Module 5 – RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

Module Outcomes
At the end of the module, the learner should be able to:
1. state the Stefan-Boltzmann law
2. differentiate blackbody from gray body
3. compute the emissive power of blackbody and gray body
4. define the relevant radiation properties such as emissivity, absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity
5. define view factor and read its value from the graphs at different configurations
6. calculate the radiation heat transfer between black surfaces and gray surfaces
7. analyze heat transfer systems involving two or three modes of heat transfer

Radiation is a term applied to many processes which involve energy transfer by electromagnetic
wave phenomena. The radiative mode of heat transfer differs in two important respects from the
conductive and convective modes: (1) no medium is required and (2) the energy transfer is
proportional to the fourth or fifth power of the temperatures of the bodies involved.

5.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

All objects emit electromagnetic radiation. An object at a certain temperature emits radiation of different
wavelengths. The radiant energy emitted leaves the surface of the object at the speed of light.
𝒄=𝝀𝒇 (𝟓. 𝟏)
Where: 𝑐 = speed of light (2.997925× 108 m/s)
𝜆 = wavelength (m)
𝑓 = frequency (Hz)

This radiation leaves the surface in discreet amount of energy (energy packet) which depends on frequency. This
energy packet or quantum has an energy given by Planck’s Equation
𝑬=𝒉𝒇 (𝟓. 𝟐)
where: 𝐸 is the energy of a quantum of radiation (in Joule), ℎ = 6.626070 × 10-34 J-s (Planck’s constant), and 𝑓 is
the frequency (in Hz)
The chart below shows the different types of radiation. Light, the radiation that the human eye are
sensitive to, make up just a tiny portion of the whole radiation spectrum. Thermal radiation, the type of radiation
emitted by objects due to thermal motion of its charged particles has wavelength

1
 Figure 5.1 Electromagnetic radiation spectrum (from: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/graphic-
science-electromagnetic-bombardment)

between 0.1 𝜇m to 100 𝜇m. This range is roughly located just below the infrared region up to the lower half of the
ultraviolet region. Light is within the thermal radiation spectrum. It is important to note that most of the
electromagnetic radiations of most objects are radiated in the thermal radiation spectrum. Example, the sun
(surface temperature of 6000 K) has a total energy flux of 56 704 W/m 2. Its energy flux within the thermal
radiation spectrum is 56 696 W/m2 or 99.99% of its total flux.

5.2 BLACK BODY RADIATION

The total radiation an object emits depends on its temperature. An ideal radiator is a blackbody. It is an
opaque object which does not reflect any radiation. It absorbs all radiations incident on it. The total radiation a
black body at a certain absolute temperature emits is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
𝑬𝒃 = 𝝈 𝑻𝟒 (𝟓. 𝟑)
where: 𝐸𝑏 = power emitted per unit surface area (watts/m2)
Note: The subscript 𝑏 stands for black body.
2
 𝜎 = 5.670373 × 10−8 W/m2 K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
𝑇 = absolute temperature (Kelvin)
The name blackbody does not necessarily mean that the object is black. Most objects around us are at a
temperature lower than temperatures which make objects glow or incandescent. We see these objects not through
the radiation they emit, because the visible radiation they emit is a very tiny portion of the total radiation they
emit. We see them through the visible radiation reflected on their surfaces. Since a blackbody by definition does
not reflect radiation, it will appear black to us.
The total radiation given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law is the sum of the all the types of radiation emitted
by the black body. If one is interested in knowing how much energy is being radiated by a blackbody at a certain
temperature between two frequencies, then one has to use the integral of Planck’s Law,

𝒇𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝒉 𝒇𝟑
𝑬𝒃 𝒇𝟏−𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐 ∫ 𝒉𝒇
𝒅𝒇 (𝟓. 𝟒)
𝒄
𝒇𝟏 (𝒆𝒌𝑻 − 𝟏)

where: 𝐸𝑏 𝑓1 𝑡𝑜 𝑓2 = power emitted per unit surface area between the frequency 𝑓1 to 𝑓2
ℎ = 6.626070 × 10-34 J s (Planck’s Constant)
𝑐 = 2.997925 × 108 m/s (speed of light)
𝑘 = 1.380649 × 10-23 J/K (Boltzmann Constant)
The above integral is very hard to solve. But with today’s computer or calculators with definite integral
capability, it can be done routinely. Notice that if the integral is done overall wavelengths (limits of zero to
infinity) the result will be the Stefan-Boltzmann law using the identity below.
𝟐𝝅𝟓 𝒌𝟒
𝝈= (𝟓. 𝟓)
𝟏𝟓𝒄𝟐 𝒉𝟑

Example. A flat metal plate has a surface temperature of 1000 K. Assuming the metal as a black
body, determine:
a) The total radiation emitted per unit surface area
b) The thermal radiation ( 𝑓1 ≈ 3 × 1012 Hz to 𝑓2 ≈ 3 × 1015 Hz) per unit surface area
c) The visible radiation (𝑓1 ≈ 4.3 × 1014 Hz to 𝑓2 ≈ 1.0 × 1015 Hz) per unit surface area
d) Check a) by performing the integral of Planck’s Law

