter in their turn may repeat the process if the volume of
the domain to be administered makes this advisable.

At the first hierarchical level are the “Top Level Domains” or

TLD’s which are one per country (two letter domains which correspond to the
ISO-3166 code for each territory) plus the special 3 letter domains: “edu”,
“com”, “gov”, “mil”, “org”, “int” and “net”.

Generic Top Level Domains (g TLD)

 One of the conveniences of computer technology is that it often
masks complex interactions behind a simple human experience. The Internet is a
perfect example. Everyday, millions of users move from Web site to Web site by
simply typing domain names (e.g., www.networksolutions.com) into a
computer’s Internet browser. Yet, unseen and often unknown to the user, each
entry actually triggers a critical, time-sensitive process before the Web site can
be accessed.

In order for Internet users to reach a Web site, their computer must
find the address of the Web server that hosts the desired site. Computers locate
one another across the Internet using numbers, not letters. For each Web site on
the Internet there is a unique domain name and numeric address, known as an
Internet Protocol (IP) address (e.g.,205.139.94.60). This number, while quite
convenient for the computer to use, is difficult for Internet users to remember;
thus the need for domain names.
WHAT IS CLIENT/SERVER TECHNOLOGY

A client/server system consists of two different types of computers,

client computers and server computers that are connected by a network. Users
work at the client computers and pass requests to the server computers. Server
computer controls the information, files, or programs that the client computers
require. Both these types of computers have software that meet the specific role
they play in the client/server environment. Although it is common to refer to a
server computer as the server, in reality the server refers t o the software
application that servers files, not the computer on which it runs. Similarly a
client is a computer that has client software.

Client/server computing is important because it centralizes the

control of data. Consider a business that takes orders for products over the
phone. The company has a server computer, connected by a network to a variety
of client computers. A database on the server computer contains information
about all the products the company sells, including each item’s price and the
number of units in stock. The server software gives client applications access to
this database.

Some of the client computers are used by employees who take

orders over the phone. The client software gives these employees access to the
database on the server computer. When an order comes in, an employee uses
their client software to se if the item the customer wants is in stock. If it is, the
order taker hen uses the client software to place the order. The server software
receives the order, accesses the database, subtracts the appropriate number of
units from the total number of units in stock, and sends a message to a client
computer in another part of the company asking for the order to be fulfilled.

ADVANTAGES OF CLINET/SERVER TECHNOLOGY

Consolidate data in one place-Users know the source of data,

because data is always accessed by requesting it from the server, Easy
administration-Administrators can create reports on the data that is available,
and can track or monitor the use of that data. In addition administrators can
backup and restore data. Prudent use of resources – IN client/server computing,
processor-intensive tasks is concentrated on a powerful server computer, freeing
up the processors of slower client computers. Easy connectivity- The network on
which a client/server system resides does not have to be a standard LAN (local
area network). You can use a dial-up modem connection to access a server
computer from a client computer on the other side of the planet.

WHAT DO I NEED TO GET ON THE INTERNET?

To get connected to the Internet you need a computer, a modem or

other access device, an Internet service provider (ISP) and software.

Modem: Modems are devices which use phone lines to connect your computer to
your Internet service provider’s (ISP) host computer (also called a server) which
is connected to the Internet. The speed of a modem determines how fast
information is transmitted to and from your computer and is measured in bits per
second (bps)(it takes about 10 bits to transmit a single character such as the letter
A). There are faster ways of connecting to the Internet using ISDN lines, cable
modems and Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL). An ISDN line transfers
information at a rate of between 57,600 bps and 128,000 bps. ISDN adapter
instead of a modem, and some specialized equipment that the phone company
must install. A T-1 line is very fast connection used by web servers or other
computers than need to be connected to the Internet all the time. You can get
internet access through some cable TV networks. Speeds can be as great as 36
Mbps. Cable access requires a special cable modem. Because it works with your
TV cable, is doesn’t tie up a telephone line. Cable modems are always on, so
there is no need to connect.

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line0 is another high-speed technology

that is becoming increasingly popular, DSL lines are always connected to the
Internet, so you don’t need to dial-up. Information can be transferred at rates up
to 1.54 Mbps (around 30 times faster than a 56-kbps modem) over ordinary
telephone lines using your existing line. Not all types of services are available in
all parts of the country. You need to know types of connections your ISP
supports.
 World Wide Web 5
WHAT IS GOPHER?

Gopher is a communications method or protocol for retrieving text

and file-based information from the Internet. Designed at the University of
Minnesota, gopher quickly became an Internet standard. When gopher was first
developed, the programs that used this method for accessing Internet information
were also called Gopher. Today, programs that use this method of retrieval are
referred to as Gopher Clients. The program called Gopher is also considered a
Gopher client. The Gopher protocol is designed to allow easy access to text and
file-based information that is distributed across different machines on the
Internet. Gopher allows you to connect to remote computers known as Gopher
Servers and browse the information that has been made available on them.
Typically, you use Gopher by starting at a local machine, and following
connections from that machine out to other source of data. At each new machine,
there are often connections to other computers. This interconnection of data and
machines was the precursor to what has come to be called the World Wide Web.

THE WEB IS BORN

In March 1989, Tim Berners-Lee of Geneva’s European Particle

Physics Laboratory (CERN- Conseil Europeen pour la Recherché Nucleaire)
proposed to develop a hypertext system to enable easy information sharing
among the High Energy Physics community regardless of the country they were
in.

The three components of the hypertext system were:

A consistent user interface. The ability to incorporate a wide range

of technologies and document types. Universal readership. (Universal readership
enables anyone on the network using a wide variety of computers, to read the
same documents easily.)
 In October of 1990 the World Wide Web began to take shape when
the CERN labs began working on the first graphical hypertext delivery system
also known as a Web browser. In November 1992 the CERN list of “reasonably
reliable servers” comprised 26 servers at sites around the world. In January
1993, 50 web servers were in existence and the Viola browser was made
available for X Windows systems. In February 1993, Mosaic was developed by
Marc Andreessen at NCSA (National Center for Supercomputing Applications)
in the United States at the University of Illinois. In 1994, Andreessen and some
of the Mosaic team left NCSA to form Netscape with Jim Clark where they
developed and released a commercial Web browser called Navigator for free on
the net. In the same year the work of having secure Web access started. Security
was required if people were to provide credit card information on the Web. To
develop the Web further, CERN turned over the Web project to the W3
Organization in July 1994.The W3 organization was a joint effort between
CERN and MIT.

WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web (also known as the Web, WWW, and
sometimes W3) is the area of the Internet that has received tremendous focus in
the last few years. Many people new to the Internet, think that the Web *is* the
Internet. However, the Web is just part of the Internet, albeit a very major part.
The Web is made up of “sites”-a site being where someone has placed files that
can be accessed by those connected to the Internet. The files are of all different
types – text, graphic, video, sound, etc. – and they are on computers around the
world. They constitute a vast amount of information on several subjects.

The files are accessed by using IP addressing and a specific

protocol called http, which stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. The Web
works on the client/server model. You use a client program which passes your
request for information to a server. The server obtains the information and
passes it back to your client. The client software that you use to access the Web
is called a browser. Popular browsers are Netscape Navigator and Microsoft
Internet Explorer. With all of these browsers, you can see graphic files on the
Web. There are some text-only browsers, such as Lynx.

WWW BROWSER
A Web browser is a program that you can use to view files on the
Internet, including images, text, sound and video. A graphical Web browser is a
browser that enables you to view Multimedia content such as images, audio, and
video, on the Internet. The first graphical Web browser was “Mosaic” that was
developed in 1993 by the National Center for Supercomputing Application at the
University of Illinois. Mac Andreessen and six fellow students developed the
program for creating the Mosaic browser while working on a university-
sponsored computer project. This program has contributed immensely to
developing and propagating the World Wide Web to the forefront of Internet
tools. Mosaic converted the text only WWW into an environment that is similar
to Microsoft Windows. With the introduction of Mosaic, the total amount of data
transported though the Web increased by a factor of 10,000 within six months.

WEB SERVER

A web server is the computer that stores web pages or an

application that resides on the server. The computer and the server refer to the
hardware components while the application is the software component. The
server transmits graphics, audio, and video to web browsers. Web servers are
also called HTTP servers because they use the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) to serve web pages to web browsers.

A connection between the web browser and the web server is called
‘stateless’. This is because when you send a request for a web page to a web
server by using the browser, the server checks for the validity of the request for
an HTML document. Then the server sends the requested web page to your web
browser and the connection is closed. The web browser connects to the web
server only when a request for the web page to be reloaded or refreshed is
submitted. You can avail of Web servers by paying for them, known as
commercial Web servers. Alternatively, you can use the free Web servers that
are called Freeware, Microsoft Internet Information Server (IIS) ® and Netscape
web server are among the most popular commercial web servers. Apache® is a
popular Freeware.

WHAT IS HTTP?
HTTP, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, is the application-level
protocol that is used to transfer data on the Web; HTTP comprises the rules by
which Web browsers and servers exchange information over a TCP/IP
connection. An HTTP server is a program that listens on a machine’s port for
HTTP requests. An HTTP client or web client opens a TCP/IP connection to the
server via a socket, transmits a request for a document, and waits for a reply
from the server. After the request-reply sequence is completed, the socket is
closed. So the HTTP protocol is a transactional one. The lifetime of a connection
corresponds to a single request-reply sequence that is known as a transaction.

HOW DOES HTTP WORK?

HTTP Is a request-response protocol.

The request comprises

- a request line
- a set of request headers
- an entity
The server sends a response that comprises

- a status line,
- a set of response headers, and
- an entity.

The entity in the request or response can be though of simply as the

payload, which may be binary data. The other items are readable ASCII
characters. When the response has been completed, the browser or the server
may terminate the TCP/IP connection, or the browser can send another request.

WHAT IS A URL?

URL is the abbreviation of Uniform Resource Locator. AURL is

the global address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web.
The first part of the address indicates the protocol and the second part specifies
the IP address or the domain name where the resource is located. For example,
the two URL’s below point to two different files at the domain www.nyise.org.
The first specifies a file located in the subdirectory “fanny” of the NYISE web
site; the second specifies a Web page that should be fetched using the HTTP
protocol:

http://www.nyise.org/fanny/index.html
http://www.nyise.org/index.html
 This part is the name of the computer(s)
which have the pages on them, and is
known as the Domain Name.

http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/home.aspx

This part of the address is (almost) This part indicates the location of
always at the start of a web page the web page on the computer.
address, and most of the time you
don’t need to use it.

WHAT IS A SEARCH ENDINE?

A Search Engine is used to find information on the Internet when
you don’t know where to start. Search engines allow users to enter keywords to
find Internet sites. Search Engines use “robots” or “crawlers” to find and index
words that appear on web sites. The Search Engine then matches the keywords
in the search to the words in its index. The different search engines that are
available are www.google.com, www.altavista.com, www.hotbot.com,
www.yahoo.com, www.askjeeves.com etc.
METASEARCHERS OR CRAWLERS
Metasearchers or crawlers offer the possibility to do a search
without having to consult every search robot separately. They function as an
intermediary, by passing on the query to the search robots and afterwards order
the results.

THIS HAPPENS IN TWO WAYS:

The first type presents the various search robots together on one
page, each with their own text box. The user subsequently chooses a particular
search robot. The advantage of such a page is that you can immediately go the
Metasearch page and choose another search robot.

The second type offers the possibility to type in a query once and
then indicates in which database of which robot(s), the search is to be carried
out. The query is then simultaneously submitted to the chosen search robots. The
results are presented either in a long list sorted according to relevance or as a list
per search robot that is then sorted according to relevance.
SEARCHING CRITERION

Quotes

Placing words within quotation marks (“) creates a phrase. The

search engine returns a match only when the engine finds the exact word
sequence. Example: “minnesota trade office”

Asterisk

An asterisk (*) is also known as a wild card; it must be placed on

the right-hand side of a word or embedded within a word. Normally sites require
at least three characters to the left. You can use an asterisk to find various
spellings or related words. Example: export* would return matches of export,
exports, exporter, and exporting.

AND operator

Search results must contain all words joined by the AND statement.
Example: commercial AND service.

AND NOT operator

Search result cannot contain the word that follows the AND NOT
statement.

Example: software AND NOT integrator will find sites about

software itself but eliminate sites about software integrator

OR operator

Search results must contain at least one of the words joined by the
OR statement. Example: distributor OR agent lists sites that contain either word.

Plus

Adding a plus sign (+) directly in front of a word requires that the
word be included in all search results. Place the plus sign between two words in
a multiple word search.

Example: export+assistance
Minus

Adding a plus sign (+) directly in front of a word indicates that the
word should not be found in search results, Example: commerce-chamber

Parentheses

Use parentheses to build complex search queries that incorporate

other special words and characters. Example: NAFATAAND (Canada OR
Mexico) lists sites about either country pertaining to NAFTA.
 Web Browser
6
WHAT IS A WEB BROWSER?

A web browser is a program that you can use to view files on the
Internet, in including images, text, sound and video

HISTORY

The first graphical Web browser, a program that lets Internet users
page through the Web, was “Mosaic”. This program was developed in 1993 by
the National Center for Supercomputing Application at the University of Illinois.
Mac Andreessen and six fellow students developed the program while working
on a university-sponsored computer project. This program has provided much of
the forward push that has bought the World Wide Web to the forefront of
Internet tools. Mosaic turned the then text only WWW into a point-and-click
environment much like Microsoft Windows by using only a mouse. With the
introduction of Mosaic, the total amount of data transported though the Web
increased by a factor of 10,000 within six months.

WHAT ARE BOOKMARKS?

You can use bookmarks to save the locations of Web sites that you
can revisit. Bookmarks are stored as a list on your computer. The browser can
access this list when you want to revisit the Web site.

HOW DO I USE BOOKMARKS?

To view a Web site from the list of bookmarks, select the item that
represents the Web site from the list. The browser will display the page. Please
note: The bookmark feature is referred to as favorites in Internet Explorer and
bookmark in Netscape Navigator
WHAT IS BROWSER HISTORY?
A built in feature of the browser which keeps a record of the pages
visited by the user with help of the browser.

HOW DO I USE HISTORY?

To view a Web site from the list of History, select the item that
represents the Web site from the list. The browser will display the page.
PROGRESS INDICATOR
We have seen that a series of events are fired when we enter the
address of a web page or click on a link. These events are shown in the status
message field in the lower-left corner of the IE. Examples of messages are
connecting to server, web site found waiting for reply, and downloading page.
Next to the status message field is the progress bar. The progress bar shows the
amount of the web page that is downloaded. As the download moves towards
completion the progress indicator is filled with color. When the download is
completed the progress indicator is empty and a message done is displayed in the
status message field.

USING THE BORWSER TOOLBAR

The browser toolbar provides quick access to the commonly-used
functions of the browser.

The Back button and the Forward Button are quick navigation aids
you “surf” between different web pages on the internet. Web pages contain
Hyperlinks that link different pages (and different sites) to each other. As you
navigate between the different pages and web sites, your browsing history is
stored and can be accessed quickly using these buttons. The Stop Button will
stop a page from loading in the browser. Use this when you have clicked on a
link by mistake or when the page is having trouble loading. The Refresh Button
re-loads the web page in the browser. This can be used when a page is having
trouble loading. The Home Button will take you to your home page (for
information on how to set this up, see setting your home page below). The
Search Button will give you quick access to the search facility in the browser.
This is usually set to the Microsoft search site, which will appear in a pane on
the right-hand side of the screen. The Favorites Button opens your favorites in a
pane on the right-hand side of the screen

FILE MENU

Using this menu one can

New: Opens a new browser window (New>window).

Open: Open a specific Internet address or a local file.
Edit: Edit the current page.
Save: Save the current page
Print: Prints the current page (use Page Setup to change printing settings).
Send: Send the page to someone via email.
Import and Export: Allows to import and export browser settings such as
favorites.
Properties: List the properties of the current displayed page, like page size, data
created, address of the page

Close: Closes the browser window.

EDIT MENU
Using this menu one can

Cut : One can cut content of the displayed page so they can be copied to
another program.

Copy : One can copy content of the displayed page so they can be copied to
another program.

Paste : One can paste content.

Select All : One can select all content of the displayed page.

Find : Find specific words on the current web page.

VIEW MENU
Using this menu one can

Toolbar : One can view the toolbars that are available in Internet Explorer.

Status bar : One can view the status of the web page being accessed.

Explorer bar : One can change the icons on the Explorer bar.

Go To : One can access (back and forward, home page, history)

Stop : One can stop the current downloading page.

Refresh : One can reload the current displayed page.

Text Size : One can manually change the text Size.

Encoding : One can manually change the encoding of the page.

Full Screen : One can view the browser in Full Screen mode (all the browser
controls will disappear apart from a small toolbar).
FAVORITES MENU
Using this menu one can

Add : Add sites to your favorites list.

Organise : Organise your list of favorites by placing them in folders etc.

