1.

VECTORS IN THE PLANE

VECTORS
Vectors are used to model important aspects of the physical world, to predict what will happen
under different circumstances and to calculate actions to achieve desired outcomes. Physics
relies heavily on vectors to model a wide range of phenomena, including forces, velocity,
electromagnetic fields and applications, and astronomy. Engineers use vectors to work out how to
construct cars, bridges, buildings and other objects in a safe and durable way.

1.01 Vectors
1.02 Polar and Cartesian forms of vectors
1.03 Scalar multiples of vectors
1.04 Addition of vectors
1.05 Subtraction of vectors
1.06 Unit vectors
1.07 Vector components
1.08 Resolution of vectors
1.09 Applications of vectors
Chapter summary
Chapter review
SYLLABUS SUBJECT MATTER
Representing vectors in the plane by directed line segments
• examine examples of vectors
• understand the difference between a scalar and a vector
• define and use the magnitude and direction of a vector
• understand and use vector equality
• understand and use both the Cartesian and polar form of a vector
• represent a scalar multiple of a vector
• use the triangle rule to find the sum and difference of two vectors
Algebra of vectors in the plane
• use ordered pair notation and column vector notation to represent a vector
→
• understand and use vector notation: AB, c , d, unit vector notation nn̂
• convert between Cartesian form and polar  form
• determine a vector between two points
• define and use unit vectors and the perpendicular unit vectors iˆ and ˆj
• express a vector in component form using the unit vectors iˆ and ˆj
• examine and use addition and subtraction of vectors in component form
• define and use multiplication by a scalar of a vector in component form Prior learning

Specialist Mathematics 2019 v1.0 General Senior Syllabus © Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority
Shutterstock/sandra zuerlein
 TERMINOLOGY
air speed component form directed line segment
direction displacement ground speed
head head-to-tail heading
initial point linear combination magnitude
norm parallelogram rule polar form
position vector resolve resolution
scalar scalar multiple speed and course made good
speed through the water tail terminal point
triangle rule true course unit vector
vector

WS
1.01 Vectors
Many quantities, such as mass, distance, volume and speed, are specified by a single
Homework
Representing
vectors magnitude. Quantities of this type are called scalar quantities. Other quantities, such as
displacement, velocity and acceleration, need to have both magnitude and direction to
complete their specification. These are known as vector quantities.
The most important objects in geometry are points and lines. Points are well specified by
Cartesian coordinates. You already know that a line may be specified by a linear equation.
You can use the concept of a geometric vector to specify a line of a particular length. This
allows you to represent quantities that have both size and direction.

A geometric vector is a quantity with both magnitude (size) and direction.

A vector is shown using a lower-case bold letter such as a.
→
It can also be written as a or a or a.

The magnitude of a vector p is written as p or p. The magnitude of a vector is also
called the norm of the vector.
A vector may be shown as a directed line segment. The length of the segment
represents the magnitude of the vector and an arrow is used to show its direction.

When drawing a vector, the arrowhead is usually placed at one end (or near the end) of the
line segment. This end is called the head of the vector and the other end is called the tail of
the vector.
Head Head

or
Tail Tail

4 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 EXAMPLE 1

Draw a vector to represent each displacement on the same set of axes.

a 4 m north  b 8 m east  c 4 m south  d 12 m north-west

Solution

Draw north−south and east−west lines N

to act as a reference when drawing the
vectors.
You need to choose a suitable scale.
A scale of 1 cm = 2 m will do. W E

a Let this vector be a. N

Using the scale, a will be 2 cm on

a
the diagram.
Draw a as a 2 cm arrow in the
direction of north.
W E

b b is shown by a 4 cm arrow in the d

direction of east.

c c is shown by a 2 cm arrow in the N

direction of south. a

d d is shown by a 6 cm arrow in the

direction of north-west. 45° E
W
b

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 5

 Other vector quantities such as velocity, acceleration and force can also be represented as
line segments.

EXAMPLE 2

Draw a vector to represent each velocity on the same set of axes.

a p = 10 m/s in the direction N30°E
b q = 6 m/s in the direction S70°W
c r = 8 m/s in the direction 170°T

Solution

Use a scale of 1 cm = 2 m/s.

a Using the scale, p will be 5 cm long. N

The direction of p is 30° east of north.

b Using the scale, q will be 3 cm long.

The direction of q is 70° west of south. p
30°
c Using the scale, r will be 4 cm long.
W E
The direction of r is 10° east of south. q 70°

r
10°

EXAMPLE 3

A car moves from a starting point and travels 5 km north. It then changes direction and
travels for 4 km in the direction N60°E.
a Use a diagram to show the displacements as vectors.
b Find the bearing of the final position of the car from its starting point.