Solution:
a) 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎 𝑇 4 = (5.670373 × 10−8 ) (1000)4 = 56 704 W/m2
b) Using Mathematica for the integration of

3
 𝑓2
2𝜋ℎ 𝑓3
𝐸𝑏 𝑓1 −𝑓2 = 2 ∫ ℎ𝑓
𝑑𝑓
𝑐
𝑓1 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)

So as to minimize the clutter of constants, we will make the following groupings:

2𝜋ℎ
= 𝐶1 = 4.632275 × 10−50 kg s
𝑐2
ℎ
= 𝐶2 = 4.799230 × 10−14 𝑠 −1
𝑘𝑇
If we plug this back to the integral above we have:
𝑓2
𝑓3
𝐸𝑏 𝑓1 −𝑓2 = 𝐶1 ∫ 𝑑𝑓
𝑒 𝐶2 𝑓 − 1
𝑓1

Plugging the values of the limits:

𝑓1 = 3 × 1012 Hz
𝑓2 = 3 × 1015 Hz
Mathematica evaluates this definite integral to:
𝐸𝑏 𝑓1 −𝑓2 = 56 696 W/m2
Notice that the thermal radiation of 56 696 W/m2 is 99.99% of the total radiation of 56 704 W/m2.
c) Proceeding just like in b) with limits of
𝑓1 = 4.3 × 1014 Hz
𝑓2 = 1.0 × 1015 Hz
Mathematica evaluates this integral to
𝐸𝑏 𝑓1 −𝑓2 = 0.097 W/m2
This is so small that the contribution of the visible radiation to the total radiation is negligible.
d) Proceeding just in b) with limits of
𝑓1 → 0
𝑓2 → ∞
Mathematica evaluates this integral to 56 704 W/m2 which is the same as the result in a).

Wien’s Law
In the above example we verify that emissive power varies with frequency or consequently, wavelength.
For a given temperature, it might be interesting to ask at what wavelength maximum emissive power occurs.
Wien’s Law gives the wavelength (𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) at which maximum emissive power occurs.
𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟕𝟔 𝐦-𝐊 (𝟓. 𝟔)
Wien’s Law predicts that maximum emissive power will occur at shorter wavelength (higher frequency)
when temperature increases.

4
Example. In the previous example determine the frequency at which maximum emissive power
occur.
Solution:
From the previous problem, 𝑇 = 1000 K.
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 0.0028976
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1000) = 0.0028976 m K

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.0000028976 m or 2.8976 𝜇m

Solving for the frequency at which maximum emissive power occurs:
𝑐 = 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
2.997925 × 108 = (0.0000028976) 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.0346 × 1014 Hz
So, maximum emissive power occurs at upper infrared region.

5.3 REFLECTIVITY, ABSORPTIVITY, AND TRANSMISSIVITY

When radiation strikes a surface, three possible ways can happen. Some of the radiation may be reflected,
some may be absorbed and some may be transmitted through the material. Reflectivity (𝜌) is the fraction
reflected. Absorptivity (𝛼) is the fraction absorbed. Transmissivity (𝜏) is the fraction transmitted.
𝝆+𝜶+𝝉=𝟏 (𝟓. 𝟕)
Generally, all three of these material properties are not the same for all wavelengths of radiation. For
example, a material may absorb infrared radiation and transmit all radiation with higher frequency than infrared
radiation. Most solids do not transmit radiation. In that case 𝜏 = 0.
There are two ways incident radiation can be reflected by a surface. If the angle of reflection (𝜃𝑟 ) equals
the angle of incidence (𝜃𝑖 ), then the reflection is specular. Otherwise it is called diffuse reflection.

5
 Incident Ray Reflected Ray Incident Ray
Reflected Ray
𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑟 𝜃𝑖 𝜃𝑟

𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟 𝜃𝑖 ≠ 𝜃𝑟

Specular Reflection Diffuse Reflection

Figure 5.2 Specular vs. diffuse reflection

Emissivity
Emissivity (𝜖) is the ratio of emitted radiation (𝐸) of an object at a given temperature to the emitted
radiation of a blackbody (𝐸𝑏 ) of the same shape and dimension at the given temperature.
𝑬
𝝐= (𝟓. 𝟖)
𝑬𝒃
It can be proved that emissivity is equal to absorptivity. This is intuitively true because for an object to
maintain its temperature, it must emit the radiant energy it has absorbed.
𝝐=𝜶

Values of emissivity for common materials are tabulated below.

