UNIT V: Transducers & Sensors

Definition:--A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Usually,
a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another

Various Types of Transducer:

1) Active:
Active sensors require an external power sources to operate, which is called an excitation
signal. The signal is modulated by the sensor to produce the output signal. For example, a
thermistor does not generate any electric signal, but by passing electric current through it, its
resistance can be measured by detecting variations in current and/or voltage across the
thermistor.
2) Passive:
Passive sensors generate electric signals in response to an external stimulus without the need of
an additional energy source. Such examples are a thermocouple, photodiode, and a
piezoelectric sensor.
3) Sensors:
A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus.[4] Transducer is the
other term that is sometimes interchangeably used instead of the term sensor, although there
are subtle differences. A transducer is a term that can be used for the definition of many
devices such as sensors, actuators, or transistors.
4) Actuators:
An actuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system.
It is operated by a source of energy, which can be mechanical force, electrical current,
hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An
actuator is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control
system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer
driver, robot control system), a human, or any other input.
5) Bidirectional:
Bidirectional transducers convert physical phenomena to electrical signals and also convert
electrical signals into physical phenomena. Examples of inherently bidirectional transducers
are antennae, which can convert conducted electrical signals to or from propagating
electromagnetic waves, and voice coils, which convert electrical signals into sound (when used
in a loudspeaker) or sound into electrical signals (when used in a microphone). Likewise, DC
electric motors may be used to generate electrical power if the motor shaft is turned by an

1
external torque.

Transducer Classification:
Some of the common methods of classifying transducers are given below.

● Based on their application.

● Based on the method of converting the non-electric signal into electric signal.
● Based on the output electrical quantity to be produced.
● Based on the electrical phenomenon or parameter that may be changed due to the whole
process. Some of the most commonly electrical quantities in a transducer are resistance,
capacitance, voltage, current or inductance. Thus, during transduction, there may be
changes in resistance, capacitance, and induction, which in turn change the output voltage
or current.
● Based on whether the transducer is active or passive.

Selection of Transducer:
Selection of a transducer is one of the most important factors which help in obtaining accurate
results. Some of the main parameters are given below.

• Selection depends on the physical quantity to be measured.

• Depends on the best transducer principle for the given physical input.
• Depends on the order of accuracy to be obtained.

2
Transducer Applications:
The applications of transducers based on the electric parameter used and the principle involved
is given below.

1. Passive Type Transducers:

a. Resistance Variation Type

• Resistance Strain Gauge – The change in value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due
to elongation or compression is known by the measurement of torque, displacement or force.
• Resistance Thermometer – The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in
temperature known by the measurement of temperature.
• Resistance Hygrometer – The change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the
change of moisture content is known by the value of its corresponding humidity.
• Hot Wire Meter – The change in resistance of a heating element due to convection cooling
of a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas flow or pressure.
• Photoconductive Cell – The change in resistance of a cell due to a corresponding change in
light flux is known by its corresponding light intensity.
• Thermistor – The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a negative co-efficient
of resistance is known by its corresponding measure of temperature.
• Potentiometer Type – The change in resistance of a potentiometer reading due to the
movement of the slider as a part of an external force applied is known by its corresponding
pressure or displacement.
b. Capacitance Variation Type:
● Variable Capacitance Pressure Gauge – The change in capacitance due to the change of
distance between two parallel plates caused by an external force is known by its
corresponding displacement or pressure.
● Dielectric Gauge – The change in capacitance due to a change in the dielectric is known
by its corresponding liquid level or thickness.
● Capacitor Microphone – The change in capacitance due to the variation in sound pressure
on a movable diagram is known by its corresponding sound.

c. Inductance Variation Type:

● Eddy Current Transducer – The change in inductance of a coil due to the proximity of an
eddy current plate is known by its corresponding displacement or thickness.
● Variable Reluctance Type – The variation in reluctance of a magnetic circuit that occurs
due to the change in position of the iron core or coil is known by its corresponding
displacement or pressure.

3
● Proximity Inductance Type – The inductance changes of an alternating current excited
coil due to the change in the magnetic circuit is known by its corresponding pressure or
displacement.