6 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Solution

a Use a scale of 1 cm = 1 km. N

Let m be the first displacement.

Using the scale, m will be 5 cm long. n
60°
The direction of m is north. W E

Let n be the second displacement.

Using the scale, n will be 4 cm long. m

The direction of n is 60° east of north.

W E

b Re-draw the diagram and label it. M

n
Using the information in the question, 4 a
∠MPQ = 30°. P 30° Q
b
m

N R

a
Use the sine ratio to calculate a. sin (30°) =
4
a = 4 sin (30°)
=2

b
Use the cosine ratio to calculate b. cos (30°) =
4
b = 4 cos (30°)
= 3.4641…

You need to calculate ∠MNP. MR

tan (∠MNR) =
NR
Calculate ∠MNR first.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 7

 Substitute for known values. 2+5
=
3.4641...
= 2.0207…

Use tan−1 to calculate ∠MNR. tan–1(2.0207…) = 63.67…°

Calculate ∠MNP. ∠MNP + 63.67…° = 90°

Evaluate. ∠MNP = 26.32…°

Round off and state the result. The bearing of the final position
of the car from its starting point is
about 026°T.

Exercise 1.01 Vectors

1 Which of the following are vector quantities?
a speed b displacement c length
d acceleration e temperature f velocity
g force h volume i height

2 The diagram below shows displacement vectors drawn using a scale of 1 cm = 4 km.
Use direct measurement to fully describe each vector giving its magnitude and direction.
N

d
b

e
W a E

c f

8 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 3 Draw a vector to represent each vector on the same set of axes.
Example

a 5 m west b 4 m south c 7 m east 1

d 10 m south-west e 9 m north-east f 6 m south-east

4 Draw a vector to represent each force on the same set of axes.

Example
a m = 200 N in the direction S40°W b r = 160 N in the direction N20°E 2
c u = 120 N in the direction 280°T d p = 210 N in the direction N40°W
e g = 90 N in the direction 080°T f d = 170 N in the direction S50°E

5 Draw a vector to represent each acceleration on the same set of axes.

a 10 m s−2 east b 6 m s−2 north-east c 8 m s−2 230°T
d 18 m s−2 N70°W e 12 m s−2 S30°E f 16 m s−2 340°T

6 An object moves from a starting point and travels 6 km south-west. It then changes Example
direction and travels north for 9 km. 3
a Use a diagram to show the two displacements as vectors.
b Find the bearing of the final position of the object from its starting point.

Problem solving
7 A displacement vector has its tail at the origin and its head 20 m east and 15 m north of
the origin. Calculate the norm of the displacement vector.

8 A cyclist sets off from a starting point and travels 8 km in the direction N30°W.
The cyclist then changes direction and travels 12 km in the direction N70°E.
a Find the bearing of the final position of the cyclist from the starting point.
b How far is the cyclist from the starting point?

1.02 Polar and Cartesian forms of vectors WS

A vector that is drawn with its tail at an origin and its head
y
at a fixed point is called a position vector. The diagram on 5
Homework
Displacement
vectors

the right shows a position vector to the point (6, 4). P(6, 4)
4
→
This position vector is written as OP or OP. For a position 3 WS
vector, the origin (tail) is known as the initial point and 2
the head is known as the terminal point. 1
Homeworkand
Component
polar forms of
vectors
For OP, O(0, 0) is the initial point and P(6, 4) is the O x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
terminal point.
A position vector always has O(0, 0) as its origin. This means you can write a position vector
as the coordinates of its terminal point, so OP = (6, 4).
Another way of representing a two-dimensional vector is to write the magnitude and
direction as an ordered pair. This is called the polar form of a vector.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 9

 Polar form
Two-dimensional vectors are represented in polar form Vector y
by an ordered pair. The first number gives the magnitude r
of the vector and the second number gives the direction
r
of the vector. The direction is given by the anticlockwise
θ
angle from the positive direction of the x-axis.
x
Thus a vector r may be written as
r 
the ordered pair (r, θ) or the column vector  .
θ 

EXAMPLE 4

A vector v of magnitude 3 is in the direction of 60° to the x-axis.

a Write the polar form of the vector.
b Sketch possible representations of the vector.