Table 5.1 Emissivity of common materials

(from http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com)
Material Emissivity, 𝝐
Aluminum Commercial Sheet 0.09
Aluminum, Rough 0.07
Asphalt 0.93
Black Enamel Paint 0.80
Brass, Polished 0.03
Brass, Oxidized (600 oC) 0.6
Brick, red rough 0.93
Brick, fireclay 0.75
Cast Iron, newly turned 0.44
Cast Iron, turned and heated 0.60 - 0.70
Cement 0.54
Chromium, polished 0.058
Clay 0.91
Coal 0.8
Concrete 0.85
Cotton cloth 0.77

6
Copper, electroplated 0.03
Copper with thick oxide layer 0.78
Glass, smooth 0.92 - 0.94
Granite 0.45
Gravel 0.28
Gypsum 0.85
Ice 0.97
Iron, polished 0.14 - 0.38
Iron, rough ingot 0.87 - 0.95
Marble, white 0.95
Mild Steel 0.20 - 0.32
Nickel, polished 0.072
Nickel, oxidized 0.59 - 0.86
Plaster 0.98
Pine 0.84
Paint 0.96
Paper 0.93
Plastics 0.90 - 0.97
PVC 0.91 - 0.93
Rubber, natural hard 0.91
Rubber, natural soft 0.86
Sand 0.76
Sawdust 0.75
Soil 0.90 - 0.95
Steel, oxidized 0.79
Steel, polished 0.07
Stainless Steel, weathered 0.85
Stainless Steel, polished 0.075
Stainless Steel, type 301 0.54 - 0.63
Steel, galvanized, old 0.88
Steel, galvanized, new 0.23
Water 0.95 - 0.963
Wood, Beech, planed 0.935
Wood, Oak, planed 0.885
Wood, Pine 0.95
Wrought Iron 0.94

7
5.4 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
Suppose that surface 1 at temperature 𝑇1 is exchanging heat by radiation with surface 2 at 𝑇2 . Of the total
radiation leaving surface 1, only a fraction of this arrives on surface 2, which is

𝑬𝒃𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝟏𝟐

where: 𝐸𝑏1 = emissive power of surface 1

𝐴1 = area of surface 1
𝐸𝑏1 𝐴1 = total radiation which surface 1 emits in all direction
𝐹12 = fraction of total radiation which surface 1 emits in all direction which arrives on surface2
Surface 2 at temperature 𝑇2 will also radiate heat to surface 1 in the same manner. That is,

𝑬𝒃𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑭𝟐𝟏

where: 𝐸𝑏2 = emissive power of surface 2

𝐴2 = area of surface 2
𝐸𝑏2 𝐴2 = total radiation which surface 2 emits in all direction
𝐹21 = radiation shape factor, which denotes the fraction of total radiation which surface 2 emits in all
direction which arrives on surface 1
The quantity 𝐴1 𝐹12 can be thought of as a measure of how surface 2 “sees” surface 1 in comparison to its
whole field of view. And in the same manner, the quantity 𝐴2 𝐹21 can be thought of as a measure of how surface 1
“sees” surface 2 in comparison to its whole field of view. Obviously, if surface 1 can “see” surface 2, then surface
2 can also “see” surface 1. This is known as reciprocity relation.
𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑨𝟐 𝑭𝟐𝟏 (𝟓. 𝟗)

The net heat exchanged is the difference between the above two quantities.
𝑄 = 𝐸𝑏2 𝐴2 𝐹21 − 𝐸𝑏1 𝐴1 𝐹12
𝑸 = 𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝟏𝟐 (𝑬𝒃𝟐 − 𝑬𝒃𝟏 ) (𝟓. 𝟏𝟎𝒂)
or
𝑸 = 𝑨𝟐 𝑭𝟐𝟏 (𝑬𝒃𝟐 − 𝑬𝒃𝟏 ) (𝟓. 𝟏𝟎𝒃)
The heat can be negative, zero or positive depending on the values of 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 . The surface with lower
temperature gets the negative value (heat gain) while the surface with the higher temperature will get the positive
value (heat loss).

8
5.5 RADIATION SHAPE FACTOR
The quantities 𝐹12 and 𝐹21 above are known as radiation shape factor. The bulk of the work in
determining the radiation heat transfer between two surfaces is on determining the shape factor between them.
Generally, shape factors are very hard to determine. The figures below give shape factors for some of the most
common configuration of surfaces.

Figure 5.3 Radiation shape factor for radiation

between parallel rectangles

9
Figure 5.4 Radiation shape factor for radiation between
perpendicular rectangles with a common edge

10
 Figure 5.5 Radiation shape factors for two concentric
cylinders of finite length

Figure 5.6 Radiation shape factor for radiation

between two parallel coaxial disks

Figure 6.3 – 6.6 were adopted from Heat Transfer 10th Edition by J.P. Holman.

Example. Two parallel concentric disks are exchanging heat by radiation as shown. The disk on the
right (𝐴1 ) has a 40 cm radius and its temperature is 400 K. The disk on the left (𝐴2 ) has a radius of
50 cm and its temperature is 500 K. The separation of the disks is 20 cm. Let subscript 1 refer to the
Assume the disks to be blackbodies and determine:
a) the radiation shape factor 𝐹12 400 K
500 K
b) the radiation shape factor 𝐹21
c) the net heat of the disk on the right

Solution:
𝐴2 𝐴1
a) Before we can use the chart for radiation shape factor for radiation
between two parallel coaxial disks we have to calculate the following:

11
 𝐿 20
= = 0.50
𝑟1 40
𝑟2 50
= = 2.50
𝐿 20
Using these two values, the chart gives 𝐹12 = 0.74
b) We can use the reciprocity relation to determine 𝐹21 .
𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21
𝜋 𝑟12 𝐹12 = 𝜋 𝑟22 𝐹21
402 (0.74) = 502 𝐹21
𝐹21 = 0.4736
It is expected that 𝐹21 will be lower than 𝐹12 since 𝐴1 is less than 𝐴2 . More fraction of radiation
leaving 𝐴2 does not strike 𝐴1 .
c) The net heat of disk 1 will be the difference of the radiant energy it absorbs and the radiant energy
it emits.
𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 (𝐸𝑏2 − 𝐸𝑏1 )
𝑄1 = 𝜋𝑟12 𝐹12 (𝜎𝑇24 − 𝜎𝑇14 )
𝑄1 = 𝜋𝑟12 𝐹12 𝜎(𝑇24 − 𝜎𝑇14 )
Substituting the following values,
𝑟1 = 0.40 m
𝐹12 = 0.74
𝜎 = 5.670373 × 10−8 W/m2 K 4
𝑇2 = 500 K
𝑇1 = 400 K
The net heat of disk 1 is,
𝑄1 = +778 W
Disk 1 is absorbing heat (indicated by the positive value of Q1).

5.6 NON-BLACKBODIES RADIATION HEAT EXCHANGE

Non-blackbodies reflect some of the radiant energy incident on it. So the total radiation coming from a
non-blackbody is the sum of the radiation it emits due to its temperature plus the radiation it reflects which is
incident on it. These total radiation is called radiosity ( 𝐽) . While the incident radiation is called irradiation (𝐺).

Total radiation = Emitted radiation due to temperature + Reflected radiation

𝑱 = 𝝐𝑬𝒃 + 𝝆𝑮 (𝟓. 𝟏𝟏)
If the non-blackbody is opaque, transmissivity(𝜏), is zero.

12
 𝝆=𝟏−𝝐 (𝟓. 𝟏𝟐)
So the expression for radiosity is,
𝑱 = 𝝐𝑬𝒃 + (𝟏 − 𝝐)𝑮 (𝟓. 𝟏𝟑)
Solving for the irradiation (𝐺)
𝑱 − 𝝐𝑬𝒃
𝑮= (𝟓. 𝟏𝟒)
𝟏−𝝐

Emitted
Irradiation (𝐺) Irradiation (𝜖𝐸𝑏 ) Reflected
Radiation (𝜌𝐺)

Figure 5.7 Surface energy balance for opaque material

The net heat leaving the surface of the non-blackbody is the difference between the radiation leaving the
surface (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐽)) and the radiation incident on it (𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐺)).

𝑄
=𝐽−𝐺
𝐴

𝑄 𝐽 − 𝜖𝐸𝑏 𝜖
=𝐽− = (𝐸 − 𝐽)
𝐴 1−𝜖 1−𝜖 𝑏

𝑬𝒃 − 𝑱
𝑸= (𝟓. 𝟏𝟓)
𝟏−𝝐
𝝐𝑨

The above result has an analogy in electrical circuit. 𝑄 for current, 𝐸𝑏 − 𝐽 for voltage difference, and (1 −
𝜖)/𝜖𝐴 for resistance.

𝐸𝑏 𝐽
1−𝜖
𝜖𝐴

Figure 5.8 Element representing “surface resistance” in the radiation-network method

13
 Suppose we have two surfaces exchanging heat by radiation. The fraction of the total radiation (𝐽1 )
leaving 𝐴1 that reaches 𝐴2 is 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐽1 . And fraction of the total radiation (𝐽2 ) leaving 𝐴2 that reaches 𝐴1 is
𝐴2 𝐹21 𝐽2 . The net heat exchanged by radiation is therefore:

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝐹21 𝐽2 − 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐽1

Using the reciprocity relation 𝐴2 𝐹21 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 ,

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 (𝐽2 − 𝐽1 )

(𝑱𝟐 − 𝑱𝟏 )
𝑸= (𝟓. 𝟏𝟔)
𝟏
𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝟏𝟐

Using the electric circuit analogy, we have 𝑄 for current, 𝐽2 − 𝐽1 for voltage difference, and 1/𝐴1 𝐹12 for
resistance. The figure below summarizes the electric circuit analogy for two surfaces exchanging heat by
radiation.

𝐸𝑏1 𝐽1 𝐽2 𝐸𝑏2

1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2
𝜖1 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝜖2 𝐴 2
𝐴1 𝐴2

Figure 5.9 Radiation network for two surfaces that see each other and nothing else

Difference in Radiated Energy

Net Heat =
Total Radiant Resistance

𝑬𝒃𝟐 − 𝑬𝒃𝟏
𝑸= (𝟓. 𝟏𝟕)
𝟏 − 𝝐𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝝐𝟐
𝝐𝟏 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝟏𝟐 + 𝝐𝟐 𝑨𝟐

1 − 𝜖1
where: = surface resistance of 𝐴1
𝜖1 𝐴1

14
 1
= space resistance
𝐴1 𝐹12
1 − 𝜖2
= surface resistance of 𝐴2
𝜖2 𝐴2
This formula (Eq. 5.17) is applicable to any two non-blackbody, diffuse, opaque surfaces that form an
enclosure.

Example. In the previous problem let disk 1 and disk 2 have emissivities of 0.80 and 0.90, respectively.
Determine the net heat exchange.