TOOLS MENU

Using this menu one can

Mail and news : Access any email or news reading programs you have on
your computer.

Synchronies : Synchronies’ the emails to outlook express if configured.

Windows Update : Downloads any updates if available for the browser.

Internet Options : One can configure proxy, clear caches, browser security
options.
HELP MENU
Using this menu one can
access the Help for the program.
access online tours of the Internet and support site for Microsoft products
get information about the browser (version etc.)

SAVING WEB PAGES

Saving files from the web Saving web pages fo they can viewed
when you are “offline” or stored on a local drive is quite simple if one is using
version 5+ of Internet Explorer. Web page are usually made up of a lot of
different elements such as text, images, sound and video. Internet Explorer 5
saves all the files needed to reproduce the web page as it appears online in a
folder so things like images will still be present in your local copy of the file.
Internet Explorer 4, on the other hand, will only save the HTML file that brings
all these elements together and formats them on the web page. This means that if
one is using version 4, one will find that any images, sound, video, and even
some of the functionality and formatting of a saved page is lost.
PRINTING WEB PAGES

To print a web page one either click on the print icon or choose the
file menu and choose print. On click this option the current page will be printed
on the default configured printer (To change print setting one needs to Page
Setup).

NETSCAPE COMMUNICATOR
 Netscape’s Communicator, often referred to simply as “Netscape”
is one the most popular Web browsers. This is graphical browsers, which means
that can display graphics as well as text, and can used to view interact with
multimedia formats, including sound, video, and other programs. The browser
part of Netscape’s Communicator is called Netscape navigator.

Netscape communicator also has a built in email client, chat,

calendar, messenger. Netscape is almost similar to Internet Explorer in most of
the features.
 Electronic Mail 7
INTERODUCTION TO E-MAIL

Electronic-mail or E-mail is the process of sending messages

anywhere electronically using the computer and a modem. Email can be sent and
received according to the convenience of the user. Any number of Emails can be
sent at a time to any number of designated locations. E-mail is delivered almost
instantaneously. E-mail is cheap and easy to use especially for international
messages. The cost of an E-mail is only the price of the telephone connection to
the Internet Service Provider.

WHY USE E-MAIL?

1. It is much cheaper to send an E-mail than a letter.

2. It is much cheaper than a long distance phone call.

3. It saves paper and raises productivity within the office

environment.

4. Replies can be formulated at leisure and are easily sent (no

searching for addresses).

WHAT IS AN EMAIL ADDRESS?

An email address is composed of two parts the user name and the
domain in the format username@domain. Each email address uniquely identifies
an Internet user.

The user name is the name you use to login to your host server.
This name is unique within the network. The domain is the unique identifier of a
server on the Internet user.

EMAIL NETWORKS:
 Email Networks are nothing but a group of users who share
common information with the help of emails. One can become a part of network
by signing on to the network. After which one will receive or post queries or
information to the user group or the email network.

WHAT IS A MAIL SERVER?

Mail server is software residing on the server that acts as a
collection point for incoming and outgoing E-mail for the users that it services.
While the mail server will route outgoing E-mail upon receiving it from the user,
it will store incoming E-mail till the user’s mail client requests it to be
downloaded and then deleted.
WHAT IS SMTP?

SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. This protocol is a

server-to-server protocol that usually operates in the background, and is the
standard way in which mail is transported over TCP on port 25. SMTP simply
routes the messages from one mail server to another.

WHAT IS POP3?

POP3 is Post Office Protocol, version 3. It is an email protocol that

all allows a user to read and delete mail from the server. It differs from IMAP in
which it does not allow email to be manipulated on the server, but requires mail
to be downloaded onto the client computer.

POP3 is better suited for the average user using a single computer.
POP3 matches the method used by most users to use email: download, read,
delete. In contrast, IMAP, reads, sorts, and makes email available for download.
IMAP allows the user to easily download messages from his account by
eliminating the need to manage the account size.

WHAT IS MIME?

MIME stands for “Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions”. It is the

standard for how to send multi-part, multimedia, and binary data using the
world-wide Internet email system. Typical uses of MIME include sending
images, audio, word processing documents, programs, or even plain text files.

WHAT IS IMAP4?

IMAP4 is a protocol for reading mail messages from a mail server

over a network.

How does it work?

IMAP4 was designed to make it easy for users to manage reading

their e-mail from more than one location or over a slow Internet connection.
Unlike POP3, which generally downloads all mail messages in a user’s mailbox
at once, IMAP4 only downloads message headers form the mail server. The
main body of the mail messages and the attachments reside on the mail server
until requested. Once requested, the entire message is copied from the mail
server and sent to the user. All mail is stored on the mail server until the user
deletes and purges it. IMAP4 provides only header information so that the user’s
computer does not download all mail at once. By giving the user the option to
request only the messages they want to read, IMAP4 helps mobile users save
time in downloading and reading mail over slow links.

Users can also create multiple mail folders on the IMAP4 mail
server and move messages between the folders. By keeping all messages on the
mail server, users can log into the IMAP4 server from different locations and
have access to both new and old messages in their mail folders.

Benefits of IMAP4:
- Mail is centrally stored and managed on the mail server and can be
backed up.

- Users can access mail from any IMAP compliant computer.

- Users can choose the messages to download.

- Users can retrieve messages form the server if they have

accidentally deleted the mails. This is possible only is the user has
not delete and purged the mails.

EMAIL HEADERS.

Emails have headers that provide information on the origin of a

message and enable you to track and stop junk e-mail. Most e-mail clients only
show the To: and From: headers, which can be easily forged. The complete
massage headers will look something like this:

Return-Path: [[email protected]]

Received: from some.host.com (hostname [xx.xx.xx.xx])

by mydomain.com (8.9.3/8.9.3) with ESMTP id NAA 123456;

Thu, 11 May 2002 10:15:30 + 0530 (EDT)

Date: 11 May 2002 10:15:30 + 0530

 From: Spammer [[email protected]]

To: [email protected]

Subject: My junk message!!

Netscape Mail (ver 4)

Click View from the pull-down menu bar. Then click Headers and
Select all.

Outlook Express

Open the message. Then click File from the pull-down menu bar
and selected Properties. Another window with two tabs is displayed. To view the
details, click the Details tab. Cut and paste the headers into the message that you
want to forward.
EMAIL STRUCTURE

To: In this field you can type an address (or several addresses
separating names with a comma or semicolon) to whom one would like to send a
email to.

CC (carbon Copy): This will send a copy of the message to the address
placed in this field and other recipients can see that the copy was sent.

BCC (Blind carbon Copy): This will send a copy of the message to the
address placed in the field but other recipients do NOT see that the copy was
sent.

SUBJECT line: The subject should be should be short but descriptive. Some
people filter their mail by subject so the subject line should be reflective of the
contents of the message or the message may not be read by the recipient
EMAIL STRUCTURE

(Body): You can type your message in the message field, copy text from
another program and paste in the message field or embed a document in the
message field. Notice that the font options (color, size, style) become active at
this point. REMEMBER the recipients of your message using a different email
program may not see text the same way you wrote it.

Attachment: This a feature allowed in a email to attach other files and

documents such as text, audio, video sound.
WHAT IS A MAIL CLIENT?
A mail client is a specialized program that is designed for checking
and composing email. There are several freely available mail clients including
the open source Netscape mail and the Microsoft Outlook Express.

Advantages of mail client.

When using a mail client, you do not have to be connected to the

Internet. You can connect, download all your email, disconnect, and read the
emails when you want. This is a very nice ability you use a modem at home and
have one phone line. Also, you can compose email anytime, save it, and send it
later when you are connected to the internet.

Mail clients provide more features than web mail; such as

integrated spell checking which identifies misspelled words, powerful address
books, and mail filters. Mail clients are faster than web mail. When you access
mail by using web mail, you have to wait for the web server to generate the next
web page and send the page over the internet every time you click a link or
button. In contrast, mail clients are applications on your computer, so the
interface responds quickly to your commands. Some mail clients allow you to
check and send email from multiple accounts from one place.

There are also some disadvantages in using the mail client:

To use a mail client, you must install software on your computer

and configure specific accounts. If you are using a computer at a public place,
you will not be able to use a mail client.

A mail client stores mail on your machine. This may be a concern if

you want to keep your communication private. Mail clients are often more
difficult to learn how to use.

OUTLOOK EXPRESS:
Using Outlook Express: Click on the Outlook Express icon on the
desktop or click on the START button at the lower left of the screen and then
select Programs/Outlook Express.

The list of folders contains folders for:

Inbox: Contains a list of incoming mails received by the user

Outbox: Contains a list of mails that was composed offline and is ready to send
and messages that you elect to send later

Sent Items: Contains a copy of messages that one has sent

Deleted Items: Deleted items are temporarily stored here. Right click on the
deleted folder and select to empty it.

Drafts: These are messages composed but which are not ready to be sent
SENDING MESSAGES:
Click on the send button to send this message.

Start a new message:

On the toolbar, click the New Mail button. Select the address of person to send
to.

Type the subject

Attachment: To attach a file click on the attach icon and them attach the file.

Type the your message.

Click on the send icon. The message will be sent.

WEB MAIL
Allows you to send and check your e-mail by logging in to a user-
friendly web-based interface, similar to that operated by Hotmail. This can be
particularly useful when away from your home or office. This feature allows you
to access your mail from anywhere you can access the web. All you need is a
computer connected to the Internet and a web browser
NETSCAPE MAIL
Netscape mail is a mail client from Netscape. It has similar
features of Internet Explorer. Like Inbox, Outbox, Draft, SentItems.
It also has features of creating mail accounts so that one can
download mails.
Almost all the features are similar to Outlook Express

EMAIL ENCRYPTION
Encryption of email messages is absolutely necessary, if you send
sensitive, personal, or business information through an open network such as the
Internet. Unless you have been a meditating hermit for the last few years, the
media has bombarded you with the woes of sending unencrypted email. Still,
99% of all email traffic travels though the Internet unsecured.

An unencrypted e-mail can go anywhere for that matter. It all

depends on the state of Internet “traffic” that day. An e-mail message can pass
through numerous different computer systems en route to its final destination.
Meanwhile, on some computers though which those e-mail is relayed, there may
be ‘sniffers’ or other malicious software tools. They are waiting to copy, alter or
tamper with that e-mail in some way. Some are looking for key words or manes.
Other sniffers are watching for credit card numbers or login passwords.

Email Encryption is the conversion of information (data) into code,

to ensure confidentiality. Email encryption, then, is encoding email messages so
that only the intended recipient(s) can read them.

DIGITAL SIGNATURES
Most e-mail encryption tools have another element. On top of
encryption algorithms, they add a digital signature. The digital signature assures
the e-mail’s reader that no one tampered with the message and that it did in fact
come from the author.

To do this, a digital signature combines two pieces of information:

a hash and the author’s private key. First, let’s talk about the ‘hash.’ The
software creates the ‘hash’ which is a sequence of numbers (ones and zeros)
unique to the author’s message. The software does this by first scrambling the
message. Think of it like making scrambled eggs and hash browns, mixed up
together in the frying pan. Then the software crunches the scrambled mess down,
digitally that is now think of crunching the scrambled eggs and hash brown
potatoes into a small egg cup. That’s the hash: the stuff that made it into the
small egg cup.

The encryption software can only create one possible hash from an
original message. However, there could be other messages that end up creating
the same hash. Still, finding those other messages are virtually impossible.
Though improbable, a person could find a different message that creates the
same hash. that other message would most likely be gibberish.

This hash cannot be reverse engineered (that is why they call it a

one-way hash). The digital hash is just like the scrunched up hash in the egg cup.
There is no way to go backwards. The hash cannot go back to the eggs in their
shells and the unpeeled potato. So no one can use the digital hash to find out
what the message is, nor can it be used to create a different message resulting in
the same hash. The common length of the hash is 128 bits.

The second step is to encrypt the hash. The author encrypts the
hash using his/her private key. Voila: a digital signature. The reader can decrypt
the encrypted hash using the author’s public key. The intended reader’s
encryption software checks to see if the author’s message creates the same hash.
That ensures that no one has altered the message.

The digital signatures work the opposite way to ordinary messages.

The author encrypts the outgoing hash with his private key. Then the author
sends out his/her public key to allow readers to verify the hash is right. The
reader would also know that only the author could have initially encrypted and
sent the e-mail. Only the author has the private key that will make that system
work. The weak link is in the complexity of the keys that a user creates. A safe
bet is to have keys with a minimum of 230 digits.
 File Transfer Protocol 8
WHAT IS FTP
File Transfer Protocol is the expanded form of FTP. It is the
simplest way to upload and download files over the network, When downloading
a file you are transferring the file to your computer from another computer over
the Internet. You can use FTP to exchange files between computer accounts, to
transfer files between an account and a desktop computer, or to access software
archives on the Internet. An FTP address is similar to an HTTP or Web site
address except that it uses the prefix ftp://instead of http://.

Usually, a computer with an FTP address is dedicated to receive an

FTP connection. A computer that is setup to host Web pages is referred to as a
Web server or Web site. A computer that is dedicated to receiving an FTP
connection is referred to as an FTP server or FTP site.

HISTORY OF FTP

1971 – First proposed file transfer mechanism,

1973, Feb – First “official” FTP document which was a protocol for
file transfer between HOSTs on the ARPANET. In this document, the primary
function of FTP is defined as transferring files efficiently and reliably among
hosts and allowing the convenient use of remote file storage capabilities.
June, 1980 – Specification of FTP
1985 – Standard FTP

WHAT IS A FTP SERVER?

A FTP server is a way off sharing files with other people on the
internet. You setup a FTP server and other people can download files you have
on your hard disk. This provides you with an easy way off sharing files. A FTP
Server allows Uploading which means a user is sending files to your FTP Server
and Downloading which means a user is transferring files from your FTP Server.

Servers offer features that are different from each other:

1) File Resume – Allows the client to start downloading a file from a

specific byte offset. This is important because it is the way that
many download acceleration engines work. Instead of relying on
one connection for a single stream of data for the file, it opens up
four connections. Each file stream downloads a specific quarter of
the file from a specific byte offset to another specific byte offset.
To another specific byte offset. Other common uses for this feature
on FTP servers are to resume a broken transfer. If for some reason a
download crashes or breads off at some point during the download,
the client software is able to make use of this feature on the server
in order to be able to resume the file download and complete the
file.

2) OS Integration – Some of the newer and more comprehensive

servers out there offer Operating System integration, that is the
ability to restrict access rights on the FTP server and its directories
based on domain or local permission. That way, an administrator
can set up an account and the FTP server will use COM+ events to
learn of the account creation and hence set up the user and its
access rights in the FTP server’s user access.

3) User Accounts – Other servers allow the administrator to set up his

or her own permissioning system with users that do not have access
to your computer or domain. The administrator then can go in the
shared directory structure and assign rights to that user within the
shared files, on what he or she can and cant see, whether or not
things can be read if seen, written to if read, and executed if read.
This feature set gives the administrator a greater degree of control
over the server that he or she administrates.

4) IP Address Control – These are two parts to this feature set and
many servers may claim this functionality that do not have both
feature sets. On the one hand, this could indicate that the server
software in question has the ability to define and enforce blocked IP
addresses. By assigning blocked IP addresses, the administrator can
restrict problematic clients or hackers from accessing the FTP site.
 IF they make a request, they will be summarily denied, often not
even getting a response. The other feature set this refers to is the
ability to set the server to only pay attention to requests coming on
a specific IP. By implementing this feature set, administrators can
set up several small FTP servers on the same computer and have
them each look at requests from a different nic card. In this way, a
single physical server is used even though it is hosting several
different FTP servers.

5) Upload/Download ratios – Much of the time, the administrator

setting up an FTP server will not want to allow too much
bandwidth for any one particular task. If the server is a full duplex
file server (that is, a server which people both upload and download
to), then the strain on bandwidth and be considerable if too many
people are trying to do too much of one thing. For that reason,
administrators can set up a bandwidth ratio to specify a specific
amount of bandwidth that each direction is allowed to use. They
could separate a 1.5MBps connection so that no more than. 5MBps
is used to upload which leaves 1 full MBps to be used for
downloading files from the server.

6) Real-time User monitor – Most FTP servers use a logging system

that logs the commands that a user executed but does not actually
display the commands and actions that are being executed in real
time. With some more advanced servers, the administrator has the
ability to call up a display that shows the current downloads and
uploads that are going on NOW. This allows an extra step of
accessibility and control to ensure that the FTP server that the
administrator is running has been properly controlled and is not
running of its own accord outside specified boundaries.

7) Disk Quota Limitations – Many servers that have user support also
support the ability to set exactly how much space a user can upload
data to or download form. In this way you can restrict users form
using up too much of the available resource pool so that no specific
user has too much in the way of resources over any other.

All in all there are a wide range of FTP server applications out there
from a variety of manufacturers. Whether you are using Serv-U, Coffeecup FTP,
or any one of a host of other servers, the administrator needs to make sure that it
offers the features an ability that are right for you. Once you transition to an FTP
server, it is rather difficult to move to a new one so be careful in which server
you select for your needs.

