SCANNI Na TuNNELLING MICROSCOPE CSTH)

Introduction :
Amicroscope is a device bhích i vsed to vie Hhe
magnitied inage of a smaller object, which Canrot be
cleary seen through oor naked eye .
In 19¢o, Gerd Binnirg ard Heinnich Rohrer inented
2w type of micros cope callad scannig tunnelig
a new
mícrosco pe cstm): In this micrascopei we can cbtain the
images ot electrically Condoctirg Surfaces in atomjc scale,
i:e STM 0s Used to ohsere the surfaces in tems of
atom by atom.
Principle :
the basic principle Used in scanning tunneli
mi cvos cope Cst) is the tunnelig f elestron betueen
the sharp Metalc tip ot tle plobe and the surface et a
sanple .
Here Constant tunnellg is maintaired by adjusting
he distance between the tip. and the Savple wth an
air gap for electron to tunnel In a simibar wny the
tip ís vsed to Scan atom by atom and line of tte
Sample and the topogrophy ot the sample is
recorded in the compu ter.
Curent vttyes for piezotube

CuTN Prsble
Pasi tion ia
Distarce
Contiol and
Scoring vnit
burr vollage Tunmling
curent
Data
Noxessin
Arplitier Corrvtel

Oisploy rit

+ Tunre ling voltaye

Wor King :
" Circoit is switched on and necessary biasirg vol taye
is give n to the piobe.
" Due to biasing the electrors twill tornel (or) jump between
the tip of tha probe and tho sample and herefore
ProdvceS a Small etectric corrent called tunne lig
Current as shawn
" The tUnnelirg curent flaws throgh the circujt only if
the tip is in contat with the sample through the sma
air gap at a ditance d' be tween them -
The coent produced ís amplifed -and measured in
the computer.
" 1t is found that He curent increases Cor) decreases
based on te distanie between te tip of te probe
and the samb le
The current in the circuit shovd be moni tore d in
Svch a way that it shovld be waintained cons tant.
Therefore , for waintairg the constant current, the
distance ld) between He over te surtace of the
Sam ple
" The hetght fluctua tions Cd) between e tip and the
Sample ís accurately as Shon in Fgure .
" In a similar wag the tip is scanned atom, by atom
and lire by tire of tte Sample between them and te
torography ot He Sample is re corded in the cOmputer.
" The sTM does rot show te picture of the atom y
rather it records only the oxact positon ot e
atoms Ivore precisely the positlon ot electrons.
Advantages :
|· It can Scan He posí tio n & topograph y aton by
atom tor) euen electvons
|2- 1t is He Latest technique used in Research
Laboratories for scannirg be raterials.
3 very accorate measurement slall be obtained.
4- Magnifi cation 0Sis op
op to
to nano - SCale.
Disadvontages :
|· Even a very Smal sOUnd (o) vibrations will distorb
the meaSUrement setup.
2 Zt should be Kept in vac UUm, as een aa single ust
particle may dama ge the tlp of the probe
3 Cost is high
4 More Complexity
Applications :
} It is sed to produce Integrated circuit
2 1t is Vsed in biomedica l devies .

3 Chemical and waterial scienes researc h tabs ae tle

ma jor areas in which it is Used.
4 They ave used in material science studies for
Both bu mp an d at Surfaces.
Resorant Tunne lrg piode
Principle : Resonant Tunne livg Diode worils on the
Prt ncíple of tunnellrg effect in which the charge
Carrier coss tie enevcy barrier C) even with lesser
energ y Vhan he barrier poten tial qvantom mechanically
The probability Df tunnelirg ncreases with te
decveasig barrier energy.
Symbol ard Circuit diagom :
resorant
The Symbol ard circuit diagram ota
to nne lig diode is as skown in Egure
 Anode cotbade

Sy mbol
Theory
A resonant tunneling diode also called as Essaki
diode is formed usirg and n-materials with heavy
dopirg Say too0 tim es Larger than the conven tional
p-n junction diode " Oue to heavy dopirg the banier
potental decreases drastícally in turn will help the
charge Carrers to easily tunnel the junctions vantum
mechanícally
fotertol tolehial
Quantom well structure barrier Barriec barrjer