500 K 400 K

𝐴2 𝐴1
Solution:
𝐸𝑏2 − 𝐸𝑏1
𝑄=
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2
𝜖1 𝐴1 + 𝐴1 𝐹12 + 𝜖2 𝐴2

Blackbodies radiation difference:

𝐸𝑏2 − 𝐸𝑏1 = 𝜎(𝑇24 − 𝑇14 ) = 5.670373 × 10−8 (5004 − 4004 )
= 2092 W/m2
𝐴1 surface resistance:
1 − 𝜖1 1 − 0.80
= = 0.497/m2
𝜖1 𝐴1 0.80 𝜋 (0.402 )
Space resistance between 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 :
1 1
= 2
= 2.688 /m2
𝐴1 𝐹12 𝜋 (0.40 ) (0.74)
𝐴2 surface resistance:
1 − 𝜖2 1 − 0.90
= = 0.141 /m2
𝜖2 𝐴2 0.90 𝜋 (0.502 )
Substituting these values to solve for the net heat exchanged, we have,
2092
𝑄=
0.497 + 2.688 + 0.141
𝑄 = 629 W

15
This is a significant reduction from the blackbodies heat exchange of 778 W from the previous
problem.
Table 5.2 below lists the simplified forms of Eq. 5.17 for some of the common
configurations of two-surface enclosures. Note that 𝐹12 = 1 for all of these cases.

Table 5.2 Simplified forms of Eq. 5.17 for some familiar arrangements that form a two-surface enclosure. Note that
F12 = 1 for all of these special cases. (from Heat Transfer: A Practical Approach 2nd Ed. by Y. A. Cengel)

16
5.7 SOLAR RADIATION
At the outer edge of the atmosphere the average incident solar radiation is 1367 W/m 2. This value is
known as the solar constant. The atmosphere absorbs and reflects a big fraction of the solar radiation. The average
transmitted solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth (𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 ) is about 684 W/m2. Generally, materials have
different absorptivities (𝛼) for different radiation incident on it. The absorptivity for solar radiation will be
different from the absorptivity for the low temperature radiation.
A material exposed to the sun and exchanging heat with the surrounding will attain an equilibrium
temperature. If the effect of convection heat transfer is set aside, the equilibrium temperature can be determined
from the following relation.
𝜶𝒍𝒐𝒘
𝑰𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 = 𝝈 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒖𝒓 ) (𝟓. 𝟏𝟖)
𝜶𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓

Where: 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑟 ≈ 700 W/m2 , the average solar irradiation

𝛼𝑙𝑜𝑤 =low temperature absorptivity of the material
𝛼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = absorptivity of the material for solar radiation
𝜎 = 5.670373 × 10−8 W/m2 K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
𝑇 = temperature of the material
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟 = temperature of the surrounding
The table below gives the values of absorptivity for solar radiation and for low temperature radiation.

17
 Absorptivity
Surface For solar radiation For low-temperature

Aluminum, highly polished 0.15 0.04

Copper, highly polished 0.18 0.03
Tarnished 0.65 0.75
Cast iron 0.94 0.21
Stainless steel, no. 301, polished 0.37 0.60
White marble 0.46 0.95
Asphalt 0.90 0.90
Brick, red 0.75 0.93
Gravel 0.29 0.85
Flat black lacquer 0.96 0.95
White paints, various types of pigments 0.12–0.16 0.90–0.95

Table 5.3 Absorptivity of surfaces for solar radiation and for low-temperature radiation (from Heat
Transfer 10th Edition by J.P. Holman)

Example. Compare the equilibrium temperatures of a brick wall and a wall painted with white paint both exposed
to a solar irradiation of 650 W/m2. Assume surrounding temperature of 25°C.
Solution: For the brick wall, 𝛼𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.93 and 𝛼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 0.75.
𝛼𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝜎 [𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4 ]
𝛼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟
0.93
650 = 5.670373 × 10−8 [𝑇 4 − (25 + 273)4 ]
0.75
𝑇 = 365 K = 92°C
For the wall painted with white paint, 𝛼𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.93 and 𝛼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 0.14.
𝛼𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝜎 [𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4 ]
𝛼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟
0.93
650 = 5.670373 × 10−8 [𝑇 4 − (25 + 273)4 ]
0.14
𝑇 = 314 K = 41°C
This result verifies that white surfaces are not as hot as dark-colored surfaces.