DOS FTP

Create a dos-prompt Window (Stat button/ programs/ select Dos

Prompt).
Change your PC’s directory to the directory that contains the file you wish to
upload (ie”cd c :\”)
Type “ftp” at the dos prompt and press enter
Type “open yourdomain.com” or the ip address of the server and press enter
Type in your username (do not include the “@dot-com” extension) and press
enter
Enter your password and press enter

DOS FTP COMMANDS

COMMAND FUNCTION

help Displays DOS FTP help.

ascii Sets transfer mode to ASCII (for text files and HTML pages).
binary Sets transfer mode to BINARY (for graphics and sound files).

cd Changes working directory on the remote computer.

delete Deletes files on the remote computer.

disconnect Breaks the ftp connection but keeps FTP client open.

get Copies a remote file to the local computer using the current file
transfer type (the local dir is the one your launched FTP in or
changed to with the ics command).

icd Changes the working directory on the local computer.

is Displays list of remote directory’s files and sub-directories.

mdelete Multiple delete of files.

mget Copies a remote directory.

mkdir Creates a remote directory.

mput Copies multiple remote files to local computer.

put Copies a local file to the remote computer.

rename Renames remote files

CUTE FTP

Choose Site Manager from the File menu. Choose which folder you
would like the Site Profile to be in (possibly in the General FTP Sites folder) and
click on the Next fill in the following fields:

Label: Whatever you want to name the site profile

FTP Host Address: yourdomainname.com

FTP site User Name: Your username

FTP site Password: Your password

FTP site Port Connection: 21

Set the Login Type to Normal

Then click on Connect

CUTE FTP
Once you are logged in, the left window is the Local Window and
the right window is the Remote Window. In the Remote Window, you will be
logged into the Home Directory; open up the Domain Directory to which you
want to upload your site. Then, choose the files in the Local Window you want
to upload and click and drag them to the Remote Window. The next time you
need to upload to the site, simply choose Site Manager from the File menu and
click on the Site Profile and click Connect.
BROWSER BASED FTP
Using Internet Explorer to upload is easy. In the address bar type
ftp:/ username: [email protected] This will log you into the
Home Directory. From here open the folder for the Domain Directory to which
you want to upload. Once in the Domain Directory, simply click and drag the
files from your computer into the Domain Directory.
 Telnet 9
WHAT IS TELNET?

Telnet, which stands for Telecommunications Network, is a

protocol that provides a way for clients to connect to servers on the Internet.
Users can use Telnet to communicate with a remote login service.

THE TELNET PROTOCOL

The Telnet protocol provides a facility for remote logins to a

computer via the Internet. The telnet server can pass on the data it has received
from the client to many other types of process including a remote login server. A
user with a simple terminal that uses the telnet program which is the client
program, runs a login session on a remote computer. The remote computer
handles the communications needs of the telnet server program.

HOW DO I START A TELNET SESSION AND LOG IN TO

MY ACCOUNT?
1. First, make sure you’re connected to the internet. If you are on
campus at a computer with a direct internet connection, this
shouldn’t be a problem. If you are at home then establish an
internet connection before continuing.

2. Press the Start Button in the lower left corner of the screen and
choose Run.

3. In the Run dialog box, type these words, all lower-case:

telnet IP number of the server Press Enter. You will see a login
screen login:
4. Type your login ID.

5. Press Enter. It will ask you for your password; type your password
and press Enter. NOTE: you will NOT see the text appear, or your
cursor move, when typing your password. This is normal and helps
make your account more secure.

HOW DO I START A TELNET SESSION WITH NETSCAPE

1. First, make sure you’re connected to the internet. If you are on

campus at a computer with a direct internet connection, this
shouldn’t be a problem. If you are at home then establish an
internet connection before continuing.

2. In the Go to: type telnet IP number of the server

Press Enter. You will see a login screen

login:

3. Type your login ID.

4. Press Enter. It will ask you for your password; type password and
press Enter. NOTE: you will not see the text appear, or your cursor
move, when typing your password. This is normal and helps make
your account more secure
WHAT IS TERMINAL EMULATION?

Terminal emulation is the ability to make one computer terminal,

typically a PC, appear to look like another system. The other system is usually
an older system. Terminal emulation is useful when a user wants to access
programs that were originally written to communicate with the older system.
Terminal emulation is also used to give PC users the ability to log on and get
direct access to legacy programs in a mainframe operating system. Terminal
emulation requires installing a special program in the PC or on a local area
network (LAN) server to which it is connected. Typically, an enterprise with
mainframe computers installs a terminal emulation program in all its
workstations or LAN servers. Workers can work locally with Windows, other
PC or workstation applications and simultaneously open a window and work
directly with mainframe applications. The terminal emulation program runs like
any other workstation application as a separate program task providing its own
window to the user. Unlike the graphical user interface (GUI) of other
applications the terminal emulation window presents a text-only interface to
some particular mainframe operating system or application. Different terminal
emulation is required for specific types of terminals – for example, the IBM
3270 display terminal, the AS/400 5250 display terminal, or DEC’s VT100
terminal.

WHAT IS USER AUTHENTICATION?

User verification in any system for determining, and verifying, the

identity of a remote user is called authentication. User name and password is a
simple form of user authentication. On successful verification of the same the
user will be able to access whatever he is authorizes to do so.
 User and Internet Relay Chat 10

WHAT IS USENET?

A Usenet is an enormous bulletin board type of messaging system.

People can exchange messages that are available to anyone who wants to read
them on the Usenet. The messages are divided into groups according to subject.
The groups are most often called newsgroups, discussion groups, or forums. The
messages on the Usenet may be about any subject. The message may ask a
question, open a discussion, or it may be a reply to another message. There may
be a group of messages that started with one question. The group referred to as a
thread, consists of re[lies to the question, then replies to the replies, and so on.
The Usenet is organized into sections and subsections that help in keeping
related messages together.

ORGANIZATION OF NEWSGROUPS

Newsgroups are arranged into hierarchies and a naming convention

is used for the hierarchies. In this method of organization; each newsgroup has a
two-or-more-part name. The first part of the name, often called the top-level,
gives the main area of interest and each subsequent part of the name narrows the
focus of the subject. For example a newsgroup with the name rec.music.reggae
would tell you that that the group has to do with recreation. The second part
would tell you that it has to do with music, and the third part would narrow the
focus to reggae. There are “main” hierarchies, called mainstream hierarchies and
“non-mainstream” newsgroups.

Top-level names of the mainstream newsgroups:

comp – computers (hardware, software, networks, databases,

languages, etc.)
humanities – literature, fine arts, etc.
misc – those groups that don’t fit anywhere else, but
still belong in the mainstream groups
news – having to do with Usenet news itself
 (administrative issues, FAQs, announcements, general information,
questions and answers)
rec – recreation (sports, hobbies, arts, entertainment, etc.)
sci – science (science, research, engineering, medicine etc.)
soc – social (issues, politics, culture, culture, socializing – but not
chit-chat!)
talk – debates and discussions (politics, religion, environment, etc.)

ORGANIZATION OF NEWSGROUPS

Top – level names of non-mainstream newsgroups.

alt – those that clearly don’t belong in the main groups;
no restrictions on what these can be
bionet – biology
biz – business product information
be – German language and culture
va – Virginia
umich – University of Michigan

In addition there are some fee-based newsgroups. The fee is paid by

your ISP to maintain the groups at its site. Your provider may or may not pass a
fee along to you for accessing the groups.

Two such top-level hierarchies are:

clari – Clarinet subscription service; UPI feeds, columnists, stock

reports scores
msen – subscription service; Reuters articles

NEWS SERVER

A news server is a computer with software which receives news

articles of Usenet’s newsgroups from other news servers, propagates them to yet
other news servers, stores them locally for a certain period of time, and provides
them to news readers that connect to it. It also allows news readers to post new
articles which it stores and propagates as well.

The propagation of news articles is configured at the feeding or

sending news server. This means that each news server has a list of other news
servers to which it propagates news articles. The propagation is not done to those
news servers that already have the name of the feeding news server in their Path:
header. This in turn means that to operate a news server you’ll need to find an
operator of an already working news server who is willing to feed you or include
your news servers is feeding.

The news server software that is installed on the news server must
provide an effective means to store and deal with articles. It also has to take care
that old articles are deleted regularly or expired so that there is enough space on
the hard disks to store new ones.

WHAT IS ONLINE CHAT?

Online chat is a method by which two or more computer users
connected to the internet communicate with each other in real time. When you
chat on the Internet, you “talk” to others using your keyboard to type text
messages. Although there are different types of Internet chat, they all follow the
same basic principles, Typically the users will connect to a chat server using a
chat client and meet in a chat room. A “chat room” is a virtual environment
where chatters gather. Once the users are in the same chat room, they can
converse with one another by typing messages into a window where all of the
other users in the chat room can see the message. Conversations are then carried
on by reading the messages entered by the other users in the chat room and
responding to them.

WHAT IS A CHAT SERVER?

A chat server is a specially equipped computer connected to the
internet that allows users with chat clients to converse with one another through
typed messages in real time. There are a great number of chat servers which let
users connect for free. Some of the more popular chat servers are dal.net,
under.net, etc.

INTERNET RELAY CHAT SOME BACKGROUND ON IRC

In 1988, Jarkko Oikarinen of Finland developed the multi-user text
chat program known as IRC. IRC was not the beginning of text chat but it was
the beginning of a global network, known as EFNet. EFNET allowed physically
dissimilar computers to link together for the purpose of text chat. Today, there
are more than 50 known ERC networks. That number has matured as IRC’s
popularity soars and new, user-friendly software brings the creativity of sound,
video, animation, and real-time file transfers to us.

IRC CLIENTS AND SERVERS

Accessing IRC is an example of using specialized software, called
a client that allows your computer to access another computer, called a server.
The server is a program that processes your IRC client’s requests for information
and allows you to utilize the server’s resources. You can chat with other IRC
users, as well as exchange files with them.

There are numerous IRC clients available, in versions for Windows

and Macs. These software packages are freely distributed at many sites on the
Internet that offer shareware and freeware programs, Modern chat clients take
the work out of IRC, which used to require the knowledge of basic and advanced
commands to access resources on remote computers. Windows and Mac IRC
client commands have been transformed into menu selections, mouse clicks, and
information windows. To use IRC you need to know only the name and port of
the server that you want to connect to. Your IRC client will use this information
to access the resources of the specified remote server. This connection will bring
you together with other computer users who have contacted the same server and
port. Ports are access points to a server. You can use a port to talk to anyone on
the same server. Some ports carry heavy traffic and not all servers have multiple
ports.

IRC NETWORKS
EFNet the largest IRC network, accommodates upto 22,000 clients
at a time. EFNet has approximately 84 servers linked together. The second and
third largest existing networks are the UnderNet and DalNet. The EFNet located
in New York, UnderNet in Los Angeles, and DalNet in Dallas comprise the ‘Big
3’ in the IRC world. If something smaller appeals to you, then most IRC
networks will suit you better than the Big 3. The number of people who can
access small IRC networks ranges from 2 to a few hundred people. You can
even find networks that suited to your interests, for example, family-oriented,
technical, hobbies, adventure, and role-playing games

USING IRC
To use IRC, you need to install client software on your computer.
Next you need to use your Internet connection to connect to an IRC network.
After you are connected to an IRC network, you can select a channels to join. A
channel is like a room, where you can talk in groups or in private conversations
to any number of people. You can also leave at any time and join another
channel. While IRC is anonymous, it is not designed to hide you form other
people. Also, when you are talking to people you do not know and you have no
way of knowing if what they are saying is true or not. So use some caution when
using IRC. Remember that IRC as a whole is un moderated, although each
channel is controlled by a channel operator, who can force people off the
channel. People can and will say things that will shock and offend you. Some
channels will be calm and others will be chaotic. If you don’t like what’s being
said in one place, you can move on to another. You are bound to find people
with whom you can enjoy pleasant conversation. As soon as the last person
leaves a channel, it no longer exists. So a channel can be uninteresting to you on
one visit and just the place you want to be on another visit, because it’s an
entirely new channel.
IRC commands start with a slash. Here are a few examples:

/nick – sets your nickname

/list – gives you a list of channels on the server

/names – gives you a list of nicknames being used

/help – gives you help information

/join – joins a channel

/part – leaves a channel

/whois – gibes you user information All channel names begin with
a pound sign (#) or an ampersand (&), for example, #hottub.

SMILIE

Smilie Description Smilie Description Smilie Description

:-) smile :-> sarcastic :-II angry
;-) wink :-))) laughing or :,-( weeping
 double
chin
:.-) laughing tears ;-)=) grin }-) evil
:-D laughing :-} wry smile :-@ angry
:-P tongue :-( sad, angry :-() talking
:-< Sad :-I indifferent/sad :-X mute
:-O surprised/shocked =:-) shocked O:-) halo
:-3 has eaten a lemon :-/ sceptical :-Z sleeping
?-( sorry, I don’t :-x kissing :-* sorry, I didn’t
know what went want to say
wrong that
:*) drunk (red nose) %-) stared too long #-) monitor dead
at
.-) one-eyed X-) unconscious :-Q smoking
(:-) bald -:-) punk <:-) stupid question
(donkey’s hat)
:-)-8 big girl <\-) chinese @:-) arab
8:-) little girl ::-) wearing glasses [:-] robot
.^) side view 8-) wearing glasses B-) horn-rimmed
/ glasses
wide-eyed grin
B:-) sunglasses on _O-) aquanaut :<) moustache
head
(-: left-handed {:-) wig :-E vampire
:-[ vampire :) happy :O) boxer’s nose
:} (what should we [:] robot :] gleep, friendly
call these?)
=) variations on a :> (what?) :@ (what?)
theme
:D laughter :I hmmm... :( sad.
 Web Publishing 11
WHAT IS WEB PUBLISHING?
At its most basic level, web publishing consists of making various
computer files available to Internet users through the World Wide Web. These
files may be of several types:
Plain text (.txt)
Hypertext (.html)
Multimedia
Graphics (.gif or .jpg)
Audio (.wav .au .mid)
Video (.mpg or .mov)
Scripts, Java applets of other Web program files (.cgi .class .js .asp)
Files in proprietary formats (.pdf .doc)
Downloadable files (.exe .zip)

WHY PUBLISH ON THE WEB?

In recent years, the World Wide Web has become the primary
system for distributing information on the Internet. Its growth in popularity has
been the result of its ability to incorporate graphics and other multimedia effects,
the development of robust software tools such as Netscape Navigator and
Microsoft Internet Explorer to access a variety of file formats, and its flexibility
in incorporating new technologies. Publishing on the web can be an effective
way to disseminate almost any kind of information.

WHAT IS WEB SITE HOSTING?

Web site hosting is an Internet-computer that holds your Web site,
and sends copies of it to whomever makes a request to see it. Your Web site is
an interconnected group of computer files that contain text or images. In many
ways, the files composing a web site are similar to your word-processing
documents, and exist on the designer’s hard disk. For the world to view these
web pages, copies of these files are placed on the hard disk of a server that is
operated by a Web hosting company or service. This server is a computer that is
connected to the Internet 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The connection is of
very high-speeds. This high speed is required to allow hundreds of people to
simultaneously view web pages on that computer. In addition, the web host
computer must run special software. This software connects a specific domain
name such as www.myinn.com to the appropriate group of web pages.

COMPONENTS OF WEB PUBLISHING

1. Web server. It is compulsory that at an individual or enterprise
subscribes to an information system service providing access to the
internet. Organization which have substantial computing resources
can set up their own HTTP server and connect to the internet.

2. HTML authoring tool. To compose the Web pages an authoring

tool is needed. Web pages are made of HTML which is an ASCII
text file consisting of HTML tags. Common text editors can be
used for this task. To create commercial or more complicated
HTML, such as multimedia Web pages, a higher functionality tool
such as Perl.

3. Web browser. Web browsers are client software which can be used
to navigate and access the large volume of Web pages stored in
different Web servers on the internet. The browsers are text and
graphics-based, however the later is more preferred because they
can display graphics and icons which are more users friendly. The
most commonly used Web browsers are Netscape Communicator
(Netscape Communications 1998) and Microsoft Internet Explorer
(Microsoft Corporation 1998).

DESIGNING WWW DOCUMENTS

The World Wide Web provides a easy way to make information

available to a wide audience. When you decide to be an ‘information provider’
using the Web, there are many design issues to consider before you actually start
entering the information into a document and adding the codes to make the
information readable by a Web browser.

Some of these issues are:

Structure
 Typically, your information will be presented in segments, called
pages. The structure of your information system is the way these pages are
connected. Some common structures are a sequence where the information is
meant to be read form the beginning to the end, a grid where connections
between pages does not make a regular pattern, and a hierarchy where a parent
page provides access to a number of different sequences. Each of these
structures has advantages, and will be appropriate for different projects.