A resonant tunne lirg diode (R7D) Emitter Collector

Consists of a gvantum well stroture Electon Resonant
with disChete energy values levol

Ei E2 ete, Surrourded by two

thin lay ers of potential
barriers. (V1, and V) wi th ALaAs
emitter Cin n-regi an ) and
Collecto r Cin p-region) on either
side as shown in Figure.
Meta!
V-I Characteristícs electiose
The diode is forward biased
as Durivg forward 6ias when Curent. or
aen t iWorul
e dio
le
voltage is incveasedi then te (1) sitane

Current in te díode Uaries at lositie

Resistore

dítferent resistane regíons as iegid

follows
(e, E = En = n²h2
&o 2
Where n=h2131--i
POsitive Resistane region
when a voltage is applied acvoss the veSorant
tonnelirg diode a terahertz wae fS emitted nd
there fove at resonance, the enevgy value (E) in the
4uantun well become s egval to the ehevgy value
(Ee) in the emittet si de .
| e t low voLtage ond at resonane E, Ee
Thus at E = Ee i-e - at reSovance, the chavge
Cariers tunnel te potential barriers (VI, and V2) and
reaches collector reg ion lay the pro(ess called
resorant tu elirg.
Therefore the cUrre nt incre ases rapidly due to
tunnelivg effect and reaches the peal- point P as
shown in rgure and this current is Called pe ak
Curvent (Ip) Jhe voltage at hia the diode reaches
Peak current is called pealk voltage (Vp).
This vegion, wheve the cuent jnae ases due to bhe
inCrease in applied voltage s called osi tive resistane
region .
Neaative Resistance Region
When te voltage is further increased, ten the
terahertz waue dles out ard now the eneO value
(E) in tle qvantum well be cones leser tan e
energy value E in the emitter side.
le - At higher voltag e = El Ee.
Howerer sine the qwartum well has dis cete
i

energy te ves values , te eneegy valwe (E) in the

Uantum well s still targer ton the energy value (Ee)
in the emitter síde as shown in igure
i.eE> Ee Therefore,tle charge Carries can't
current jn
tunnel the potental barriers and thes bhe
he diode decrea Ses , and reaches the ualley roint vas
 Shown in Figuve Ths region wheve bhe curvet decreases
due bo tncreases in applled voltage is calle d negatiue
resistance region- this mivimom current is called
volle y CZ) and the cormes pondirg vo ltage i called
valley voltage (V).
Normal biode
Now , when the applied tyoltage is furtter ircrease d
beyand the valley point in such a wag tat enevgI
Value ¬E 2) in te oyuantum well be comes egual, Now
when tle applied voLtage is to the enegy value Ee)
In tle emitter side, then' the current ogain increases
and terefore te rasorant tunnelirg dio de be haves
as a normal diode as Slown in igure .
Thus the
, current in resoant tonneling diode is
dve to 3 com ponents via:
B Tunaelivg curent (I) 6 Diode wnent (Zo)
iý E XCess current (IE).
Thevefore total curent Lzbal I t Ip t g
Advantoges
noise is low.
( verg Compact, cost and
2 Opevation Speed is vlta hígh
3- Fabrtatron is very sivp le
4 Pouer dizsipation is lous and hence it is
envirommental friendy device.
pisodyartages
| Since it is a tuo termi val deie, it is diffrcult
to isolate the input and output
is a low output Swivg dev'ce.
|Apelicatons
hood rectfiers -and Can be Used as rormal dides.
One avea or acte applia tion is buildivg ascillatos
and Swr tchirg devices tet operate at tera hertz
frequencies
VSed in invertes, mewory cells and tanss tor
USed in iaital moltivalued logic circvits
BLOcH s THEOREM FOR PARTLCLES N A PERlo DIC
POTENTlA L·
Bloch theore m
Bloch theorem is a matematical stateent of
an elecron (parfide) wave functon wovivg in a
pertecty periodt poten t'al- These torctions ae
called Bloch funchons.
Explarotion :
Let us ronsider a particde Like electron movig in
a periadic potential.
The one dimens ioral Schrond nger asave tgvaton
Can be written for he aboue.