Problem Set 5 - Radiation Heat Transfer

18
1. The filament temperature of a light bulb is 2 000 K when the bulb delivers 40 W of power. If its emissivity
remains constant, what power is delivered when the filament temperature is 2 500 K?
[98 W]
2. At high noon, the sun delivers 1 000 W to each square meter of a blacktop road. What is the equilibrium
temperature of the hot asphalt, assuming its emissivity e = 1? ( = 5.67  10−8 W/m2K4).
[91°C]
3. A black thermocouple measures the temperature in a chamber with black walls. If the air around the
thermocouple is at 20 °C, the walls are at 100 °C, and the heat transfer coefficient between the thermocouple and
the air is 15 W/m2 K, what temperature will the thermocouple read?
[51°C]
4. A crucible of molten metal at 1800°C is placed on the foundry floor. The foundryman covers it with a metal
sheet to reduce heat loss to the room. If the transfer factor between the melt and the sheet is 0.4, and that between
the top of the sheet and the room is 0.8, how much will the heat loss to the room be reduced by the sheet if the
transfer factor between the uncovered melt and the room had been 0.8?
[66.7%]
5. An electronic component dissipates 0.38 Watts through a heat sink by convection and radiation (black body)
into surrounds at 20°C. What is the surface temperature of the heat sink if the convective heat transfer coefficient
is 6 W/m2K, and the heat sink has an effective area of 0.001 m2?
[50°C]
6. The over-all heat transfer coefficient due to convection and radiation for a steam main at 200°C running in a
large room at 30 °C is 17.95 W/m2 K. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient due to convection and radiation
taking the emissivity of the pipe surface as 0.8.
[6.85; 11.1 W/m2 K]

Objective Type Questions about Radiation Heat Transfer

1. When heat is transferred from hot body to cold body, in a straight line, without affecting the intervening
medium, it is referred as heat transfer by
(A) Conduction (C) Radiation
(B) Convection (D) Conduction and convection
2. Which of the following is the case of heat transfer by radiation?
(A) Blast furnace (C) Cooling of parts in furnace
(B) Heating of building (D) Heat received by a person from fireplace
3. The automobile radiator is a heat exchanger of

19
(A) Parallel flow type (C) Cross flow type
(B) Counter flow type (D) Regenerator type
4. Temperature of steam at around 540°C can be measured by
(A) Thermometer (C) Thermocouple
(B) Thermistor (D) None of these
5. The time constant of a thermocouple is
(A) The time taken to attain the final temperature to be measured
(B) The time taken to attain 50% of the value of initial temperature difference
(C) The time taken to attain 63.2% of the value of initial temperature difference
(D) Determined by the time taken to reach 100°C from 0°C
6. According to Stefan Boltzmann law, the total radiation from a black body per second per unit area is directly
proportional to the
(A) Absolute temperature (C) Cube of the absolute temperature
(B) Square of the absolute temperature (D) Fourth power of the absolute temperature
7. The radiation emitted by a black body is known as
(A) Black radiation (C) Total radiation
(B) Full radiation (D) All of these
8. Heat is transferred by all three modes of transfer, viz. conduction, convection and radiation in
(A) Electric heater (C) Boiler
(B) Steam condenser (D) Refrigerator condenser coils
9. According to Prevost theory of heat exchange
(A) It is impossible to transfer heat from low temperature source to t high temperature source
(B) Heat transfer by radiation requires no medium
(C) All bodies above absolute zero emit radiation
(D) Heat transfer in most of the cases takes place by combination of conduction, convection and radiation
10. Heat transfer by radiation mainly depends upon
(A) Its temperature (C) Kind and extent of its surface
(B) Nature of the body (D) All of these
11. The heat is transferred by conduction, convection and radiation in
(A) Melting of ice (C) Condensation of steam in condenser
(B) Boiler furnaces (D) None of these
12. The value of the wave length for maximum emissive power is given by
(A) Kirchhoff's law (C) Wine’s law
(B) Stefan's law (D) Planck's law

20
13. The rate of energy emission from unit surface area through unit solid angle, along a normal to the surface, is
known as
(A) Emissivity (C) Reflectivity
(B) Transmissivity (D) Intensity of radiation
14. If the energy radiated per second per sq. cm. of the surface for wave lengths lying between λ, and λ + dλ is
represented by (eλ.dλ), then eλ is called
(A) Absorptive power (C) Emissivity
(B) Emissive power (D) None of these
15. Emissivity of a white polished body in comparison to a black body is
(A) Higher (C) Same
(B) Lower (D) Depends upon the shape of body
16. When absorptivity (α) = 1, reflectivity (ρ) = 0 and transmissivity (τ) = 0, then the body is said to be a
(A) Black body (C) Opaque body
(B) Grey body (D) White body
17. A grey body is one whose absorptivity
(A) Varies with temperature
(B) Varies with wavelength of the incident ray
(C) Is equal to its emissivity
(D) Does not vary with temperature and. wavelength of the incident ray
18. Two balls of same material and finish have their diameters in the ratio of 2: 1 and both are heated to same
temperature and allowed to cool by radiation. Rate of cooling by big ball as compared to smaller one will be in
the ratio of
(A) 1:1 (C) 1: 2
(B) 2: 1 (D) 4: 1
19 Kirchhoff's law states that
(A) The total radiation from a black body per second per unit area is directly proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature
(B) The wave length corresponding to the maximum energy is proportional to the absolute temperature
(C) The ratio of the emissive power and absorptive power of all bodies is the same and is equal to the emissive
power of a perfectly black body
(D) None of the above
20 According of Kirchhoff's law
(A) Radiant heat is proportional to fourth power of absolute temperature
(B) Emissive power depends on temperature
(C) Emissive power and absorptivity are constant for all bodies