4
● Differential Transformer – The change in differential voltage of 2 secondary windings of
a transformer because of the change in position of the magnetic core is known by its
corresponding force, pressure, or displacement.
● Magnetostrictive Transducer – The change in magnetic properties due to change in
pressure and stress is known by its corresponding sound value, pressure, or force.

d. Voltage and Current Type:

● Photo-emissive Cell – Electron emission due to light incidence on photo-emissive surface
is known by its corresponding light flux value.
● Hall Effect – The voltage generated due to magnetic flux across a semi-conductor plate
with a movement of current through it is known by its corresponding value of magnetic
flux or current.
● Ionization Chamber – The electron flow variation due to the ionization of gas caused by
radio- active radiation is known by its corresponding radiation value.

2. Active Type:
• Photo-voltaic Cell – The voltage change that occurs across the p-n junction due to light
radiation is known by its corresponding solar cell value or light intensity.
• Thermopile – The voltage change developed across a junction of two dissimilar metals is
known by its corresponding value of temperature, heat or flow.
• Piezoelectric Type – When an external force is applied on to a quartz crystal, there will be
a change in the voltage generated across the surface. This change is measured by its
corresponding value of sound or vibration.
• Moving Coil Type – The change in voltage generated in a magnetic field can be measured
using its corresponding value of vibration or velocity.

5
Flow Transducer:
Flow transducers are used to measure air and liquid flow velocity. Flow transducers use
different measuring principles. By means of the flow velocity, analysis units of flow
transducers can calculate the flow level or determine the amount of flow with a counter. Our
flow transducers operate based on ultrasound. A great advantage of this type of non-contact
measurement is that sensors are not exposed to pressure surges or solid agents. Air flow
transducers are mainly used in the heating, ventilation, and conditioning sectors. Flow
transducers use the monomeric method which allows the usage for a wide range of temperature
and flow. These flow transducers can be easily installed in ventilation ducts.

Fig: Flow Meter

Flow sensors are a class of device that is designed to measure the flow rate of a gas such
as air or a liquid through a pipe or conduit. Flow measurement is important for the control of
many industrial processes and for the operation of machinery at optimum levels of performance
and efficiency. Automobiles use flow sensors to measure the air intake to the engine and adjust
the fuel delivery to fuel injectors to achieve the desired fuel mixture to the engine. Medical
ventilators use flow sensors to establish the correct rate of delivery of air or oxygen to patients
for assistance with respiration.

Flow sensors, also known as flowmeters, measure flow in terms of either volume or mass. If
a pipe of cross-sectional area (A) contains a fluid or gas that is moving at velocity (v), then the
volumetric flow rate (Q) can be expressed as:

Similarly, the mass flow rate (M) is related to the volumetric flow rate as follows:

where (ρ) is the density of the fluid.

Types of flow sensors:
Inferential flow sensor:
In this type of flow sensor, the measurement of flow is done indirectly, like temperature and
pressure of the flow would be measured to determine the flow rate. Types of inferential flow
sensors are magnetic sensors, turbine sensors, target sensors, etc.

Mass flow sensor:

6
Fluid mass would be directly measured in this type of flow measurement. It would measure
the mass or amount of fluid that flows through a tube to determine the flow. Coriolis and
thermal mass flow sensors are examples of the mass flow sensor.

Differential pressure flow sensor:

In this type of flow sensor, the pressure difference of the flow due to the pipe construction
would be utilized to determine the flow rate.

Velocity flow sensor:

This type of flow sensor would measure the flow velocity through a pipe. So the velocity of
the fluid will be multiplied by the area that the fluid flows through.

Volumetric flow sensor:

Flow measurement would be done by measuring the volume of the fluid which flows through
a pipe.

Electromagnetic flow meter:

Electromagnetic Flow Meters, simply known as mag flow meter is a volumetric flow
meter which is ideally used for waste water applications and other applications that
experience low pressure drop and with appropriate liquid conductivity required.
The device doesn’t have any moving parts and cannot work with hydrocarbons and
distilled water. Mag flow meters are also easy to maintain.

Principle of Magnetic Flow Meter Based on Faraday’s Law:

Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.

According to this principle, when a conductive medium passes through a magnetic field B, a

7
voltage E is generated which is proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the density of
the magnetic field and the length of the conductor.

In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside the
meter body to generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the
conductor and this induces a voltage which is proportional to the average flow velocity.
This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Magflow meter body and
sent to a transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow rate based on the pipe dimensions.

Mathematically, we can state Faraday’s law as

E is proportional to V x B x L

[E is the voltage generated in a conductor, V is the velocity of the conductor, B is the

magnetic field strength and L is the length of the conductor].