dx2
The pE of an electvcn if it mOLes alorg x- direction
vCx)- vCx+a)
Where a is the periodicity of e potential
The solo tion ot eqn ! Can be got
V = elx L C«) - Bloch theoon ’
e CK) ug (xta) - Bloch fun cton ’
Here elkk & Ue ) represeht plare wave and periodíc
furcton respecfively
Prof
eqn 2, we
It eqn I has the solutions with Preperty of
cstion ,
Can write the property Df the Bh fun
i-e eqn 3 as

Since y Cxt a), the abote egn can be written as

VCx +a) =eikx
Sine y C«) = eikx ue C), the aboe egn can be coritten as

VCx) is a sirgle valued furction Hen e can write

Thus och Theorem iS proved

The ab0Ue eqn is similar to egn 2 Qnd 4 ie f
the potenti'al is a function of "x" and "a"r tlen
the we funcfioys is aso a function of "x"
and a".

BEHAVIOUe OF AN ELECTRON IN A PERIODIC POTENTIAL

- THE RRONI PENNEY MODEL (aUALITA TIU E
TREATMENT)
Kronig avnd Penney treated a stmplest example for
Ore dimensio ral periodic potential In this model it is
assUmed that te potertial energy ot an electron
has the forn of a pertodrc array of Sqvahe wells
as Shown in Hig
Hese ue haue two regions iz.
Region (i) 2n this reglon, between be limitt o cKLa
the Potential energy 1S 2eo and hence te
is assUm ed to be a tree par eleeton
ticle.
Therefore, The ove diwensional
Schro ed 1rger wave egn
for a free particle is -b

29
dy2 +a y =0
dy2
where oc= nnE ) h2
Region (ii) In this region betuen te limits -b<xco,
the potential energy of e electvon fs Vo
.. The one dimensioral Schroedirger wae egvation is
’
dx2 dx2
for botth Be region, the apPro priate solution sug9es ted
by Bloch fs ot the forn
’

Differcnti ativg egn (d and substitutirg it in egnn a)

and 2) and ben further solig it onder te
boundary conditiors, ue get.
p sin aa ’

wheieP mVob a/ h2 [s called as Scatterirg power

of the potential barrier which s the measohe of
are attrated
tlestrength with which te ele ctvons
by te POSttiue jons.
p sinda cos d a
Forbidden bond
Allawed band
 In eguatton (4), there ale only tuo variable (i-e) ard.
we Koow tos ka can ta ke vales only fiom l to l
Thevefove le left and side ef egn ) must also all
in this Ynge A plot is mede between e Hs ot gn l)
avd ca for a value ef p =3l2 (arki tray) as sheun
in igove.
Conclusion
DThe energy spetrum kas a ho ot allowed erorgy
bands dero ted by solid horizontal lire searated by
forbicden bard gaps dereted hy dotted Cires
2) The width of allowed erargy band icseases ith te
incvease fn aa.
3) when p ís increased the blndirg erergy of he
electvors with tle lattice poinls fs also tnoeased
Theretore tle electron will at be ahe to mole treely
and hence te width of He aloud energy tand is
decreased Especially for P’o Chen allowed
enevgy band beCOnes In finitey. ranow avdaste
energy spectrom becores a lie srectrum
Spectu

Shown in fiy
) wwan p is deciesed te bindig
energy of te elesron decrenses and
thus it yoves free ly over le Lattice
Potvts and hence we get a wjde Free
electr
ntervd

ronge of allowed enevgy leves as

elechoe

shown in Fig
5) Thus by varyirg P fom 200 to în finity ue get
the ene9y sp atra ot all varg es.

Thanlyou