21
(D) Ratio of emissive power to absorptive power for all bodies is same and is equal to the emissive power of a
perfectly black body
21. All radiations in a black body are
(A) Reflected (C) Transmitted
(B) Refracted (D) Absorbed
22. According to Kirchoff's law, the ratio of emissive power to absorptivity for all bodies is equal to the emissive
power of a
(A) Grey body (C) Red hot body
(B) Brilliant white polished body (D) Black body
23. When α is absorptivity, ρ is reflectivity and τ is transmissivity, then for a diathermanous body,
(A) α = 1, ρ = 0 and τ = 0 (C) α = 0, ρ = 0 and τ = 1
(B) α = 0, ρ = 1 and τ = 0 (D) α + ρ = 1 and τ = 0
24. The ratio of the emissive power and absorptive power of all bodies is the same and is equal to the emissive
power of a perfectly black body. This statement is known as
(A) Wien's law (C) Kirchhoff's law
(B) Stefan's law (D) Planck's law
25. The value of the wavelength for maximum emissive power is given by
(A) Wien's law (C) Stefan's law
(B) Planck's law (D) Fourier's law
26. The heat of sun reaches to us according to
(A) Conduction (C) Radiation
(B) Convection (D) None of these
27. The energy distribution of an ideal reflector at higher temperatures is largely in the range of
(A) Shorter wavelength (C) Remain same at all wavelengths
(B) Longer wavelength (D) Wavelength has nothing to do with it
28. Total emissivity of polished silver compared to black body is
(A) Same (C) More or less same
(B) Higher (D) Very much lower
29. According to Stefan Boltzmann law, ideal radiators emit radiant energy at a rate proportional to
(A) Absolute temperature (C) Fourth power of absolute temperature
(B) Square of temperature (D) Fourth power of temperature
30. The expression Q = σ AT4 is called
(A) Fourier equation (C) Newton Reichmann equation
(B) Stefan-Boltzmann equation (D) Joseph-Stefan equation
31. The unit of Stefan Boltzmann constant is

22
(A) watt/cm² °K (C) watt²/cm °K⁴
(B) watt/cm⁴ °K (D) watt/cm² °K⁴
32. The unit of Stefan-Boltzmann constant is
(A) Watt/mK (C) Watt/m²K4
(B) Watt/m²K² (D) Watt/mK²
33. Depending on the radiating properties, body will be transparent when
(Where a = absorptivity, p = reflectivity, x = transmissivity)
(A) P = 0, x = 0 and a = 1 (C) P = 0, T= 1, and a = 0
(B) P=1, x = 0, and a = 0 (D) X = 0, a + p = 1
34. Wien’s law states that the wave length corresponding to ________ is proportional to the absolute temperature.
(A) Minimum energy (C) Both (A) and (B)
(B) Maximum energy (D) None of these
35. The ratio of the emissive power and absorptive power of all bodies is the same and is equal to the emissive
power of a perfectly black body. This statement is known as
(A) Kirchoff’s law (C) Wien' law
(B) Stefan's law (D) Planck's law
36. Radiation is the process of heat transfer in which heat flows from a ________, in a straight line, without
affecting the intervening medium.
(A) Cold body to hot body (C) Smaller body to larger body
(B) Hot body to cold body (D) Larger body to smaller body
37. According to Stefan's law, the total radiation from a black body per second per unit area is proportional to
(A) Absolute temperature (C) T⁵
(B) T² (D) T4
38. According to Wien's law, the wavelength corresponding to maximum energy is proportion to
(A) Absolute temperature (T) (C) F
(B) I² (D) T
39. Depending on the radiating properties, a body will be white when
(Where a = absorptivity, p = reflectivity, x = transmissivity)
(A) P = 0, x = 0 and a = 1 (C) P = 0, x = 1 and a = 0
(B) P=1, T = 0 and a = 0 (D) X = 0, a + p = 1
40. Depending on the radiating properties, a body will be black when
(Where a = absorptivity, p = reflectivity, X = transmissivity.)
(A) P = 0, x = 0 and a = 1 (C) P = 0, x = 1 and a = 0
(B) P= 1, T = 0 and a = 0 (D) X = 0, a + p = 0
41. A grey body is one whose absorptivity

23
(A) Varies with temperature
(B) Varies with the wave length of incident ray
(C) Varies with both
(D) Does not vary with temperature and wave length of the incident ray
42. The total radiation from a black body per second per unit area is ________ fourth power of the absolute
temperature. This statement is known as Stefan Boltzmann law.
(A) Equal to (C) Inversely proportional to
(B) Directly proportional to (D) None of these
43. The amount of radiation mainly depends upon the
(A) Nature of the body (C) Type of surface of the body
(B) Temperature of the body (D) All of these
44. The emissivity for a black body is
(A) 0 (C) 0.75
(B) 0.5 (D) 1
45. Which of the following statement is correct?
(A) A grey body is one which absorbs all radiations incident on it.
(B) At thermal equilibrium, the emissivity and absorptivity are same.
(C) The energy absorbed by a body to the total energy falling on it, is called emissivity.
(D) A perfect body is one which is black in color.
46. Two long parallel surfaces each of emissivity 0.7 are maintained at different temperatures and accordingly
have radiation heat exchange between them. It is desired to reduce 75% of the radiant heat transfer by inserting
thin parallel shields of emissivity 1 on both sides. The number of shields should be
(A) One (C) Three
(B) Two (D) Four
47. Stefan Boltzmann law is applicable for heat transfer by
(A) Conduction (C) Radiation
(B) Convection (D) Conduction and radiation combined
48. The total emissivity power is .defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a black body per unit
(A) Temperature (C) Area
(B) Thickness (D) Time
49. The ratio of the energy absorbed by the body to total energy falling on it is called
(A) Absorptive power (C) Absorptivity
(B) Emissive power (D) Emissivity
50. 40% of incident radiant energy on the surface of a thermally transparent body is reflected back. If the
transmissivity of the body be 0.15, then the emissivity of surface is