Audience

You can provide information that caters to specific needs of the

audience, such as a novice level and an expert level. The information can be
structured to provide alternate views of the information.

Ergonomics

This means making your information easy and pleasant to read

from a computer monitor. Studies have shown that people do not like to do
sustained reading from a screen. It is usually true that people will be happier to
see the information they want immediately rather than having to hunt for it.
Therefore, you will want to structure your information so that the person
retrieving it will see the pertinent information on the screen, without scrolling
for it. Information designed for paper publishing may have to be rewritten so that
it is suitable for on-screen presentation. The World Wide Web provides an easy
way to make information available to a wide audience. When you decide to be
an ‘information provider’ using the Web, there are many design issues to
consider before you actually start entering the information into a document and
adding the codes to make the information readable by a Web browser.

Long Term Considerations

Besides the initial effort of preparing the documents to be

published, a Web site requires a long term commitment for maintaining the
documents. This maintenance is required because of information changes,
structure changes, revisits by users.

Information Changes

Information is useful only when it is current. Outdated information

leaves a very poor impression on those who visit your site. So, keeping a web
site current will require constant attention to making sure the information
contained in it is correct and up-to-data.

Structural Changes

Once you have set up many files, linked to each other, it becomes
more difficult to make changes without leaving parts of your site “stranded”.
This can be particularly problematic when the original designer of a site leaves
the organization and someone new must take over. Planning for this eventuality
may save considerable effort later.

Revisits by Users

Users who have visited your site may have book marked it for
future reference. If you remove your web site then the next time that the
bookmarks are referenced the user will be met with the response that your site
does not exist. This is not good advertising. So, make sure that you are fully
committed to ongoing maintenance of a web page before hosting your Web site.

HOW TO SUBMIT A SITE TO A SEARCH ENGINE?

Everyone with a site should at least start by individually submitting
their home page and/or other main pages to a dozen or so of the main Search
Engines.

The technique one would use is.

1. Go to the home page of the Search Engine and look for a link called
“Add URL” or “Submit a Site.”

2. Click on this link then look for a link to a Help page. The difficulty
here is that each Search Engine seems to have it’s own rules. They
might be confusing but not unfathomable.

Here are some basic questions to find answers to before submitting to

a search Engine:

1. Does it require just one submission of the home page or will it

allow submission of other main pages or even all the pages in the
site?
2. Does it index content or meta tags? Before submitting to any
Search Engine that uses Meta Tags, spend some time developing
good ones for your pages.

3. Do you have frames in your site and does the Search Engine index
sites with frames? (A few do, most don’t)

4. Is it directory-type Search Engine (like Yahoo) that requires the

person doing the listing to find the correct categories

WEB PUBLISHING TOOLS

Macromedia Dreamweaver

http://www.macromedia.com/software/dreamweaver/

Macromedia Dream weaver is both a “visual HTML”

(WYSIWYG) and HTML source code editor. Dreamweaver supports table and
frame creation though a drag-and-drop environment, Cascading style sheet
(CSS) standards, CSS-P (CSS positioning), Netscape Layers, and Java Script
including image rollover effects, and animations. Dynamic HTML can be saved
for 3.0 and 4.0 browsers. Dreamweaver also includes some site management
capabilities. Two of the most noteworthy features are link checking or editing
and a library for commonly used content. Dreamweaver is provided by
Macromedia Inc. and is available for Macintosh and Windows 95/NT.

Net Objects Fusion

http://www.netobjects.com/

Net Object Fusion is unique in that it offers a “site-oriented

approach” rather than a simple WYSIWYG page editor. In other words, it allows
users to visually map out the site structure, make global changes, automatically
update links, and construct and organize individual pages without using HTML
or Dynamic HTML coking. Database publishing is also supported, although
support varies according to platform. Once the site is designed, the entire site
structure, including the HTML pages, is generated form a Net Objects database.
Net Objects Fusion is provided by Net Objects, Inc. and is available for both
Macintosh and Windows 95/NT.

DOCUMENT MANAGEMENT
 Every firm must have and manage evidence – the proof of their
actions, such as dealing with clients, customers, other firms, other firms, etc., as
well as the other way around. In short, every firm should be able to prove all
their actions were done efficiently and effectively, That’s why in many
companies, thousands and even millions of documents have been accumulated
and more documents are added daily.

As the time is passing, more and more the proof is moving from
traditional paper documents to electronic media, so electronic documents
management is a significant part of any agency’s business operations. But, it also
means that no single medium now holds all the documents relating to an
agency’s business activities. If electronic document management is not done to
the full extent and/or not all traditional records management disciplines for paper
documents are applied to electronic documents, it can result in:

1. confusion between different versions of a document

2. loss or destruction of documents that should be kept

3. questionable authenticity, because of possible manipulation of text

in electronic documents

4. loss of context of documents due to lack of linking of related

documents

5. document inaccessibility because of technological change in record

management software or records storage media

Which is naturally a consequence of inadequate document

management model an business record retention policy, and not due to creating
and keeping documents in electronic form

DOCUMENT MANAGEMENT
Modern digital technology has created a situation where documents
are easily copied and transferred from one medium to another. Electronic
document imaging is the conversion of paper documents into electronic images
on a computer. Electronic document archival and retrieval provide conditions
for:
1. Improved, instantaneous and more efficient, access to
documents, records and evidence than ever before

2. Preventing misfiling and loss of documents

3. Reducing indexing time

4. Conserving storage space.

5. In addition to the above, electronic document imaging systems

keep an exact scan of every original document, protecting them
from wear and tear as well as preserving the fragile ones.
Electronic document management saves valuable time,
increases work productivity, reduces distribution costs,
enhances security and improves public service.
 HTML 12
The Web depends on Web page authors and vendors sharing the
same conventions for HTML. This has motivated joint work on specifications
for HTML. HTML was originally developed by Tim Berners-Lee while at
CERN, and popularized by the Mosaic browser developed at NCSA. HTML 2.0
was developed under the aegis of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to
codify common practice in late 1994. HTML+ (1993) and HTML 3.0 (1995)
proposed much richer versions of HTML. Despite never having received
consensus in standards discussions, these drafts led to the adoption of a range of
new features. The efforts of the World Wide Web Consortium’s HTML Working
Group to codify common practice in 1996 resulted in HTML 3.2 (January 1997).
Most people agree that HTML documents should work well across different
browsers and platforms. Achieving interoperability lowers costs to content
providers since they must develop only one version of a document. If the effort
to standardize is not made, there is much greater risk that the Web will devolve
into a proprietary world of incompatible formats, ultimately reducing the Web’s
commercial potential for all participants.

Each version of HTML has attempted to reflect greater consensus

among industry players. This attempt ensures that the investment made by
content providers will not be wasted and that their documents will not become
unreadable in a short period of time. HTML has been developed with the vision
that all types of devices should be able to use information on the Web: PCs with
graphic displays of varying resolution and color depths, cellular telephones, hand
held devices, devices for speech for output and input, computers with high or
low bandwidth, and so on.

ACCESSIVILITY

As the Web community grows and its members diversify in their

abilities and skills, it is crucial that the underlying technologies be appropriate to
their specific needs. HTML has been designed to make Web pages more
accessible to those with physical limitations. HTML 4 developments inspired by
concerns for accessibility include:

Better distinction between document structure and presentation,

thus encouraging the use of style sheets instead of HTML presentation elements
and attributes. Better forms, including the addition of access keys, the ability to
group form controls semantically, the ability to group SELECT options
semantically, and active labels. The ability to markup a text description of an
included project. Anew client-side image map mechanism that allows authors to
integrate image and text links.
The requirement that alternate text accompany images and image
maps. Support for the title and language attributes on all elements. Support for
the abbreviations and acronyms. A wider range of target media, such as True
type Font, Braille, for use with style sheets. Better tables, including captions,
column groups, and mechanisms to facilitate non-visual rendering. Long
descriptions of tables, images, frames, etc. Authors who design pages with
accessible issues in mind will enable the accessibility community to use the
pages. In addition, the accessible pages will benefit from well-designed HTML
documents that distinguish structure and the presentation of information will
adapt more easily to new technologies.

HTML is a very simple SGML-based markup language that is

complex enough to support basic online formatting and presentation of
hypermedia documents. HTML documents use tags to indicate formatting or
structural information. A tag is a left angle bracket (<) followed by a directive
and zero or more parameters followed by a right angle bracket (>).

DOCUMENT LAYOUT

An HTML 4 document is composed of three parts:

1. A line containing HTML version information

2. A declarative header section that is delimited by the HEAD element

3. A body section which contains the document’s actual content. The

body may be implemented by the BODY element or the
FRAMESET element.

White space that includes spaces, new lines, tabs, and comments
may appear before or after each section. The head and body sections should be
delimited by the HTML element.

Here’s an example of a simple HTML document:

 <HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>MY FIRST HTML DOCUMENT </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<P>HELLO WORLD! </P>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Output : on screen
Hello world

TITLE
Every HTML document should have a title that preferably consists
of about half a dozen words that declare the document’s purpose. Titles are not
displayed as part of the document text, but are rather displayed separately from
the document by most browsers at the top of the window. The title of the HTML
document is also used for identification in certain other contexts. The title
generally goes on the first line of the document.

For example:

<title>This is my document. </TITLE>

The directive for the title tag is title which is self explanatory.
There are both starting and ending title tags. The ending tag is similar to the
starting tag except for a slash (/) that precedes the directive, for
example:</TITLE>. HTML is not case sensitive. This means that both <title>
and <TITLE> are the same.

HEADER
A heading element briefly describes the section that it introduces.
Heading information may be user agents, for example, to construct a table of
contents for a document automatically. There are six levels of headings in
HTML with H 1 to indicate the most important and H6 as the least. Visual
browsers usually render more important headings in larger fonts than less
important ones. Authors should not choose a heading level based on the font size
commonly used by visual browsers. The heading level should be chosen based
on the importance of the heading and the placement in the document.

Headers are displayed within the document, generally using larger

or bolder fonts than normal document text. H1 through H3 are the commonly
used headers.

Here is an example level 1 header:

Here is and example level 1 header:

<H1>This is a level 1 header. </H1>
Here is an example level 2 header:
<h2>This is a level 2 header. </h2>

Output : on the screen

This is a level 1 header.

This is a level 2 header.
BLOCK ORIENTED AND INLINE ELEMENTS
HTML elements that appear within the BODY section are of two
types: “block-level” and “inline.” Inline elements are also known as “text level”
elements. Block-level elements typically contain inline elements and other
block-level elements. Inline elements may contain only data and other inline
elements. Compared to inline elements, block-level elements, create “larger”
structures and are formatted differently than inline elements. When displayed in
a HTML page, the block-level elements begin on new lines.

LISTS
Formatted lists can also be created using HTML tags. The three
main types of list that can be used are ordered lists and unordered lists and
definition list. An ordered is numbered list, whereas an unordered list is bulleted:

(a) OL –Ordered list

(b) UL – Unordered list

(c) DL – Definition List

output : on the screen

Example for Ordered list:

1. Ordered list

Example for Unordered list:

• Unordered list

Example for Definition list:

• Definition List

ORDERED LISTS
<OL> - Designates the start of an ordered list

<LI> - Designates and item in the list.

</OL> - Designates the end of an ordered list.

The ordered list starts with a value 1 if not specified.

Example

<ol>

<li>This is how it looks

<li>This is how it works

<li>This is how we all learn

</ol>

Output : on the screen

1. This is how it looks

2. This is how it works

3. This is how we all learn

UNORDERED LISTS
<UL> - Designates the start of an unordered list

<LI> - Designates an item in the list.

</UL> - Designates the end of an ordered list.

Unordered lists provide bullets for each of the items by default.

Example

<ul>

<li>First Item

<li>Second Item

<li>Third Item

</ul>

Output : on the screen

• First Item
• Second Item

• Third Item

DEFINITION LISTS

<DL> - Designates the start of a definition list.

<DT> - Designates a definition term.

<DD> - Designates a definition to go with the definition term.

</DL>- Designates the end of a definition list.

This works only on some browsers

Example

<dl><lh>Team

<dt><b>Project Manager</b>

<dd>Rahul Kumar

<dt><B>Team Leader</b>

<dd>Shashank Gupta

<dt><B>Programmer</b>

<dd>Anil Sharma

<dt><B>Programmer</b>

<dd>Anil Kumar

</dl>

Output : on the screen

Team

Project Manager

Rahul Kumar
Team Leader

Shashank Gupta

Programmer

Anil Sharma

Programmer
 Anil Kumar

BLOCK-LEVEL ELEMENTS

ADDRESS

The ADDRESS element provides contact information for a

document or part to a document. The information provided by the ADDRESS
element may include the names of the document’s maintainers, links to the
maintainers’ Web pages, e-mail addresses for feedback, postal addresses, phone
numbers, and so on.

Example:

<ADDRESS>Maintained by Vijay

<A HREF=”mailto:[email protected]”>

[email protected] </A></ADDRESS>

Output : on the screen

Maintained by Vijay

BLOCKQUOTE
The BLOCKQUOTE element defines a block quotation. Unlike
inline quotations, block quotations may contain block-level elements such as P
and TABLE.

Example:

<p>This is a test document for the HTML page you can key in the
same content and check the page in the
browser</P><BLOCKQUOTE>and </BLOCKQUOTE>

<P>You can continue to work with HTML because it is

interesting.</P>
Output : on the screen
 This is a test document for the HTML page you can key in the same
content and check the page in the browser

and

You can continue to work with HTML because it is interesting.

DIV – DIVISION
The DIV element defines a generic block-level container, allowing
authors to provide style or language information to blocks of content.

Example:

<DIV ALIGN=center>Hello! This has to center the text in the

table</DIV>

SPAN

The SPAN element is a generic inline container. SPAN carries no

structural meaning itself, but it can be used to provide extra structure through its
LANG, DIR, CLASS, and ID attributes.

SPAN should only be used where no other HTML inline element

provides a suitable meaning. If a presentation such as bold or italic text would be
suitable on browsers, programmers may prefer to use an appropriate font style
element.

Example:

<P><SPAN>India’s Independence</SPAN> In the year 1947</P>

Output : on the screen

Example for DIV – Division:

Hello! This has to center the text in the table

 Example for DIV – Division:

India’s Independence In the year 1947

CENTER

The CENTER element defines a block whose contents are centered

horizontally on visual browsers. <CENTER>is a shorter version for <DIV
ALIGN=center>, although CENTER is slightly better supported among
browsers. The CENTER element is useful for centering tables.

Example:

<CENTER>

<TABLE>

<TR ALIGN=center>

<TD>Name</TD>

<TD>Office</TD>

<TD>City</TD>

</TR>

<TR ALIGN=center>

<TD>Vijay</TD>

<TD>PS</TD>

<TD>Bangalore</TD>

</TR>

</TABLE>

</CENTER>
Output on the screen

Name Office City

Vijay PS Bangalore

INLINE ELEMENTS

H1
The H1 element defines a level-one heading. A document generally
should have exactly one H1 element to mark the most important heading. Visual
browsers typically render H1 in a large, bold font.

Example:

<H1>This Is The Title Of The Document</H1>

HR – Horizontal Rule

The HR element defines a horizontal rule for visual browsers.

While this element is inherently presentational, it can be used structurally as a
section divider.

Example:

<HR>

<P> Hi this is a test document to test the use of the Horizontal

Rule</P>

</HR>

Output on the screen

This is a level 1 header.

Hi this is a test document to test the use of the Horizontal Rule

P – PARAGRAPH

This P element defines a paragraph. The closing tag for P is

optional, but its use prevents common browser bugs. HTML does not specify a
presentation for the P element. Browsers commonly use block paragraphs with
no first-line indent and separated by a blank line, but some browsers allow the
user to specify a different presentation.

Example:

<P> Hi this is a test document to test the use of the Paragraph tag
</P>

Output on the screen

Hi this is a test document to test the use of the Paragraph tag

TABLE

The TABLE element defines a table for data that can be arranged in
rows and columns. TABLE is commonly used as a layout device, but
programmers should avoid this practices as much as possible. Tables can cause
problems are often accentuated when tables are used solely for layout purposes.
Browsers will not display anything until the complete table has been
downloaded, which can have very noticeable effects when an entire document is
laid out within a TABLE.

Example:

<TABLE>

<TR>

<TH>First Name:</TH>

<TH>Vijay</TH>

</TR>
 <TR>

<TD>Last Name</TD>

<TD>R</TD>

</TR>

</TABLE>

The TABLE element also takes a number of optional attributes to

provide presentational hints in browsers.

Output on the screen

First Name : Vijay

Last Name R

The BORDER attribute specifies the width of the border in pixels

around a table. The FRAME attribute, specifies which sides of the table’s outer
border are visible. This attribute is poorly supported by browsers. The RULES
attribute, also poorly supported by browsers, specifies the borders between table
cells. Possible values are:

NONE for no inner borders

GROUPS for borders between row groups and column groups only

ROWS for borders between columns only

COLS for borders between columns only

ALL for borders between all cells.