It is very important that the liquid flow that is to be measured using the magnetic flow
meter must be electrically conductive. The Faraday’s Law indicates that the signal voltage (E)
is dependent on the average liquid velocity (V), the length of the conductor (D) and the
magnetic field strength (B). The magnetic field will thus be established in the cross-section of
the tube.
Basically when the conductive liquid flows through the magnetic field, voltage is induced.
To measure this generated voltage (which is proportional to the velocity of the flowing
liquid), two stainless steel electrodes are used which are mounted opposite each other.
The two electrodes which are placed inside the flow meter are then connected to an
advanced electronic circuit that has the ability to process the signal. The processed signal is
fed into the microprocessor that calculates the volumetric flow of the liquid.

8
 Pressure Transducer:
A pressure transducer converts pressure into an electrical output signal. The electrical signal can
be digital or analog and is used by other devices such as controllers, alarms, and other
closed-loop systems. Pressure transducers are used widely in a range of residential and
commercial applications like HVAC, pumps, vehicles, aircraft, etc. where pressure
measurement is required. They are also referred to as pressure sensors or pressure transmitters
Working of pressure transducer:
The pressure transducer consists of a pressure-sensitive element, such as a diaphragm,
with a constant area. The fluid pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect. The pressure
transducer also consists of a transduction element. This transduction element converts the
deflection sensed by the diaphragm into an electrical output signal. This signal will increase
or decrease proportionally to the pressure change. Therefore, device calibration is critical to
ensure that the pressure is within the range of the specifications.

Pressure transducers require a power supply to produce electrical signals. The signal is
commonly 4-20 mA or 0-10 V DC. Some systems may also use a combination of AC and DC
power. The 4-20 mA signal is a widely used standard in the industry. It uses a 2-wire
configuration while DC voltage output uses a 3-wire configuration. The 4-20 mA signal can
be used over long distances and is less sensitive to interference than a DC signal.

A pressure transducer should not be confused with a pressure switch. A pressure switch
is a device that operates an electrical contact when a preset fluid pressure is reached. Read
our pressure switch technical article to learn more about them.

Types of Pressure Transducers:

● Strain gauge pressure transducer:
Strain gauge pressure transducers are suitable to measure extraordinarily high and low
pressures, as well as differential pressure. Differential pressure is the difference in
pressure between any two given points. The transducer contains a sensing element, a
diaphragm. Any deformation of the diaphragm will cause the change of resistance of the
strain gauges. Typically, 4 gauges are used in a Wheatstone bridge to maximize the
sensitivity of the transducer. This resistance change is converted into the usable output
signal.

9
 Strain gauge pressure transducer components: connector (A), housing (B), strain gauge
(C), & pressure inlet (D)

● Potentiometric pressure transducer:

This type of pressure transducer consists of a precision potentiometer. The potentiometer
consists of a wiper connected to the pressure-sensitive element, such as a diaphragm.
The deflection on this element changes the position of the wiper. The resistance value
changes between the wiper and one end of the potentiometer. This value is the measure
of the pressure applied.

10
 Potentiometric pressure transducer components: wiper (A), resistance-measuring bridge
circuit (B), measurement proportional to pressure (C), bridge power supply (D),
movable arm of pressure element (E), & displacement (F)
● Resonant wire pressure transducer:
Resonant wire pressure transducers have a vibrating wire located in a diaphragm. The
electronic oscillator keeps the wire vibrating. As the pressure changes in the diaphragm,
it affects the tension of the wire and changes the resonant frequency. This frequency can
be sensed by digital counter circuits and converted into an electrical signal.

Resonant wire pressure transducer components: resonant wire (A), to oscillator circuit (B),
high-side backup plate (C), magnet (D), metal tube (E), high-pressure diaphragm (F),
fluid transfer port (G), low-pressure diaphragm (H), electrical insulator (I), preload
spring (J), & low-side backup plate (K)

● Inductive pressure transducer:

Inductive pressure transducers operate using the principle of electromagnetic
induction. The transducer has a diaphragm connected to a ferromagnetic core. The
slight deflection of the diaphragm causes the linear movement in the ferromagnetic
core, which induces a current. The movement of the core due to the change of pressure
varies the induced current. This change in current is converted into a usable signal.

11
 Inductive pressure transducer components: coil (A, C), diaphragm (B),
& pressure (D)
● Piezoelectric pressure transducer:
The piezoelectric pressure transducers use quartz crystal or ceramic material to
generate an electric charge when there is applied pressure. This electric charge,
measured as a voltage, is proportional to the change in pressure. This pressure
transducer is very sensitive and extremely fast in response.