24
(A) 0.45 (C) 0.40
(B) 0.55 (D) 0.75
51. The amount of radiation mainly depends on
(A) Nature of body (C) Type of surface of body
(B) Temperature of body (D) All of the above
52. Depending on the radiating properties, a body will be opaque when
(A) P = 0, x = 0 and a = 1 (C) P = 0, x = 1 and a = 0
(B) P=1, x = 0 and a = 0 (D) X = 0, a + p = 1
53. The emissive power of a body depends upon its
(A) Temperature (C) Physical nature
(B) Wave length (D) All of the above
54. Absorptivity of a body will be equal to its emissivity
(A) At all temperatures (C) When system is under thermal equilibrium
(B) At one particular temperature (D) At critical temperature
55. Two plates spaced 150 mm apart are maintained at 1000°C and 70°C. The heat transfer will take place mainly
by
(A) Convection (C) Forced convection
(B) Radiation (D) Free convection
56. A perfect black body is one which
(A) Is black in color
(B) Reflects all heat
(C) Transmits all heat radiations
(D) Absorbs heat radiations of all wave lengths falling on it

1 C 11 B 21 D 31 D 41 D 51 D
2 D 12 C 22 D 32 C 42 B 52 D
3 C 13 D 23 D 33 C 43 D 53 D
4 C 14 B 24 C 34 B 44 D 54 C
5 C 15 B 25 A 35 A 45 B 55 B
6 D 16 A 26 C 36 B 46 C 56 D
7 D 17 C 27 A 37 D 47 C
8 C 18 C 28 D 38 A 48 D
9 C 19 C 29 C 39 B 49 A
10 D 20 D 30 B 40 A 50 A

25
5.8 MULTI-MODE HEAT TRANSFER
In actual systems, it is very common that two or all three modes of heat transfer occur simultaneously. In
the last part of Module 2, we have already studied the conduction with a film coefficient of convection. When
radiation and convection modes are considered, the combined coefficient due to convection and radiation effects
in usually applied. When all three modes are involved, one approach is to calculate the rate of heat transfer for
every mode and then the total heat transfer is the sum of the three. Another approach is to combine the effect of
convection and radiation into a single coefficient, solve the combined heat transfer rate and the result is added to
that of the conduction. That is,
𝑸 = 𝑸𝒄𝒅 + 𝑸𝒄𝝂 + 𝑸𝒓𝒅 (𝟔. 𝟏)

Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient

We know that conduction heat transfer occurs mostly within a solid material whereas convection and
radiation heat transfer take place in the surroundings of that solid material. This is the reason why radiation is
often very closely associated with convection. The total heat transfer by both convection and radiation is often the
objective of an analysis. It is, therefore, convenient to establish a common basis by defining a radiation heat-
transfer coefficient ℎ𝑟𝑑 as
𝑸𝒓𝒅 = 𝒉𝒓𝒅 𝑨𝟏 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ) (𝟔. 𝟐)
where 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are the temperatures of the two bodies exchanging heat by radiation.

The radiation heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑟𝑑 is formed by modifying the formula of net radiation heat
exchange from surface 1 to surface 2. That is, from
𝑄𝑟𝑑 = 𝜖1 𝜎 𝐴1 𝐹12 (𝑇24 − 𝑇14 ) = 𝜖1 𝜎 𝐴1 𝐹12 (𝑇22 + 𝑇12 )(𝑇2 + 𝑇1 )(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
or
𝑄𝑟𝑑 = [𝜖1 𝜎 𝐹12 (𝑇22 + 𝑇12 )(𝑇2 + 𝑇1 )] 𝐴1 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
which when related to Eq. 6.19, one can easily recognize that
𝒉𝒓𝒅 = 𝝐𝟏 𝝈 𝑭𝟏𝟐 (𝑻𝟐𝟐 + 𝑻𝟐𝟏 )(𝑻𝟐 + 𝑻𝟏 ) (𝟔. 𝟑)
Then, the heat transfer for the combined convection and radiation is
𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃 = 𝑸𝒄𝝂 + 𝑸𝒓𝒅 = (𝒉𝒄𝝂 + 𝒉𝒓𝒅 )𝑨𝟏 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ) = 𝒉𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃 𝑨𝟏 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ) (𝟔. 𝟒)
where ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏 is the combined convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient and it is assumed that the second
radiation-exchange surface is an enclosure and is at the same temperature as the fluid.

26