NONE is the default value if BORDER = 0 is used or if no

BORDER attribute is given. ALL is the default value for any other use of
BORDER.
 The CELLSPACING attribute defines the amount of space between
table cells, and the CELLPADDING attribute defines the amount of space within
table cells. CELLPADDING refers to the space between the border and the cell
contents. The value for these attributes may bee given as a number of pixels or
as a percentage. However, most browsers do not support percentages and treat
CELLPADDING = “20%” as CELLPADDING = “20.” A percentage value is
relative to the vertical space available for vertical padding or spacing, and the
amount is split evenly between the top and bottom. Horizontal padding and
spacing behave similarly. The padding or spacing is always applied to all four
sides.

Note: The WIDTH attribute specifies the width of the table as a

number of pixels or as a percentage of the available horizontal space. Widths in
pixels should be avoided, especially width above 500 pixels, since this causes
unnecessary horizontal scrolling for some users.

A – ANCHOR
The A element denotes an anchor which is a hypertext link or the
destination of a link, The HREF attribute specifies a hypertext link to another
resource, such as an HTML document or a JPEG image.

Example:

<AHREF=”first.html”>My first page</A>

The value of the HREF attribute is the URL of the link. The TYPE
attribute can be used to specify the Internet media type of the link, allowing
browsers to avoid fetching a resource that they cannot handle.

ABBR = ABBREVIATION

The ABBR element is used to markup abbreviations. The TITLE

attribute in conjunction with ABBR gives the expanded form of the abbreviation,
allowing visual browsers to provide the expanded form as a “tool tip”. If the
short form is a pronounceable word, the ACRONYM element should be used
instead of ABBR

Example:

<ABBR TITLE=”Los Angeles”>L.A.</ABBR>

Example for A – Anchor:

My first page

Example for ABBR – Abbreviation:

L.A.

ACRONYM

The ACRONYM element is used to markup acronyms. The TITLE

attribute is useful in conjunction with ACRONYM to give the expanded form of
the acronym, allowing visual browsers to provide the long form as a “tool tip”.

Example;

<ACRONYM TITLE=”Central Bureau Investigation”>CBI</ACRONYM>

UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATORS (URL’S)

These specify the location of a resource for a hypertext link:

http: Internet server

gopher: hostname or IP
ftp: Username: Password@hostname
telnet: hostname or IP
mailto: Email address.
news: Newsgroup name.
file address or file name

Output : on the screen

Example for ACRONYM

CBI
B – BOLD

The B element suggests that text be rendered as bold text. In most

cases, use of a phrase element such as STRONG is more appropriate since such
elements express the meaning of the text more clearly.

Example:

<B>Show Clearly</B>

BIG
The BIG element suggests that text be rendered in a larger font. In
most cases, use of a structural element such as STRONG or a heading (e.g., H3)
is more appropriate since these elements express the meaning of the text more
clearly.

BR - BREAK

The BR element forces a break in the current line of text. It is often

misused to break lines of text in a paragraph or table cell to present the text
nicely. This usually results in an awkward presentation when viewed with a font
size other than used by the programmer.

Example:

<br>

Output on the screen

Example for B – Bold

Show Clearly

Example for BIG

See Clearly

Example for BR – Break

 firstline

secondline

thirdline

FONT

The FONT element, allows authors to suggest basic font changes.

Use of the FONT element brings numerous usability and accessibility problems.
A user has a sophisticated workstation with a large monitor has carefully
configured his browser to use black text on a yellow background, and has
specified that his color scheme should override document colors. Along comes a
web page with white text on a black background. Our user is overriding body
colors, so he still sees black on yellow. But this page also contains a sentence
here, a phrase there, emphasized with <FONT COLOR=”yellow”>--this worked
fine on the author’s black background but is completely invisible against the
user’s yellow background. He may wonder what all those empty spaces mean,
but unless he views the HTML source, he will never know that he is missing an
important part of the author’s message. While Netscape allows the user to
override text and body colors, it does not allow the user to override font colors.

The SIZE attribute suggests relative changes in font size, for

example: <FONT SIZE=”+1”> or <FONT SIZE=”-1”>. These tags increment or
decrement the font size relative to the size specified in the BASEFONT element,
or relative to a base size of 3 if no BASEFONT element is used.

The COLOR attribute suggests a text color. While most browsers

allow users to override author color changes, the widely used Netscape
Navigator 2.x, 3.x, and 4.x do not override colors specified with FONT. This
makes the COLOR attribute very difficult to handle from an accessibility point
of view.

I – ITALIC
The I element suggests that text be rendered as italic text.

Example:

<I> We prefer to view this in italics</I>

SUB

The SUB element is used for subscripts. Since SUB is inherently

presentational, it should not be relied upon to express a given meaning.
However, it can be useful for chemical formulas and mathematical indices,
where the subscript presentation is helpful but not required.

Example:

Chemical formulas include H<SUB>2</sub>O (water)

SUP
The SUP element is used for superscripts. Since SUP is inherently
presentational, it should not be relied upon to express a given meaning.
However, it can be useful for mathematical exponents where the context implies
the meaning of the exponent, as well as other cases where superscript
presentation is helpful but not required.

Example:

2<SUP>3</SUP>equals 8

Output on the screen

Example for I-Italic:

We prefer to view this in italics

Example for SUB:

Chemical formulas include H2O (water)

Example for SUP:

23 equals

U – UNDERLINE
The U element, suggests that text be rendered as underlined text.

Example
 <H3><U>My heading</U><>/H3?

BLOCK LEVEL AND INLINE ELEMENTS

The following elements may be use as either block-level elements
or inline elements. If used as inline elements (e.g., within another inline element
or a P), these elements should not contain any block-level elements.

APPKET – Java applet

BUTTON – Button

OBJECT – Object

SCRIPT – Client-side script

Output : on the screen

Example for I – Italic:

My heading

APPLET

The APPLET elements is used to embed Java applets. APPLET is

currently a more reliable method of embedding Java applets as compared to the
OBJECT method. APPLET’s CODE attribute specifies the name of the contains
the compiled Applet subclass. The value is relative to the URL specified in the
CODEBASE attribute, or to the HTML document’s base URI if the
CODEBASE attribute is not given.

The ALT attribute can be used to give alternate text for browsers
that recognize the APPLET element but do not support Java or do not have Java
enabled. Authors can also give alternate content between the start and end tags
of the APPLET element – a better method than using the ALT attribute since it
allows authors to include HTML markup in the alternate content and also works
with pre-HTML 3.2 browsers that do not support APPLET.

Example:
 <APPLET archive=”ansnow.jar” code=”amsnow.c;ass” width=320
height=208>

<param name=backimage value=”ansnow1.jpg”>

<IMG SRC=”animation.git” ALT=””WIDTH=320

HEIGHT=208>Sorry, your browser doesn’t support Java.

</APPLET>

BUTTON

The BUTTON element defines a submit button, reset button, or

push button. Programmers can also use INPUT to specify these buttons, but the
BUTTON element allows richer labels, including images and emphasis.
However, BUTTON is new in HTML 4.0 and poorly supported among current
browsers, so INPUT is a more reliable choice at this time.

The TYPE attribute of BUTTON specifies the kind of button and

takes the value submit (the default), rest, or button. The NAME and VALUE
attributes determine the name/value pair sent to the server when a submit button
is pushed. These attributes allow authors to provide multiple submit buttons and
have the form handler take a different action depending on the submit button
used.

Example:

<BUTTON NAME=submit VALUE-modify>Modify</BUTTON>

<BUTTON NAME=submit
VALUE=continue>Continue</BUTTON>

OBJECT
The OBJECT element is used to include object such as images,
videos, Java applets, and VRML worlds. OBJECT is intended to replace the
more specific IMG and APPLET elements, as well as the proprietary EMBED
and BGSOUND elements a better choice for the time being.

OBJECT’s DATA attribute specifies the URI of the embedded

object. Relative URL’s are interpreted with respect to the CODEBASE attribute
if it is given. The CLASSID may be used to specify an implementation for the
object. Java applets, Python applets, and Active X controls all provide
implementations for the embedded object, and so are specified with the
CLASSID attribute.

Example:

<object classid=”clsid:D27CDB6E-AE6D-11cf-96B8-
444553540000” codebase=http://macromedia.com/ ../swflash.cab
width=”440” height=”330”><param name=”movie”
value=”images/03a01001.swf”>

<embed src=”images/03a01000.swf” quality=”high”

pluginspage=”htpp://www.macromedia.com/go/ getflashplayer”
type=”application/x-shockwave-flash” width=”440”
height=”330”></embed></object>

SCRIPT
The SCRIPT element includes a client-side script in the document.
Client-side scripts allow greater interactivity in a document by responding to
user events. For example, a script could be used to check the user’s form input
prior to submission to provide immediate notice of any errors by the user.

Example:

<script language=”Javascript”>
function alertme() {

alert(“you are alerted”);

} </script>

Note that not all browsers support client-side scripting, and

supporting browsers allow the user to disable scripting, so authors should avoid
dependence on client-side scripting wherever possible. The required TYPE
attribute of SCRIPT specifies the media type of the scripting language, e.g.,
text/javascript. Examples of supported LANGUAGE values include JavaScript,
JavaScrit1.1, and VBScript. The values are not case sensitive.

FORMS
 Having looked at the structure of the standard HTML document
and some of the basic HTML elements, let us now look at various form
elements.

Forms are an effective means of making Web pages user-friendly.

Forms are used in HTML for getting inputs from the user. Before the
introduction of forms can typically be used by commercial organization for
accepting orders from customers or taking feedback. One could also conduct
tests over the Internet by using forms.

How Does a Form Work?

In a form, the user is typically presented with a number of input

mechanisms that help the user to enter data. These could be text fields, radio
buttons, check boxes or list boxes. When data entry is complete, the user submits
the form. Submitting the form will send the input by the user to the server for
processing. This is done by selecting the Submit button on the page. This
communicates to the browser that the user has completed data entry. The
browser sends the data and the URL of the CGI script to the server. The
Common Gateway Interface (CGI) is a standard for interfacing external
applications with information servers, such as HTTP or Web servers. The server
passes the data to the CGI script that processes it. The CGI script may store the
data in a file or a database. It also sends a response in the HTML format to the
server. The server then sends this response to the browser, which formats and
displays the response.

Form Elements

These are container elements. All elements required to define the

contents of a form are the parameters of the elements and are called its attributes.
We will discuss the attributes of the form elements and then proceed with the
elements to define the contents of a form. Given below are the attributes of the
for m elements:

1. ACTION – is a URL, specifying the location to which the contents of the

form are submitted to elicit a response. Typically this form will be
handling the CGI scripts. If this attribute is missing, then the URL,
of the document itself is assumed.
2. ENCTYPE – specifies the format of the submitted data in case the
protocol does impose a format itself.

3. METHOD – selects variations in the protocol. It specifies the format in

which data is to be sent to the script. It can take one of the two
values:

• GET

• POST

The difference between these two is the manner in which the data
in the form is sent to the CGI script.

When the ACTION attribute is set to an HTTP URL, the METHOD

attribute must be set to an HTTP METHOD as defined by the HTTP standard.
The default METHOD is GET look at the elements used to define the input
mechanism in a form.

<form method=”...” action=”url”>...</form>

The URL should be a script or may use mailto.

The method is GET or POST, depending on how you want the data
returned. Within a form, input fields are defined are defined with: for multi line
text input (surrounds prompting text):

<textarea name=”...” rows=”n” cols=”n”>...<type=”...”>

The type can be one of text, checkbox, radio, hidden, password,

reset, or submit. Other attributes are align, checked, size, max length, src, and
value. All <input> fields of a radio or checkbox group must have the same name.

Example:

<form method=”GET” action=”http/www.foo.bar/cgi-bin/script”>

<p>Name: <input name=”name” type=”text” size=”20”><br>

 <textarea name=”comments” rows=”4” columns=”40”>Please
write your comments here...</textarea><br><input
type=”submit”><input type=”rest”></p></form>

IMG – IMAGE

The IMG element specifies an inline image. The required SRC or

source attribute specifies the location of the image. The image can be any
format, though browsers generally support only GIF and JPEG images. Support
for the other formats like PNG is increasing.

Example:

<IMG SRC=”logo.gif”ALT=”Welcome to XYZ Company”

Width=”128” Height =”93”>

The ALT attribute provides alternate text for those users who do
not load images. Effective ALT text should generally give the function of the
image rather than a description of the image. For example, ALT=”Welcome to
XYZ Corp.” would be more appropriate than ALT=”XYZ Corp LOGO” for a
company’s logo on its welcome page. Good ALT text is crucial to the
accessibility of a document for the significant portion of users who do not load
images.

The WIDTH and HEIGHT attributes are most useful when they
specify the exact dimensions of the image in pixels. This allows image-loading
browsers to reserve the proper amount of space for the image and continue to
render the rest of the document.

SELECT
 The SELECT element defines a form control for the selection of
options. Internet Explorer displays the SELECT element without a FORM
element. However, Netscape Navigator will not display any SELECT element
outside of a FORM.

Example:
<P>Select one or more sections to search:

<SELECT NAME=sections>

<OPTION><OPTION>

<OPTION>Web Authoring Reference</OPTION>

<OPTION>FAQ Archives </OPTION>

<OPTION>Design Elements</OPTION>

<OPTION>Tools</OPTION>

<OPTION>Feature Article</OPTION>

</SELECT>

</P>

The SIZE attribute of SELECT, hints that visual browsers should

display the element as a list box with specified number of options visible at any
time. A scroll bar would allow access to any non-visible options. The SIZE
attribute is especially useful in SELECT elements with numerous OPTIONs and
multiple selections are allowed. In such a situation, some visual browsers will
render the entire list in one large box without scrolling. A suitable SIZE attribute
helps such browsers give a more appropriate presentation.

Select one or more sections to search: Web Authoring Reference

SPECIAL CHARAVTERS
 Three characters out of the entire ASCII (or ISO 8859) character
set are special and cannot be used “asis” within an HTML document. These
character are left angle bracket (<), right angle bracket (>), and ampersand (&).

The angle brackets are used to specify HTML tags, while

ampersand is used as the escape mechanism for these and other characters:

1&1t; is the escape sequence for <

1&gt; is the escape sequence for >
1&amp; is the escape sequence for &

Note:

1. The “escape sequence” only means that the given sequence of characters
represents the single character in an HTML document. The conversion to
single character itself takes place when the document is formatted for
display by reader.
2. There are additional escape sequences that are possible; notably, there
are a whole set of such sequences to support 8-bit characters sets
(namely, ISO 8859-1);
Introduction to Interactivity Tools 13

WHAT IS ASP?

Active Server Page or ASP, as it is more commonly known, is a

technology that enables you to make dynamic and interactive Web pages. ASP
uses server-side scripting to dynamically produce web pages that are not affected
by the type of browser the web site visitor is using.

The default scripting language used for writing ASP is VBScripts;

although you can use other scripting languages like JScript which is Microsoft’s
version of Java Script. ASP pages have the extension .asp instead of .htm. When
a page with the extension .asp is requested by a browser the web server
interprets any ASP contained within the web page before sending the HTML
produced to the browser. In this way all the ASP is run on the web server and no
ASP will ever be passed to the web browser.

Any web pages containing ASP cannot be run by just simply

opening the page in web browser. Web pages that contain ASP must be
requested through a web server that supports ASP. If there is no Web server,
then ASP pages cannot be displayed. ASP was first introduced by Microsoft on
its web server Internet Information Server (IIS) that runs on Windows 2000/XP
Pro/NT4/95. ASP pages run best on this Web server. The micro version of this
server is called Personal Web Server (PWS). Both IIS and RWS are available
free of cost with Windows.

You can locate these Web servers in the following places:

Windows 2000/XP Pro-IIS can be found in ‘add/Remove

Programs’ in the ‘Control Panel’. Windows 98 – PWS can be found under ‘add-
ons’ on the Windows 98 CD. Windows NT4/95-you can get hold of IIS by
downloading the NT4 Option Pack from Microsoft (don’t be fooled by the name
as it also runs on Windows XP Home Edition – IIS and PWS are not supported
on this operating system.

WHAT IS VB SCRIPT?

Like Java Script, VB Script you to embed commands into an

HTML document. When a user of compatible Web browser downloads your
page, your VB Script commands are loaded by the Web browser along with the
rest of the document. The commands are run in response to a series of events.
VB Script is an interpreted language. The browser interprets the VB Script
commands when they are loaded and run. They do not need to be compiled into
an executable form by the Web author who uses them.

VB Script is a fast flexible subset of Microsoft’s Visual Basic and

Visual Basic for Applications Languages. VB Script is designed to be easy to
program in and quick in adding active content to HTML documents. The
language elements are mainly ones that will be familiar to anyone who has
programmed in just about any language, such as If...Then...Else blocks and Do,
While, and For...Next loops, and atypical assortment of operators and built-in
functions.