Sectional view of piezoelectric pressure transducer components: nut(A), housing (B),

crystal (C), diaphragm (D), lead wire (E), & disc (F)

● Capacitance pressure transducer:

Capacitive Transducer:
To learn about a capacitive transducer, it is important to know the basics of a parallel
plate capacitor. Being the simplest form of a capacitor, it has two parallel conducting plates

12
 that are separated to each other by a dielectric or insulator with a permittivity of Ε (for air).
Other than paper, vacuum, and semi-conductor depletion region, the most used dielectric
is air.
Due to a potential difference across the conductors, an electric field develops across the
insulator. This causes the positive charges to accumulate on one plate and the negative
charges to accumulate on the other. The capacitor value is usually denoted by its
capacitance, which is measured in Farads. It can be defined as the ratio of the electric charge
on each conductor to the voltage difference between them.
The capacitance is denoted by C. In a parallel plate capacitor,
C = [A*Er*9.85*1012 F/M]/d A – Area of each plate (m)
d – Distance between both the plates (m) Er – Relative Dielectric Constant

The value 9.85*1012 F/M is a constant denoted by Eo and is called the dielectric constant
of free space. From the equation it is clear that the value of capacitance C and the distance
between the parallel plates,d are inversely proportional to each other. An increase of
distance between the parallel plates will decrease the capacitance value correspondingly.
The same theory is used in capacitive transducer. This transducer is used to convert the
value of displacement or change in pressure in terms of frequency.
As shown in the figure below, a capacitive transducer has a static plate and a deflected
flexible diaphragm with a dielectric in between. When a force is exerted to the outer side of
the diaphragm the distance between the diaphragm and the static plate changes. This
produces a capacitance which is measured using an alternating current bridge or a tank
circuit.

13
 Fig: Capacitive Transducer
A tank circuit is more preferred because it produces a change in frequency according to
the change in capacitance. This value of frequency will be corresponding to the
displacement or force given to the input.

Advantages:
• It produces an accurate frequency response to both static and dynamic measurements.

Disadvantages
● An increase or decrease in temperature to a high level will change the accuracy of the
device.
● As the lead is lengthy it can cause errors or distortion in signals.

14
Temperature Transducer :
a) Thermistors

Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing temperature. The
material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as a sintered metal
oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or doped
polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. As the
temperature of semiconductor material increases the number of electrons able to move about
increases which results in more current in the material and reduced resistance. Thermistors are
rugged and small in dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear response characteristics. Thermistors
are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure shows the construction
of a bead type thermistor. It has a small bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with
ceramic or glass material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit through two leads. To
protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a stainless steel tube.

Fig: Schematic of Thermistor

Applications of Thermistors:
• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing industry equipments.
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee makers,
refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc.

b) Thermocouple:
Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces
an electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires

15
composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then there
is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Figure 2.5.5 shows the
schematic of thermocouple circuit. The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a
function of junction temperature and composition of two metals. It is given by,
∆VAB = α ∆T

where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of proportionality.

Fig: Schematic of Thermocouple circuit

Applications of Thermocouples
• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process
• Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and
petroleum refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel, iron
and aluminum industry

c) Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs):

RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship
as shown in Figure. The correlation is
Rt = R0 (1 + αT)

16
Where
Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually
made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C

Fig: RTD
Figure shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone
bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a sheath. A small
amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature changes the
resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge. RTDs are used in the
form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They are generally made of metals such as platinum,
nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass adhesive in a
ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace.
Other applications are:
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing

17
 LM 35 :

LM35 is a type of commonly used temperature sensor, that can be used to measure temperature
with an electrical output comparative to the temperature in (°C). LM35 is a temperature sensor
that outputs an analog signal which is proportional to the instantaneous temperature. The
output voltage can easily be interpreted to obtain a temperature reading in Celsius. It can
measure temperature in a better way than thermistor. The advantage of LM35 over thermistor
is it does not require any external calibration. The coating also protects it from self-heating.
Low cost (approximately $0.95) and greater accuracy make it popular among hobbyists, DIY
circuit makers, and students. Many low-end products take advantage of low cost, greater
accuracy and used LM35 in their products. Its approximately 15+ years to its first release but
the sensor is still surviving and is used in any products.