What Can VB Script Do?

VB Script provides a fairly complete set of built-in functions and

commands. These function and commands allow you to perform math
calculations, manipulate strings, play sounds, open up new windows and new
windows and new windows and new URLs, and access and verify user input to
your Web forms. The code to perform these actions can be embedded in a page
and executed when the page is loaded. You can also write functions that contain
code that is triggered by events you specify. For example, you can write a VB
Script method that is called when the user clicks the Submit button of a form, or
one that is activated when the user clicks a hyperlink on the active page.

VB Script can also set the attributes or properties of ActiveX

Controls, Java applets, and other objects present in the browser. This way, you
can change the behavior of plug-ins or other objects without having to rewrite
them. For example, your VB Script code could automatically set the text of an
ActiveX label control based on what time the page is viewed.

WHAT IS JAVASCRIPT?
 JavaScript is a script is a script language from Netscape that is
supported in Netscape Navigator as of Version 2.0. It is easier to use than Java,
but not as powerful. JavaScript uses the HTML page as its user interface,
whereas Java can generate a completely custom interface. On the client,
JavaScript applets are maintained in source code. On the server, they are
compiled into byte code, similar to Java programs. A JavaScript applet can be
used to display a data entry form and validate the input, while a java program
processes the information. JavaScript is also used to tie Java applets together.

JavaScript evolved from evolved from Netscape’s Live Script

language and was made more compatible with Java. Although it shares many of
the features and structures of the full Java language, it was developed
independently. JavaScript is endorsed by a number of software companies and is
an open language that anyone can use without purchasing a license. It is
supported by recent browsers from Netscape and Microsoft, though Internet
Explorer only a subset, which Microsoft calls Jscript.

WHAT IS JAVA

Java is language developed by Sun Microsystems which allows

World Wide Web pages to contain code that is executed on the browser. Because
Java is based on a single “virtual machine” that all implementations of java
emulate, it is possible for Java programs to run on any system which has a
version of java. It is also possible for Java programs to run on any system which
has a version of Java. It is also possible for the “virtual machine” emulator to
make sure that Java programs downloaded through the web do not attempt to do
unauthorized things. Java is a full-blown object-oriented programming language
developed by Sum Microsystems Inc. Java is an interpreted language. This
means that in order for a java program to run on a computer, a run-time system
(interpreter) will need to have been installed on the computer.

The dynamism and interactivity is achieved by including links

within an HTML page to Java programs called applets. When the link is clicked
on, the Java applet is transferred to your computer and executed locally by the
browser. Java will therefore eliminate the need for a client computer on the
Internet to depend on the host computer for the execution of dynamic content.
Not only is Java poised to make the end user’s life more interesting, but it also
provides a powerful programming environment for the software developer and
Internet content provider.
 The Internet is a highly heterogeneous networked environment
encompassing dozens of operating systems (Windows, Unix, Macintosh, OS/2,
etc., etc.) running on a wide variety of microprocessors. A Java program once
developed is capable of running on EVERY platform which has the Java
interpreter. The implication of this portability is quite profound to the Internet
programmer. The programmer no longer has to worry about developing different
versions of an application to cater for the different computer platforms in use
across the Internet. By programming in Java, only one application will need to
be developed; it will then run on ALL platforms to which the Java interpreter is
ported. In order to use Java applets, you need to have associate files, which are
complied applet programs usually ending with class. One applet may need one
or more .class files to make it work. You can check with the sources where you
obtain the applets what .class files you need.
 Multimedia And Graphics 14

MULTIMEDIA

Multimedia is the ability to communicate in more than one way.

For example the computer you are using to view this material is capable of
flashing text and beeping when there is a problem. If your computer is equipped
with multimedia capabilities then it can handle sound, video, and graphics in a
better manner.

Originally the term multimedia was used by institutions who run

distance learning courses in which they deliver content via a combination of text,
TV, telephone, audio cassette and the radio. The advent of high resolution
screens and sound and video playback facilities for computers has resulted in the
increased use of multimedia applications for education.

A typical multimedia application is characterized by the following

features:

The different media it possesses and makes use of the use of digital technology
The interaction it demands of the user The integration of sound, images, text and
data into seamless applications

VRML

VRML is an acronym for Virtual Reality Modeling Language. Very

early on in its history, when VRML was just an idea without an implementation,
the M stood for “Markup”, paralleling HTML which is Hyper Text Markup
Language.

A VRML file resides on a Web site just like an HTML file.

Currently, a VRML file is a plain text file or a compressed text file, and its name
generally ends in “.wrl”, “.wrl.gz”, or “.wrz”. The contents of a VRML file
including the files that it may load through the Inline nodes are called a “world”.
This does not mean that the builder of a VRML world needs to model the whole
planet. Many VRML worlds are single objects. VRML is a scene description
language, which describes 3D environments over the Internet. When you access
a URL containing a VRML world, a file is downloaded into your Web browser.

VRML is a file format that defines the layout and content of a 3D

world with links to more information. VRML worlds are spacious and inherently
interactive with objects that react to the user and to each other. VRML is
scalable across platforms ranging from PCs to high-end workstations, and soon,
the Mac. VRML is also band width efficient. Intricate, interactive 3D worlds can
be described in worlds that are similar in size to HTML pages. Most of the time
when VRML files are large it is because of motion capture data, animation,
sound, or video, all of which will be reduced as “streaming media” becomes a
reality. Straight VRML files are actually very small, especially if special
optimization steps are taken. The Web Authoring Tools are the most widely used
HTML editors and site management tools.

STREAMING

Streaming is the term given to a continuous supply of data.

Streaming Media is audio and video data that is supplied continuously to the end
user from the web site that they are viewing. Streaming media files over the
internet has the internet has the distinct advantage that users can start viewing
them almost instantly without having to download the full file. In contrast, with
more traditional files the whole file needs to be downloaded before anything can
be viewed. The player software on the user’s computer decodes the compressed
stream as it arrives through the user’s modem or network. So you can be viewing
one part of the file while the rest is still being downloaded. Leading players
include Real Player, Windows Media Player and Quick Time.

GRAPHIC WEB EDITORS

GIF Animator

GIF Animator can be used to create an animation by linking images

together, similar to creating a “flip book”. Just insert each separate image into
the animator, and then set the frame rate to determine the speed. Once you have
inserted all the images, you can save the file as either a gif image, an .avi movie,
or even a flash movie. Then the animator will generate the html code necessary
to display your creation on your web page.
Adobe Photoshop

Adobe® Photoshop® 7.0 software, the professional image-editing

standard, helps you work more efficiently, explore new creative options, and
produce the highest quality images for print, the Web, and anywhere else. Create
exceptional imagery with easier access to file data: streamlined Web design:
faster, professional-quality photo retouching: and more.

Macromedia Flash

Macromedia Flash MX is the “must have” tool used by over one

million professionals to deliver the best user experiences on the web, increasing
both revenue and customer satisfaction while lowering costs. The approachable
environment includes powerful video, multimedia, and application development
features, which allow designers and developers to crate rich user interfaces,
online advertising, e-learning courses and enterprise application front ends.
 Internet Management Security
Concepts, Information Privacy and
15
Copyright Issue

WHAT IS INTERNET SECURITY?

A list of the major challenges of Internet security and simple
explanations of how they affect a network are explained below.

Protection from hackers and vandals on the internet.

Hacker attacks can cause irreparable damage to sensitive and

confidential information. Critical data resides on a company’s private network
and businesses must actively prevent the theft, destruction and corruption of this
information. For some companies, the confidential information residing on the
business network belongs to corporate clients, raising issues of legal liability as
well as financial loss.

Protection from Dos (Denial of Service Attacks).

The valuable rely more and more on networked resources,

maintaining their availability is becoming more and more critical. A common
type of attack referred to as a Denial of Service attack, is designed to deny
access to networked resources by crashing servers or routers or by
overwhelming the network with enough traffic to degrade service. These Dos
attacks hinder normal network activity, making productivity nearly impossible.

Filter Inappropriate Materials.

The valuable information so readily available online also includes

material inappropriate for the workplace, classroom, and home. Companies can
face losses in productivity due to the vast array of non-work related material
available at the click of a mouse. Objectionable content can create an
uncomfortable work environment, creating a vulnerability to harassment
lawsuits. Schools, libraries and home offices risk children accessing
pornography or racially intolerant sites.

Protection Against Viruses.

Viruses attacks are the greatest threat to Internet security today.

The outbreak of viruses has increased in the past several years and statistics
indicate that the number will continue to rise.

Protection from Active Content, such as ActiveX and Java.

ActiveX is a programming language that is used to embed small programs in

Web pages. It is generally considered an insecure protocol to allow into a
network since it is possible for malicious programmers to write controls that can
delete file, compromise security, or cause other damage. Java is also used to
embed small programs known as applets, in Web pages. It is generally
considered safer than ActiveX, but some administrators may want to filter out
Java since there have been instances of bugs in these safety mechanisms.

WHAT IS A FIREWALL?

A firewall protects a computer that are stand-alone’s or a part of the

local area network (LAN) against outside intrusion. Firewall’s work as filters
between the outside world and a private network. A firewall approves some
types of traffic and blocks unauthorized users who attempt to access your
network.

The term “firewall” is borrowed from architecture, but it doesn’t

actually refer to any one particular device. A firewall could be either a piece of
hardware or software, and a network may use more that one type of firewall in
order to provide extra security.

There are two common types of firewall:

 A packet-filtering firewall applies predefined rules to fitter the
chunks of data, or packets, that pass through it. The filter accepts or rejects
packets based upon the originating computer’s network address or other
characteristics. The packet filter may be a computer, or it may be part of a
separate piece of hardware, such as a router.

A proxy severs, also known as a gateway, acts as a middleman that

relays data between the network and that outside world. The proxy prevents
outsiders from gathering information about computers inside the network. The
proxy can also screen packets based on their application type, such as Web
access or email, or other identifying traits.

WHAT IS ANTI VIRUS

Anti virus software protect your computer from a variety of
malicious software programs which are referred as virus. The anti virus
companies is always on a lookout for these viruses and provide an immediate
cure for the same.

These can include:

Viruses - - They are small programs that attach themselves to

other programs or documents and replicate with the potential to
cause damage.

Worms - - They are viruses that are specifically engineered to

make extensive use of mail to spread themselves rapidly.

Trojans - - They are programs that appear harmless but have a

damaging intent.

Zombies - - They are programs that install themselves on

computers and remain dormant until some external event triggers
them into action. The actions could include corrupting, truncating,
or stealing your information and sending it to a predefined email
account or opening up remote control access portals to your
machines.

WHAT IS SSL (SECURE SOCKET LAYER)?

 Customers visiting web sites may want to maintain their privacy
when they register for a service online and in particular want to be assured that
their credit card details are kept well away from crooks and fraudsters. The most
common means of achieving this privacy is through the use of SSL or Secure
Socket Layer technology. When you connect to secure web space the data
passing between your browser and the web site in question is encrypted which
makes it virtually impossible for any third party to intercept the data that is being
transferred. So whether your address or your credit card number that is being
recorded it is strictly between you and the web site in question.

There are two symbols that assure the public that a web site has
these security measures in place. Firstly a secure web server will be prefixed by
http’s:// rather than the normal http://. Secondly your browser will display the
“golden padlock” symbol that is your assurance that you are in a secure area. To
gain certification for the security of your domain is a costly, complicated and
time-consuming procedure.

This is where shared SSL is beneficial. It is seldom desirable to

host the whole of your site on secure SSL servers as the extra complexity results
in slower performance than you would get on “standard” hosting. So you can
host the bulk of your site on normal shared hosting and use SSL secure hosting
only for the sensitive function such as customer registration and online payment.

WHAT IS PROXY SERVER?

A proxy server is an interface between the browser and the
destination server. The proxy server receives the page request and handles the
connection of the browser to the destination. These proxy servers are also able to
cache pages. If such a proxy is configured to cache then it will first check the
cache to see it the requested page exists. If the page is not found then the proxy
server searches other caching proxy servers on makes a direct request to the
destination. This process depends on the configuration for the proxy. The
advantage of using a common caching proxy server is given by the probability to
find a page in the local cache. The probability is in general expressed by the hit
rate. A cache with several GB size and a lot of users can reach a hit rate of 30 to
40 percent. Frequently requested pages such as the help pages of your browser
may be in the cache every time. In case the page is not in the local cache there is
no difference in the elapsed time of a direct request or a request handled by a
proxy server.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
 Intellectual property consists of written works, photographs,
artwork, and music that people create from information and ideas. Many people
enjoy sharing their intellectual property with others. However, they may want to
get credit for their hard work.

COPYRIGHT ISSUES

Copyright is the right to publish. The copyright law is intended to

protect the rights of content developers. In other words, if you create
information, you should get credit. This credit can come in the form of money if
you sell the information in a book, CD, or subscription Internet service. In some
cases, people aren’t concerned about money, but they want to make certain that
their name or organization is associated with the information. In other words,
many educators are willing to share information for free, but they want to be
sure that their work is cited. In a global community such as the Internet, the laws
become an issue. For example, the copyright laws in different countries vary. In
the US, the copyright law contains a “fair use” section that gives people some
flexibility to use and share information. People interpret the laws differently.
 Electronic Commerce 16

AN INTRODUCTION

Electronic commerce or ‘eCommerce’ is the use of the internet for

a range of business purposes, including:

• marketing and publicity

• online sales via the web
• communication
• business to business transactions

MARKETING AND PUBLICITY

The web is an ideal media for marketing and publicity because of
it’s potential to reach a global audience and it’s capacity to support the use of
images, animation, and audio/video. Many websites will carry advertisements
for the web sites of sponsoring companies, which through the hyperlink system
can be accessed simply by clicking on the advertisement.

ONLINE SALES VIA THE WEB

Improvements in security are leading to an increasing number of

web-based services now being available for the buying and selling of goods.
Most major high-street brands now have a website with facilities for ordering
goods online. In addition, a number of companies have been established to trade
solely via the web.

COMMUNICATION
 Many companies now rely on the internet for communication, both
within the company and with customer. While this is typically through email,
other facilities such as chat, instant messaging, web telephony and
audio/videoconferencing are also being used.

BUSINESS TO BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS

Business to business (B2B) transactions involves the direct trade

between two companies, rather than between a company and a customer, for
example exchanging information or transactions with a supplier. This may be
through the use of an “extranet” (area of a website restricted to authorized
people who logon with a password) which allows access to ordering, product or
accounting information specific to that company.

CONCEPTS

Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is the use of

telecommunications and data processing technology to improve the quality of
transactions between business partners. It has existed in some form since the
invention of the telegraph and early automated data processing equipment but its
use has greatly increased. E-Commerce improves organizational efficiencies by
leveraging data processing, database storage, and data communications
technologies. Existing network facilities can be utilized to achieve great savings
in labour costs and the reduction of paper storage and handling facilities. It has
enabled firms to be more effective in improving the quality of standard goods
and services and to offer a variety of new services of new services. The global
marketplace has become larger and wider than ever because of the expansion of
e-commerce activity.

The growth of electronic commerce has been fueled by the

availability of world wide telecommunication networks along with enhanced
information delivery techniques utilizing the various multimedia technologies
Client-server architecture allows systems with different hardware and software
platforms to interact in an open system computing environment.

TECHNOLOGY IN E-COMMERCE

Introduction
 In any E-C0mmerce systems implementation, integration between
business processes with in companies is very important for a successful
implementation. Within a company integration needs include interfacing with
legacy systems, communicating with third party products, and integrating
business processes across distributed E-Commerce systems. The two most
commonly deployed technologies for this type of integration are ALE
(Application Link and Enabling) and (Electronic Data Interchange) technologies,
which make use of the popular Idoc (Intermediate Document) interface for
exchanging data. EDI provides business process integration across companies by
exchanging business documents such as purchase order. Invoices, and shipment
notices in electronic form using industry standard formats such as ANSIX.12
(American National Standard’s Institute) and EDIFACT (Electronic Data
Interchange For Administration, Commerce, and Transport).

ALE, Which is SAP’s proprietary technology for integrating

distributed business processes within a company, has been available in SAP
since release 3.0 ALE was designed to link one SAP system to another SAP
system, but the ALE architecture lent itself to being used in linking SAP system
to non-SAP system without any modification. The flexibility of ALE technology
has proliferated into several application areas, and today most third-party
products use it to exchange data with SAP. ALE technology is also the basis for
SAP’s Business Framework architecture, introduced in release 4.0.

The underlying architecture of the ALE and EDI technologies are

quit similar Both make use SAP’s proprietary Idoc interface, which defines the
format and structure of the data that is exchanged between two systems.
Although ALE and EDI are the two biggest users of the Idoc interface, this
interface can also be used by any two applications that need to exchange data.
For example, it can be readily used to integrate SAP with Web applications. As
cross-application technologies. ALE and EDI are used in various modules of
SAP such as SD (Sales and Distribution). MM (Materials Management) and FI
(Financials). The wide-ranging application of these technologies has created and
ever-in-creasing need for ALE. EDI, and Idoc skills. Mastery of these skills is a
necessity for anyone involved in the technical or functional side of an SAP
implementation

Internet & E-business

Electronic commerce can be viewed from two business application

perspectives. One perspective on e-commerce in business is to look at those
businesses engaged in providing electronic commerce technology to help enable
other businesses. Internet Service Providers (ISP) and private Commercial
Network Providers help the companies into wide area networks (WAN) for use
in e-commerce activity. They may offer additional features such as protocol
conversion and are they described as Value-Added Network (VAN). Other types
of firms specialize in helping organization build electronic commercial sites.
Software firms sell data encryption and other types of security-related
technologies, user interface programs and other types of software used to
implement e-commerce. Other firms specialize in consulting and designing e-
commerce applications such as World Wide Web sites.

Another perspective on e-commerce is to examine the application

uses to which a business uses such technologies. Linkages between business
partners may be tightened through improvements in Just In Time (JIT) supply
logistics overall improvement in supply chain management. Consumer
marketing and sales techniques like shopping kiosks and home shopping
techniques have removed barriers of distance and increased product awareness.
Electronic publishing services, financial news and remote banking services are
now available over networks. Commercial databases and library services provide
general information resources. On line job placement services are numerous, and
distance education and job training services can assist in career development. A
wide variety of recreational and entertainment services are currently available
and such services will expand dramatically in the near future.

Internet & E-business

Electronic commerce can be viewed from two business application

perspectives. One perspective on e-commerce in business is to look at those
businesses engaged in providing electronic commerce technology to help enable
other businesses. Internet Service Providers (ISP) and private Commercial
Network Providers help the companies into wide area networks (WAN) for use
in e-commerce activity. They may offer additional features such as protocol
conversion and are they described as Value – Added Network (VAN). Other
types of firms specialize in helping organization build electronic commercial
sites. Software firms sell data encryption and other types of security-related
technologies, user interface programs and other types of software used to
implement e-commerce. Other interface programs and other types of software
used to implement e-commerce. Other firms specialize in consulting and
designing e-commerce applications such as World Wide web sites.

Another perspective on e-commerce is to examine the application

uses to which a business uses such technologies. Linkages between business
partners may be tightened through improvements in Just In Time (JIT) supply
logistics overall improvement in supply chain management. Consumer
marketing and sales techniques like shopping kiosks and home shopping
techniques have removed barriers of distance and increased product awareness.
Electronic publishing services, financial news and remote banking services are
now available over networks. Commercial databases and library services provide
general information resources. On line job placement services are numerous, and
distance education and job training services can assist in career development. A
wide variety of recreational and entertainment services are currently available
and such services will expand dramatically in the near future.

Advantages of E-Commerce

The increased computerization of our society is triggering major

changes in the organization of work. Paper driven processes are being
reengineered to capture the benefits of doing business electronically. Businesses
are implementing electronic commerce (EC or E-Commerce) to meet the
imperatives of an increasingly competitive world.

Electronic Commerce is the business environment in which

information for the buying selling, and transportation of goods and services
moves electronically. Electronic Commerce (EC) includes any technology that
enables a company to do business electronically. Some of the direct benefits of
Electronic Commerce are:

• Improved Productivity
• Cost Savings
• Streamlined Business Processes
• Better Customer Service
• Opportunities for New businesses

Improved Productivity:

Using electronic commerce, the time required to create transfer and

process a business transaction between trading partners is significantly reduced.
Furthermore, human errors and other problems like duplications of records are
largely eliminated with the reduction of data-entry and re-entry in the process.
This improvement in speed and accuracy plus the easier access to document and
information, will result in increase in productivity.

Cost Savings:
 Based on the experience of a wide variety of early adopters of
electronic commerce. Forrester Research has estimated that doing business on
the Internet can result in cost savings of about 5% to 10% of sales. This cost
savings steam from efficient communication quicker turnaround time and closer
access to markets.

Streamlined Business Processes:

Cost savings are amplified when businesses go a step further and

adapt their internal processes and back-end legacy systems to take advantage of
electronic commerce. Inventories can be shaved if businesses use the Internet to
share such information as promotional plans, point – of – sale data, and sales
forecasts. Business processes can also be a made more efficient with automation.

Better Customer Service:

With electronic commerce, there is better is better and more

efficient communication with customers. In addition, customers can also enjoy
the convenience of shopping at any hour, anywhere in the world.

Opportunities for New Businesses:

Business over the Internet has a global customer reach. There are
endless possibilities for businesses to exploit and expand their customer base.

APPLICATIONS, FEASIBILITY & VARIOUS CONSTRAINS:

The latter half of the 1990’s has seen an explosion in the use of the
Internet/Intranet and its accessibility to individuals, corporations, and
educational institutions. This revolution has dramatically changed the way
organizations conduct business with its consumers and with each other. The
geographic boundaries, that offer limited access to goods and services, are
crumbling and companies of all sizes are busy building commerce solutions and
adapting to new ways of doing business. The internet/Internet with inherent
features like easy access, real-time information, and low cost, is a natural driver
for commerce solutions. Further, companies enticed with the promise of the
following competitive advantage as are undertaking electronic commerce
projects.
• Broader market reach
• Increased efficiency and accuracy and accuracy through automated
order-processing, inventory control billing, shipping, and so forth.
• Better customer service and support
• Instant communication with consumers and trading partners.
• Improved profit margins through automated supply chain
management,
• Better forecasting of customer needs for goods and services
• Reduced labor costs
• Lower overall costs

Electronic commerce is often misunderstood to be limited to buying

and selling of goods and services over the Internet. Actually,
commerce solutions are a lot more than just the handling of
business transactions and fund transfers over the Internet. It defines
new forms of doing business. In addition to providing buying and
selling services, commerce solutions can provide a complete system
of services built into an organization’s digital nervous system so it
supports the sales processes and provides total account
management.
 Internet Glossary

Address Mask

The address mask is used to identify the parts of an IP address that correspond to
the different sections (separated by dots). It’s also known as the “subnet mask”
since the network portion of and address can be determined by the encoding
inherent in an IP address.

Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)

A pioneering long-haul network funded by what’s now-called DARPA (formerly

known as ARPA). It was the foundation on which the Internet was built.

Agent

The part of a system that performs information preparation and exchange on

behalf of an application.

Alias

A type of nickname (usually short and easy to remember) that refers to a type of
network resource. Aliases are used so you won’t have to remember the long and
difficult names typical of network resources.

Anonymous FTP

By using the word “anonymous” as your user ID and your email address as the
password when you login to an FTP site, you can bypass local security checks
and gain limited access to public files on the remote computer. This type of
access is available on most FTP sites, but not all.
Application

Sometimes known as a client or an “app,” it’s a program that performs a specific

function. FTP, Mail, Gopher, Mosaic, and Telnet clients are the most common
examples of Internet applications.

Archie

You’ll usually hear this term referred to in the phrase “archie search.” Archie is a way
of automatically gathering, indexing and sometimes even retrieving files on the
Internet. Most good archie clients are able of FTP files once you’ve found the
information you’re looking for.

Archive

A collection of files stored on an Internet machine. FTP sites are known as

archives.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

A transfer method that dynamically allocates bandwidth using a fixed-size

“packet,” or “cell.” Also known as “fast packet.”

AVI

(Audio Video Interleaved) A Microsoft Corporation multimedia video format. It

uses waveform audio and digital video frames (bitmaps) to compress animation.

Authentication

Any process that ensures that users are who they say they are. When you type
your name and password, you are authenticated and allowed access.
Bandwidth

This refers to the difference (measured in Hz), between the highest and lowest
frequencies of a transmission. Most people loosely refer to bandwidth as the
amount of data that can be transferred over a network connection.

Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND)

An early version of a DNS server developed by the University of California at

Berkeley. Most Internet hosts run a version of BIND.

Bitmap

A representation, consisting of rows and columns of dots, of a graphics image in

computer memory. The value of each dot (whether it is filled in or not) is stored
in one or more bits of data. For simple monochrome images, one bit is sufficient
to represent each dot, but for colors and shades of gray, each dot requires more
than one bit of data.

Bounce

If you send email and it fails to arrive at its intended recipient for any reason
(incorrect user name, network failure, etc.), the message “bounces” and returns
to you. The subject line in a bounced message usually says something like:
“Undeliverable Mail” or “Message Undeliverable.”

Browser

A software program that allows users to access the Internet.

Non-graphical
a user interface for computers which allows you to read plain text, not pictures,
sound, or video, on the Internet. It is strictly text based, non-Windows, and does
not place high memory demands on your computer. An example is lynx.
(http://lynx.browsee.org/)

Graphical

a user interface for computer which enables people to see color, graphics, and
hear sound and see video, available on internet sites. These features are usually
designated by underlined text, a change of color, or other distinguishing feature;
sometimes the link is not obvious, for example, a picture with no designated
characteristic. Examples are Netscape and Internet Explorer.

BTW

Acronym meaning “By The Way.” Seen mostly in IRC sessions.

Bulletin Board System (BBS)

A computer which typically provides email services, file archives, and

announcements of interest to the bulletin board system’s operator (known as a
sysop). BBS’s started out as hobbies for computer enthusiasts, and were mostly
accessible by modem. Recently, however, more and more BBS’s are being
connected to the internet.

Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)

An authentication method that can be used when connecting to an Internet

Service Provider. CHAP allows you login to your provider automatically,
without the need for a terminal screen. It is more secure then the Password
authentication Protocol (another widely used authentication method) since it
does not send passwords in text format.

Chat
Another term for IRC. Also, an acronym meaning “Conversational Hypertext
Access Technology.”

Client

In Internet terms, it’s an application that performs a specific function, such as

Telnet or FTP. It’s the “front-end” to an Internet process. In more general terms,
a client is computer system or process that requests a service of another
computer system or process. The much talked about “client server architecture”
refers to a workstation requesting the contents of a file from a server.

Comite Consultatif International de Telegraphique et Telephonique

(CCITT)

French for “International Telephone and Telegraph Advisory Council.” It’s an

organization that plays a major role in the United National International
Telecommunications Union (ITU). The CCITT is responsible for making
technical recommendations about communications systems world – wide. Every
four years, CCITT updates the standards, most recently in 1992.

Computer emergency Response Team (CERT)

The CERT was formed by DARPA in November 1988 in response to the

Internet worm incident. CERT exists to facilitate Internet-wide response to
computer security events involving Internet hosts and to conduct research
targeted at improving the security of existing systems. They maintain an archive
of security-related issues on their FTP server at “cert.org.” Their email address is
“[email protected] “ and their 24-hour telephone Hotline for reporting Internet
security issues is (412) 268-7090.

Coordinating Committee for Intercontinental Research Networks

(CCIRN)

A committee that provides a forum for North American and European network
research organizations to cooperate and plan.
Corporation for Research and Educational Networking (CREN)

An organization formed in October 1989, when Bitnet and CSNET were

combined. CSNET is no longer around, but CREN still operates Bitnet.

Cracker

Substantially different from “hackers,” crackers are users who try to gain illegal
access to computers. They are usually malicious in their intentions.

Cyberspace

The “world of computers and the society that society that gathers around them,”
as referred to by William Gibson in his fantasy novel “Neuromancer.” It now
loosely refers to the online world and even more loosely to the Internet.

Data Encryption Key (DEK)

Much like an actual key used for locking and re-opening doors, DEKs are used
for the encryption and decoding of message text, sometimes in the form of a
digital signature.

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

A standardized encryption method widely used on the Internet.

Datagram

A block of data that is “smart” enough (actually, which carries enough

information) to travel from one Internet site to another without having to rely on
earlier exchanges between the source and destination computers (not to be
confused with a Candygram).
Dedicated Line

A communications line that is used solely for computer connections. If you buy
an additional phone line for your modem, that’s a dedicated line. There are other
types of dedicated lines (such as T3s and T1s) that are used for larger network
entities.

Dialup

A widely-used method of accessing the Internet. A dialup connection uses

regular phone lines to connect one computer to another via modem.

Distributed Computing Environment (DCE)

An architecture based on standard programming interfaces, conventions, and

server functionalities used for distributing applications transparently across
networks,. The DCE is controlled and promoted by the Open Software
Foundation (OSF), a consortium of vendors including DEC, IBM and Hewlett
Packard.

Domain

A “logical” region of the Internet. People sometimes refer to them loosely as

“sites.” Generally, a domain corresponds to an IP address or an area on a host.

Domain Name System (DNS)

The DNS is a static, hierarchical name service used with TCP/IP hosts, and is
housed on a number of servers on the Internet. Basically, it maintains a database
for figuring out and finding (or resolving) host names and IP addresses on the
Internet. This allows users to specify remote computers by host names rather
than numerical. IP addresses (if you’ve used UNIX, you may have heard the
DNS referred to as the BSD UNIX BIND service). For example, go to a DOS,
prompt in Windows 95, the % prompt in UNIX, or use a ping client for
Windows 3.1 or Mac, and type “PING UTW. COM”. This will check the DNS
server you have configured, look up the numerical IP address for UTW.COM,
and then ping UTW’s IP address. The advantage of the DNS is that you don’t
have to remember numerical IP addresses for all the internet sites you want to
access.

Dot Address (or Dotted Decimal Notion)

The common notation for IP addresses of the form 1.2.3.4; where each number
represents one byte in the four-byte IP address.

Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF)

A foundation that addresses social and legal issues arising from the impact of
computers on society.

Electronic Mail (Email)

A method by which computer users can exchange messages with each other over
a network. Email is probably the most widely-used communications tool on the
Internet. There are many quirky conventions to Email, but most entail a “To:”,
“From:”, and “Subject:” line. One of Email’s advantages is its ability to be
forwarded and replied to easily. If an email is badly received by a group or user,
the sender is likely to get “flamed.”

Email Address

Your email address is made up of several parts. By convention, addresses use

lowercase letters with no spaces. The first part of the address, the username,
identifies a unique user on a server. The “@” (pronounced “at”) separates the
username from the host name. The host name uniquely identifies the server
computer and is the last part of the Internet email address (for example, my
email address is [email protected]). Large servers, such as those used at
universities or large companies sometimes contain multiple parts, called
subdomains. Subdomains and the host name are separated by a “.” (Pronounced
“dot”). The three-letter suffix in the host name identifies the kind of organization
operating the server (some locations use a two-letter geographical suffix). The
most common suffixes are: .com (commercial) .edu (educational) .gov
(government) .mil (military) .net (networking) .org (non-commercial). Addresses
outside of the U.S. sometimes use a two-letter suffix that identifies the country
in which the server is located. Some examples are: .jp (Japan) .nl (The
Netherlands) .uk (United Kingdom) .ca (Canada) .tw (Taiwan).

Encryption

The basis of network security. Encryption encodes network packets to prevent

anyone except the intended recipient from accessing the data.

Ethernet

A standard and probably the most popular connection type for Local Area
Networks (LANs). It was first developed by Xerox, and later refined by Digital,
Intel and Xerox (see also “DIX”). In an Ethernet configuration, computers are
connected by coaxial or twisted-pair cable where they contend for network
access using a Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) paradigm. Ethernet can transfer information at up to 10 megabit-
per-second (Mb/s).

FAQ

Acronym for “Frequently Asked Questions.” FAQs are widely available on the
Internet and usually take the form of large, instructional text files. They are
written on a wide variety of topics, and are usually the most up-to-date source
for specialized information.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

The most widely-used way of downloading and uploading (getting and putting)
files across an Internet connection. The File Transfer Protocol is a standardized
way to connect computers so that files can be shared between then easily. There
is a set of commands in FTP for making and changing directories, transferring,
copying, moving, and deleting files. Formerly, al FTP connections were text
based, but graphical applications are now available the make FTP commands as
easy as dragging and dropping, Numerous FTP clients exist for a number of
platforms.

Firewall

The name “firewall” derives from the term for a barrier that prevents fires from
spreading. A computer “firewall” is a barrier between your computer and the
outside world. Just like a fire is most likely to spread though open doors in a
building, your computer is most vulnerable at its ports ( the doors). Without
ports you could not go on the Internet or let Internet traffic enter your computer.
An effective software firewall isolates your computer from the Internet using a
code that sets up a blockade to inspect each packet of data, from or to your
computer – to determine whether it should be allowed to pass or be blocked.
Firewall software operates in various ways: Packet filters block traffic from IP
addresses and/or port numbers, Proxy servers can break the connection between
two networks. NATs (Network Address Translators) hides the IP addresses of
client stations by presenting one IP address to the “outside” world. Stateful
inspection verifies inbound and outbound traffic to be sure the destination and
the source are correct. Firewall software can allow your computer to operate in
stealth node, so that its IP address is not visible.

Flame

A negative response to an email message or newsgroup posting. If you post an

article or send an email to an audience that deems your message inappropriate,
expect to get “flamed.” The most common recipients of flames are users who
post commercial messages in public forums, those who post adult material in
non-adult areas of the Internet, and users who post or send make racial or
gender-biased comments. The worst sort of flame is known as a “mail-bomb,”
which occurs when the user being flamed open his or her email and receives a
flood of letters with unusually long file attachments that make his or her
computer “crash.”