​ LM35 can measure from -55 degrees centigrade to 150-degree centigrade. The accuracy
level is very high if operated at optimal temperature and humidity levels. The conversion of the
output voltage to centigrade is also easy and straight forward.
​
The input voltage to LM35 can be from +4 volts to 30 volts. It consumes about 60
microamperes of current. Lm35 has many family members a few names are LM35C, LM35CA,
LM35D, LM135, LM135A, LM235, LM335. All LM35 family members work on the same
principles but temperature measuring capacity varies and, they are available in many packages
(SOIC, TO-220, TO-92, TO).
LM35 provides 10mV for every degree change of the Celsius scale. LM35 sensor uses the
basic principle of a diode, whereas the temperature increases, the voltage across a diode
increases at a known rate. By precisely amplifying the voltage change, it is easy to generate an
analog signal that is directly proportional to temperature.
LM35 is an Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor whose output voltage varies
depending on the temperature around it. It is a small and cheap IC that can be used to measure

18
 temperatures anywhere from-55°C to 150°C. It can be easily interfaced with any
Microcontroller that has ADC function or any development platform like Arduino.

Power the IC by applying a regulated voltage like +5V (VS) to the input pin and
connecting the ground pin to the ground of the circuit. Now, you can measure the temperature
in the form of a voltage as shown below.

If the temperature is 0°C, the output voltage will also be 0V. There will be an increase of 0.01V
(10mV) for each degree of temperature increase. The voltage can be converted to temperature using
the formulas below.

LM 35 Applications:
● Measuring temperature of a particular environment
● Providing thermal shut down for a circuit/component
● Monitoring Battery Temperature
● Measuring Temperatures for HVAC applications.

19
Hall-Effect Transducers:
The material used in the manufacture of Hall-effect devices is a p-type or an n-type
semiconductor. Typical examples are indium arsenide, indium arsenide phosphide, and doped
silicon. Figure shows a section of a p-doped semiconductor subjected to a magnetic field B z in
the z direction and an electric field E xin the x direction. A current I x flows in the x direction.

Figure :Hall-effect device. The Hall-effect transducer (HET) consists of the semiconductor device, a
differential amplifier, and a voltage regulator to maintains I x constant.

The holes move in the x direction across the magnetic field and experience an upward
magnetic force, which results in the accumulation of holes on the top surface and electrons on
the bottom face, as indicated in Fig. An electric field E y , known as the Hall field, is set up as a
consequence, and this is known as the Hall effect.31 The corresponding Hall voltage V H= E y t.
Since there is no flow of current in the y direction, the magnetic force equilibrates with the
electric force that is exerted on the holes, and as a result the Hall voltage can be expressed as

where

R H is the Hall coefficient. R H is negative for an n-type semiconductor. h is the dimension

20
parallel in B z .

21
 Proximity Devices:
The proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return
signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different
proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric
sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor always requires a
metal target. The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range".
Some sensors have adjustments of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection
distance. Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the
absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object.
Proximity sensors are commonly used on smartphones to detect (and skip) accidental
touchscreen taps when held to the ear during a call. They are also used in machine vibration
monitoring to measure the variation in distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is
common in large steam turbines, compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings.
Proximity sensors are the most common and affordable solution for no-touch object detection.

The most used proximity sensors are the inductive type which generate an
electromagnetic field to sense metal objects passing close to the face. This is usually the easiest
sensing technology to apply in applications where the metal target is within an inch or two
from the sensor face. Autonics offers 12 products of 6 different types of proximity sensors,
both inductive and capacitive and has maintained No.1 market share in Korea for more than 10
years and is still endeavoring to advance product quality and sensing reliability up to the top
level of global standards. If you are looking for the most cost effective and reliable proximity
sensors.
.

Fig: Pro Proximity Device

22
23
Smart Sensors
A smart sensor is a device that takes input from the physical environment and uses built-in
compute resources to perform predefined functions upon detection of specific input and then
process data before passing it on Smart sensors enable more accurate and automated collection
of environmental data with less erroneous noise amongst the accurately recorded information.
These devices are used for monitoring and control mechanisms in a wide variety of
environments including smart grids, battlefield reconnaissance, exploration and a great number
of science applications. The smart sensor is also a crucial and integral element in the Internet
of Things (IoT), the increasingly prevalent environment in which almost anything imaginable
can be outfitted with a unique identifier (UID) and the ability to transmit data over the Internet
or a similar network. One implementation of smart sensors is as components of a wireless
sensor and actuator network (WSAN) whose nodes can number in the thousands, each of
which is connected with one or more other sensors and sensor hubs as well
as individual actuators. Compute resources are typically provided by low-power mobile
microprocessors.
At a minimum, a smart sensor is made of a sensor, a microprocessor and
communication technology of some kind. The compute resources must be an integral part of
the physical design -
- a sensor that just sends its data along for remote processing is not considered a smart sensor.
A smart sensor may also include a number of other components besides the primary sensor.
These components can include transducers, amplifiers, excitation control, analog filters and
compensation. A smart sensor also incorporates software-defined elements that provide
functions such as data conversion, digital processing and communication to external devices.

Fig: Smart Sensor

24
 A sensor Producing an electrical output when combination with interfacing electronic
ckt is known as “Smart Sensor”, it is a combination of both sensor and actuators

25
Optical sensor:

Working principle:

Fig: Block Dig. Of Optical Sensor

​ Light beam changes by the phenomena that is being measured

​ Light may change in its five optical properties i.e intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength

Classification Extrinsic sensors

Fig: Extrinsic sensors

Where the light leaves the feed or Transmitting fiber to be changed before it continues
to the detector by means of the return or receiving fiber.

26
Intrinsic sensors

Fig: Intrinsic sensors

Applications

2) Military and law enforcement

3) Biometrics

27
Piezoelectric Sensors
The Piezoelectric effect is an effect in which energy is converted between mechanical and
electrical forms. It was discovered in the 1880's by the Curie brothers. Specifically, when a
pressure (piezo means pressure in Greek) is applied to a polarized crystal, the resulting
mechanical deformation results in an electrical charge. Piezoelectric microphones serve as a
good example of this phenomenon. Microphones turn an acoustical pressure into a voltage.
Alternatively, when an electrical charge is applied to a polarized crystal, the crystal undergoes
a mechanical deformation which can in turn create an acoustical pressure. An example of this
can be seen in piezoelectric speakers. (These are the cause of those annoying system beeps that
are all too common in today's computers).

Figure :Internal Structure of an electret

Electrets are solids which have a permanent electrical polarization. (These are basically the
electrical analogs of magnets, which exhibit a permanent magnetic polarization). Figure 3
shows a diagram of the internal structure of a electret. In general, the alignment of the internal
electric dipoles would result in a charge which would be observable on the surface of the solid.
In practice, this small charge is quickly dissipated by free charges from the surrounding
atmosphere which are attracted by the surface charges. Electrets are commonly used in
microphones.
Permanent polarization as in the case of the electrets is also observed in crystals. In
these structures, each cell of the crystal has an electric dipole, and the cells are oriented such
that the electric dipoles are aligned. Again, this results in excess surface charge which attracts
free charges from the surrounding atmosphere making the crystal electrically neutral. If a

28
sufficient force is applied to the piezoelectric crystal, a deformation will take place. This
deformation disrupts the orientation of the electrical dipoles and creates a situation in which
the charge is not completely

29
canceled. This results in a temporary excess of surface charge, which subsequently is
manifested as a voltage which is developed across the crystal.

Figure: A sensor based on the piezoelectric effect

In order to utilize this physical principle to make a sensor to measure force, we must be able to
measure the surface charge on the crystal. Figure 4 shows a common method of using a
piezoelectric crystal to make a force sensor. Two metal plates are used to sandwich the crystal
making a capacitor. As mentioned previously, an external force cause a deformation of the
crystal results in a charge which is a function of the applied force. In its operating region, a

greater force will result in more surface charge. This charge results in a voltage , where
is the charge resulting from a force f, and C is the capacitance of the device.
Piezoelectric crystals act as transducers which turn force, or mechanical stress into
electrical charge which in turn can be converted into a voltage. Alternatively, if one was to
apply a voltage to the plates of the system described above, the resultant electric field would
cause the internal electric dipoles to re-align which would cause a deformation of the material.
An example of this is the fact that piezoelectric transducers find use both as speakers (voltage
to mechanical) and microphones (mechanical to electrical).

30
 Fig: Piezoelectric sensor
Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and dynamic-forces
such as oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or tension. It contains piezoelectric
ionic crystal materials such as Quartz (Figure 2.4.10). On application of force or pressure these
materials get stretched or compressed. During this process, the charge over the material
changes and redistributes. One face of the material becomes positively charged and the other
negatively charged. The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the amount x by which
the charges have been displaced. The displacement is proportion to force. Therefore we can
write,

q = kx = SF

where k is constant and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity.

31