Follow-up

A reply to an email or newsgroup posting that continues the conversation or

idea, known as a “thread.”
Freenet

A network system made up of community-based bulletin board systems with

email, information services, interactive communications, and conferencing. They
are usually funded and operated by individuals or organizations much like public
television. Freenet providers are part of the National Public Telecomputing
Network (NPTN), a Cleveland-based organization that works to make computer
networking services as freely available as public libraries.

Gateway

A kind of “go-between’ device or program that passes information between

networks that normally couldn’t communicate. What used to be called a gateway
is now called a router. Not to be confused with a protocol converter.

Gopher

An information search and retrieval tool used widely for research. Gopher
information is stored hierarchically on computers across the Internet. It uses a
simple protocol that allows a client to access information from a multitude of
numerous Gopher servers at one time, creating what’s known as “gopher space.”
The most common search tools in gopher are Veronica and Jughead. Gopher
clients exist for most platforms.

Hacker

A computer user who works to understand the “ins and outs” of computers,
networks, and the Internet in general. Hackers are generally benign, and are not
to be confused with crackers.

Host
A computer that is attached to a network or the Internet. Hosts allow users on
client machines to connect and share files or transfer information. Individual
users communicate with hosts by using client application programs.

Hypermedia

The combination of hypertext and multimedia in an online document.

Hypertext

A type of text that allows embedded “links” to other documents. Clicking on or

selecting a hypertext link displays document or section of a document. Most
World Wide Web documents contain hypertext.

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

The standard way to mark text documents for publishing on the World Wide
Web. HTML is marked-up using “tags” surrounded by brackets. To see what
tagged HTML text looks like, select the View Source feature from the menus in
the program you are using to view this document now, and you’ll see a display
of the HTML text used to create this page.

IMHO
Acronym for “In My Humble Opinion.” Generally seen in IRC, email, or Usenet
postings.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

A relatively new technology which combines voice and digital network services
in a single medium. ISDN makes it possible for communications carriers to offer
their customers digital data services as well as voice connections through a
single line. CCITT defines the standards relating to ISDN.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

An organization of 89 member countries (founded in 1946) responsible for

setting world standards in many electronics areas. Members of the ISO are the
national standards organizations of the member countries.

Internet

A large, uncontrolled, unadministered, anarchic cyber-state that will soon take

over the world! Basically, it’s just everyone’s computers hooked together. It’s
not a corporation, organization, or entity in itself. When you connect to the
Internet, you actually become part of it. Always capitalized, the word Internet
can also be referred to colloquially as the “Net.”

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)

The central registry for various Internet protocol parameters, such as port,
protocol and enterprise numbers, and options, codes and types, the currently
assigned values are listed in the “Assigned Numbers” document. If you’d like
more information or want to request a number assignment, you can email IANA
at “[email protected]”.

Internet Protocol (IP)

An industry standard, connectionless, best-effort packet switching protocol used
as the network layer in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite.

Internet Protocol Address (IP Address)

The 32-bit address defined by the Internet Protocol. Every resource on the
Internet has a unique numerical IP address, represented in dotted decimal
notation. IP addresses are the closest thing the Internet has to phone numbers.
When you “call” that number (using any number of connection methods such as
FTP, HTTP, Gopher, etc.) you get connected to the computer that “owns” that IP
address.
Internet Service Provider (ISP)

An ISP is a company that maintains a network that is linked to the Internet via a
dedicated communication line, usually a high-speed link known as a T1. An ISP
offers use of its dedicated communication lines to companies or individuals (like
me) who can’t afford $1, 300 a month for a direct connection. Using a modem,
you can dial up to a service provider whose computers will connect you to the
Internet, typically for a fee.

Internet Society (ISOC)

A non-profit, professional organization that supports the technical evolution of

the Internet and stimulates that interest of members of the scientific and
academic communities, industry, and the public regarding technology and the
applications of the Internet. The ISOC also promotes the development of new
applications for the Internet by publishing a quarterly newsletter, the Internet
society News, and by and holding an annual conference, called INET.

InterNIC

Meaning “Internet information Center,” InterNIC is the combined name for the
providers of registration, information, and database services to the Internet.
InterNIC is who you contact if you want to register a domain name on the
Internet.

IRC

The world-wide “party line” of the ‘90s. IRC allows multiple users to converse
in real time on different “channels.” Channels (which have a “#” sign preceding
their name) vary in traffic and content. Channel operators (or Ops) moderate the
conversation, and have the ability to “kick” people from channels, or even ban
hem if their actions warrant it. IRC clients are available for nearly all platforms.

LAN
Acronym for “Local Area Network.” LANs are now commonplace in most
businesses, allowing users to send email and share resources such as files,
printers, modems, etc. Currently, most larger companies are connection their
LANs to he Internet, allowing users to connect to resources within or outside the
LAN

Leased Line

A dedicated, full-time connection used to link a user or network to an Internet

Service Provider or another network.

Listserv

An automated mailing list distribution system. Listservs exist for a multitude of

professional, educational, and special interest groups. Usually, you have to send
and email to a Listserver with the subject “SUBSCRIBE listname” or something
to that effect. You are then “subscribed” to that “mailing list” and (depending on
the service) will receive regular mail from a single source or from all members
who send email to the Listserver. Listserv was originally designed for the
Bitnet/EARN network.

Mailing List

A list of email addresses used to forward messages to groups of people. When

you subscribe to a mailing list, you receive all mail sent to that list (see also
Listserv).

Mirror Site

Due to the popularity of some FTP and Web sites, mirror sites came into
existence. They are areas on a computer that “mirror” or contain an exact replica
of the directory structure of another computer. If you have trouble getting
connected to an FTP site, for example, because of the high amount of traffic, you
can usually connect to a mirror site that contains the same information on a
different computer. Mirror sites are usually updated once a day.

Moderator

The person who manages moderated mailing lists, newsgroups, or online

discussion forums for services such as AOL., CompuServe, or the Microsoft
Network.

Mosaic

A graphical browser for the World wide Web that supports hypermedia. The
NCSA (National Super Computer Association) invented the Mosaic browser,
which quickly became the industry standard. Recently, however, Netscape
Communications has stormed the market with its freeware release of their
Netscape Browser, which has radically redefined the Web. The term “Mosaic” is
sometimes used incorrectly as a synonym for the World Wide Web.

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions Encoding (MIME Encoding)

MIME is a standardized method for organizing divergent file formats. The

method organizes file formats according to the file’s MIME type. When Internet
(usually email) software retrieves a file from a server, the server provides the
MIME type of the file, and the file is decoded correctly when transferred to your
machine.

Netiquette

The combination of the words “Net” and “etiquette,” this refers to the proper
behavior on a network, and more generally the internet. The key element in
Netiquette is remembering that actual people are on the other end of a computer
connection, and offensive comments or actions are just as offensive even if you
can’t see your recipient.

Network File System (NFS)

A protocol developed by Sun Microsystems. NFS allows a computer to access
and use files over a network as if they were local. This protocol has been
incorporated into the products of more two-hundred companies, and is now a de
facto internet standard.

Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP)

An industry standard protocol for the distribution, inquiry, retrieval, and posting
of news articles.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

A suite of protocols, designed by ISO committees to be the international

standard computer network architecture.

Packet

The common term for the standard unit of data sent across a network.

Packet Internet Gopher (PING)

The simplest way to test or time the response of an Internet connection. PING
sends a request to an Internet host and waits for a reply (called a ... yep.. you
guessed it: PONG). When you PING an address, you get a response telling you
the number of seconds it took to make the connection. PING clients exist for a
number of platforms, or you can use a UNIX or Windows 95 prompt to issue a
PING command directly.

Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)

One of the many authentication methods that can be used when connection go an
ISP. PAP allows you to login automatically, without having to use a terminal
window to type in your username and password. One warning about PAP:
passwords are sent over the connection in text format, which means there is no
protection if someone is “listening-in” on your connection.

Point Of Presence (POP)

An installation of telecommunications equipment, usually digital leased lines

and multi-protocol routers.

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)

A protocol that provides a method for transmitting packets over serial point-to-
point links. PPP is one of the most popular methods for dialup connections to the
Internet, since it allows you to use other standard protocols (such as IPX,
TCP/IP, and Netbeui) over a standard telephone connection, but it can also be
used for LAN connections.

Portal

A Web site “gateway” that provides multiple services, which could include Web
searching capability, news, free-email, discussion gouts, online shopping,
references and other services. A more recent trend is to use the same term for
sites that offer services to customers of particular industries, such as a Web-
based band “portal,” on which customers can access their checking, savings and
investment accounts.

Post Office Protocol (POP)

A protocol designed to allow single users to read mail from a server. There are
three versions: POP, POP2, and POP3. When email is sent to you, it is stored on
the server until accessed by you. Once you are authenticated, the POP is used to
transmit the stored mail from the server to your local mailbox on your client
machine.

Posting
The sending of and article to a Usenet newsgroup or the placing of a message on
a BBS.

Protocol

Simply, the “language” spoken between computers to help them exchange

information. More technically, it’s a formal description of message formats and
the rules that two computers must follow to exchange those messages. Protocols
can describe low-level details of machine-to-machine interfaces (like the order in
which bits and bytes are sent across a wire) or high-level exchanges between
allocation programs (the way in which two programs transfer a file across the
Internet).

Request For Comments (RFC)

A document series, begun in 1969, which describes the Internet suite of

protocols and related experiments. Not all (actually, very few) RFCs describe
Internet standards, but all Internet standards are written up as RFCs.

Router

A device that forwards traffic between networks. Forwarding decisions are made
based on network layer information and routing tables, often constructed by
routing protocols.

Search Engine

Specialized software, such as Alta Vista and Yahoo, that lets WWW browser
users search for information on the Web by using keywords, phrases, and
Boolean logic. Different search engines have different ways of categorizing and
indexing information, Search engines are accessed by typing in the URL of that
engine or using a browser’s compilation of search engines in its Internet search
function.
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)

Similar to PPP, SLIP is another standard protocol used to run TCP/IP over serial
lines, such as telephone circuits or RS-232 cables. Unlike PPP, however, SLIP
does not work on a LAN connections. SLIP is probably the most popular way
for dialup users to access the Internet.

Server

Simply, a computer that provides resources, such as files or other information.

Common Internet servers include file servers and name servers Domain Name
Service.

SIG

Acronym for “Special Interest Group.” SIGs sponsor a variety of Listservs, IRC
channels, and Internet sites.

Signature

An ASCII text file that can be automatically attached to the bottom of a piece of
email or newsgroup posting that identifies the sender. Many signatures (or
“sigs”) use symbols and characters to create images or words to make the sig
more interesting.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

A protocol used to transfer email. SMTP transfers mail from server to server,
and the end user must use POP (see also Post Office Protocol) to transfer the
messages to their machine.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

Developed to manage nodes on an IP network, SNMP is an Internet standard
protocol. It can be used to manage wiring hubs, video toasters, CD ROM
jukeboxes, and many other devices.

Smiley

The use of punctuation marks and other symbols or characters to portray moods
when typing, especially in email messages and IRC. Here’s an example of a
simple smiley :). If you don’t see it, tilt your head to the left and look at it. The
colon makes the eyes and the parenthesis makes the smiley mouth. The smile
means happiness (like if someone says something funny) or it often denotes
sarcasm, Other combinations of characters can express many other emotions.
You may also hear them referred to as “emoticons”.

TCP/IP Stack

To properly use the TCP/IP protocol, PCs require a TCP/IP stack. This consists
of TCP/IP software, sockets software (such as WINSOCK.DLL for Windows
machines), and hardware driver software (known as packet drivers). Windows
95 comes with Microsoft’s own built-in TCP/IP stack, including version 1.1 of
Microsoft’s WINSOCK.DLL and packet drivers.

Telnet

The Internet standard protocol to connect to remote terminals. Telnet clients are
available for most platforms, When you Telnet to a UNIX site, for example, you
can issue commands at the prompt as if the machine were local.

Token Ring

A type of LAN in which networked computers are wired into a “ring.” Each
computer (or node) is in constant with the next node in the ring. A control
message, called a “token”, is passed from one node to another, allowing the node
with the token to send a message out to the network. If the ring is “broken” by
one computer losing contact, the network can no longer communicate. The IEEE
802.5 token ring standard is the most common.
Topology

The “layout” of all the computers on a network and the links that join them.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

TCP/IP is the standard communications protocol required for Internet computers.

To communicate using TCP/IP, PCs need a set of software components called a
TCP/IP stack. Macintoshes typically use a proprietary software called Mac TCP.
Most UNIX systems are built with TCP/IP capabilities.

UNIX-to-UNIX Copy (UUCP)

Originally, UUCP was a program that allowed UNIX systems to transfer files
over phone lines. Currently, the term is used to describe the protocol that passes
news and email across the Internet.

Usenet

Usenet groups are more commonly known as “newsgroups.” There are

thousands of groups hosted on hundreds of servers around the world, dealing
with various topics. Newsreader software is required to properly download and
view “articles” in the groups, but you can usually “post” and article to a group
simply by emailing to it.

Universal Resource Locator (URL)

More commonly referred to as the URL, the Universal Resource Locator refers
to the entire address that is recognized “universally” as the address for an
Internet resource. Each resource on the Internet has a unique URL. URLs begin
with letters that identify the resource type, such as http, ftp, gopher, etc. These
types are followed by a colon and two slashes. Next, the computer’s name is
listed, followed by the directory and filename of the remote resource. For
example, the URL for this glossary is
http://www.windows95.com/glossary.html/

White Pages
Databases containing email addresses, telephone numbers, and postal addresses
of Internet users. You can search the Internet White Pages to find information
about particular users.

WHOIS

An Internet program (related to Finger and the White Pages) that lets you enter
and Internet entity (such as domains, networks, and hosts) and display
information such as a person’s company name, address, phone number and email
address.

Wide Area Information Service (WAIS)

A distributed information service and search engine that allows natural language
input and indexed searching. Many Web search utilities use a WAIS engine.

Winsocks

Stands for “Windows Sockets.” Winsocks is a set of specifications or standards

fro programmers creating TCP/IP applications for use with Windows.

World Wide Web (WWW or W3)

The “Web” is a collection of online documents housed on Internet servers

around the world. The concept of the Web was created by researchers at CERN
in Switzerland. Web documents are written or “coded” in HTML. To access
these documents, you have to use a Web browser, such as Netscape or Mosaic.
When these browsers access (or hit) a page, the server uses the Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to send the document to your computer.
Worm

A computer program that replicates itself and is self-propagating. While viruses

are designed to cause problems on a local system and are passed through boot
sectors of disks and through files, worms are designed to thrive in network
environments. Network worms were first defined by Shoch & Hupp of Xerox in
ACM Communications (March 1982). The most famous (or infamous) worm
was the Internet Worm of November 1988. It successfully propagated itself on
over 6,000 systems across the Internet.

Appendix -
A

HOT SITES

These sites take you to some of the major producers of computers,

computer systems, and related hardware and software.

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

IBM
http://www.ibm.com

Apple Computer
http://www.apple.com

Sun Microsystems, Inc.

http://www.sun.com

Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)

http://www.dec.com
 Compaq
http://www.compaq.com

Printers
Hewlett-Packard
http://www.hp.com

Modems
US Robotics
http://www.usr.com

Hayes
http://www.usr.com

Practical Peripherals
http://www.practinet.com

MAJOR SOFTWARE CORPORATIONS

Microsoft
http://www.microsoft.com

Adobe Systems Incorporated

http://www.adobe.com

INTERNET SITES

This section contains Internet-related World Wide Web sites.

Browsers and Plug-Ins

Netscape Communications
http://www.netscape.com

Microsoft Internet Explorer

http://www.microsoft.com/ie/

Search Engines
 Yahoo!
http://www.yahoo.com

Infoseek
http://www.infoseek.com/

Alta Vista
http://www.altavista.digital.com/

WebCrawler
http://www.webcrawler.com/

People Finders

InfoSpace
http://www.infospace.com

Who Where?
http://www.whowhere.com

America Directory Assistance

http://www.lookupusa.com/lookupusa.adp/peopsrch.htm

Broadcast Media
This list of sites covers everything from network TV to cable to he
movies.

Network TV

ABC
http://www.abc.com

Fox
http://www.foxworld.com

Cable TV

Cinemax
http://www.cinemax.com
 The Disney Channel
http://www.disney.com/DisneyChannel/

ESPN
http://www.espn.com

Movie Studios

MCA/Universal
http://www.mca.com

Sony Pictures
http://www.spe.sony.com/Pictures/SonyMovies/index.html

20th Century Fox

http://www.tcfhe.com

Walt Disney Studios

http://www.disney.com/DisneyPictures/

Warner Brothers
http://www.movies.warnerbros.com/