Solution

a Write as an ordered pair. v = (3, 60°)

 3 
Write as a column vector. v= 
60° 

b The diagram on the right shows some y

possible representations of v. The vector v
is at an angle of 60° to the x-axis and has a
magnitude of 3, as indicated in the diagram.
v
v may be drawn in different positions, but 3
v 60°
its magnitude and direction remain the x
same no matter where it is drawn in v
the plane.
v

One of the most important vector quantities in scientific applications is displacement.

The displacement from one position to another is the change of position. When you look at
displacement, it doesn’t matter how the change has occurred. It is a vector because a change
of position has both magnitude and direction.

10 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 EXAMPLE 5

Find the displacement d from A(2, −2) to B(6, 1).

Solution

Draw a set of axes and plot A(2, −2) and y

B(6, 1). 2
1 B(6, 1)

−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
−1
−2 A(2, −2)
−3

The displacement from A to B can be y

shown as an arrow from A to B. 2
B(6, 1)
Label the arrow d. 1
d
θ
You need to calculate the distance from −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
−1
A to B to find the magnitude of d and the θ
−2
angle θ to find the direction. A(2, −2) C
−3

Use the distance formula. d = ( x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2

d = (6 − 2)2 + [1 − ( −2)]
2
Substitute known values.

Evaluate. = 16 + 9
= 25
=5

Calculate θ using ∆ABC and the tan ratio. BC

tan (θ) =
AC

Substitute known values. 3

=
4

Evaluate. = 0.75

Use tan–1 to calculate θ. tan–1(0.75) = 36.8698…°

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 11

  5 
Round the angle and write d in polar form. d ≈ (5, 36.9°) or d ≈  
36.9° 

You can also use a graphics calculator to find d.

TI-84 Plus CE

TI-Nspire CX
Make sure that your calculator is set to degrees.
Chapter 1
Press y Πand select 5: RuPr. Enter the
difference in the x-coordinates and the difference in the
y-coordinates separated by a comma (¢) and press Í.
The value of r for (r, θ) is displayed.
Press y Œ and select 6: RuPθ. Enter the difference
in the x-coordinates and the difference in y-coordinates
separated by a comma (¢) and press Í. The value of θ
for (r, θ) is displayed.

Casio fx-CG20AU

Make sure that your calculator is set to degrees.

Open a Run-Matrix screen and press i then select
u, y [ANGLE]. Select u and then q [Pol(].
Enter the difference between the x-coordinates and the
difference in the y-coordinates separated by a comma
(,) and then close the brackets.
Press l.
The polar form of d is then displayed.

In considering displacement, you are not concerned y

with how the change of position occurs.
B
In Example 5, the displacement could have occurred
in many different ways. It could even have occurred x
∆y
by a movement from A to C and then from C to B, as
shown in the diagram on the right. This would be an A C
∆x
x-change of 4 and a y-change of 3.
You could show the displacement AB as the x-change
and the y-change. This gives the ordered pair (4, 3).
This can be done for any vector and is called the component form of the vector. 4 is the
x-component and 3 is the y-component of the displacement vector AB.

12 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Component form of a vector
A two-dimensional vector is represented in component form (Cartesian form) by an
ordered pair, matrix or row matrix. The first number is the x-component and the second is
the y-component of the vector. The x-component is in the x-direction and the y-component
is in the y-direction. They form a right-angled triangle with the vector as the hypotenuse.
x 
Thus a vector p may be written as the row vector (x, y) or the column vector   .
 y

The diagram on the right shows a point P(x, y) on a

P(x, y)
circle of radius r. OP makes an angle of θ with the x-axis.
It can be shown that for any point P(x, y), sin (θ), cos (θ) r
y
and tan (θ) can be defined in terms of the coordinates P.
y x y θ
sin (θ) = , cos (θ) = and tan (θ) = . x
r r x
Also, r = x 2 + y 2 .
These definitions can be applied to vectors.

For any vector v with polar form

v = (v, θ) and component form v = (x, y):
V(x, y)
|v| = v = x 2 + y 2 and x = v cos (θ)
and y = v sin (θ) v

So v = (v, θ) = (v cos (θ), v sin (θ)) θ

It is convenient to be able to express a vector in both component and polar form.

Trigonometry of right-angled triangles is used to convert vectors between these
representations.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 13

 EXAMPLE 6
 −5
a Change the vector a =   to polar form.
 9
b If d is a vector of magnitude 6 in the direction 245°, write d in component form.

Solution

a Draw a on the Cartesian plane using the y

5
x- and y-components. Draw a right-angled
triangle to show the relationship between a
the two forms of the vector.
9
To obtain the correct directions, care
must be taken to allow for the signs of the φ
components.
θ
x

You need to calculate the magnitude (a) and direction (θ) of a.

Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find a. a2 = 52 + 92

= 106
a = 10.2956…

Use the diagram to find the tan ratio. 5

tan (φ ) = = 0.555…
9

Use tan–1 to find φ . φ = tan–1 (0.555…) = 29.0546…°

Use the diagram to find θ. θ = 90° + 29.0546…°

= 119.0546…°

Round off and write a in polar form. a ≈ (10.30, 119.1°)

b Write d in polar form. d = (6, 245°)

Use the definition. = (6 cos (245°), 6 sin (245°))

Evaluate. = (−2.5357…, −5.4378…)

Round off and state the result d ≈ (−2.54, −5.44)

14 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 You can also use a graphics calculator to find the component form of d.

TI-84 Plus CE

Press y Œ and select 7: PuRx. Enter 6 ¢ 245 TI-Nspire CX

and then close the brackets and press Í. Chapter 1

The x-coordinate is displayed.

Press y Œ and select 8: PuRy. Enter 6 ¢ 245
and then close the brackets and press Í.
The y-coordinate is displayed.

Casio fx-CG20AU

Open a Run-Matrix screen and press i then

select u, y [ANGLE]. Select u and then
w [Rec(].
Enter the norm of d and the angle d makes with
the x-axis separated by a comma and then close
the brackets.
Press l.
The Cartesian form of d is then displayed.

Since a displacement vector may show a change y

from one position to another position, it is
also symbolised by writing the first and second D X
positions in order. The displacement from A to
→
B is shown as AB or AB or AB or  AB. P
C Y
Even though a displacement from A to B can B
be written using A and B, it is still the same O x
as another vector of the same magnitude and
A
direction in another position.
F
In the diagram on the right, AB, CD, EF and
OP represent the same vector. We could write
AB = CD = EF = OP E

Because XY has the same magnitude as OP,

but runs in the opposite direction, we can say that
XY = −OP = −AB = −CD = −EF

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 15

 Exercise 1.02 Polar and Cartesian forms of vectors
1 Use the diagram to write each position y
vector as an ordered pair (a, b).
6
a OA
4
b OB E B
c OC 2
d OD
O x
e OE −6 −4 −2 2 4 A 6

f OF −2
G
D
g OG −4

C F
−6

Example
2 Sketch each vector.
4 a (6, −2) b (1, 3) c (4, 120°) d (5, 210°) e (−2, −4)
f (−5, 2) g (3, −40°) h (5, 300°) i (4, 2) j (4, 45°)

3 Calculate the norm of the position vector to each point, correct to two decimal places.
a (2, 4) b (−1, 3) c (4, −7) d (6, 1)
e (−8, 3) f (5, −2) g (−4, −6) h (−3, 12)

4 Calculate the angle that the position vector to each point in question 3 parts
a to h makes with the positive direction of the x-axis, correct to 1 decimal place.

5 Convert each vector to polar form.

a (3, −4) b (−5, 5) c (−7, −10) d (4, 12) e (−10, 16)
f (8, 15) g (12, 5) h (−9, −12) i (−7, −12) j (8, −8)

Example
6 Find in polar form the displacement AB from:
5 a A(1, 3) to B(6, 8) b A(3, −4) to B(7, 2)
c A(−1, −3) to B(4, 6) d A(5, 1) to B(−3, 4)
e A(6, 8) to B(−2, −1) f A(5, −7) to B(−2, 3)

16 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 7 Convert each vector to component form. Example

a (5, 30°) b (10, 300°) c (24, 90°) d (16, 135°) 6

e (28, −120°) f (70, 270°) g (35, 0°) h (22, 180°)
i (4, 200°) j (8, −60°)

8 Write each displacement in component y

form and polar form. 6
B
a AB C
4
b CB
c DE 2

d AD F A
−6 −4 −2 O 2 4 6 x
e EC
−2
f DB
g BF −4
E
D
−6

Problem solving
9 The directed line segment shown in the y
diagram represents the vector r.
4
Find a and b if r = (a, b). Q(4, 2)
2
10 The vector p has a magnitude of 6 and is in the r

direction N 40° W. −6 −4 −2 2 4 6x
a Describe the vector −p in words. P(−3, −2) −2
b 
Sketch p and −p on the same set of axes so
−4
that their tails (initial points) coincide.
c 
On another set of axes draw p and −p
so that the head (terminal point) of p
coincides with the tail of −p.
d 
If p is a displacement vector, describe the displacement vector that results from a
displacement of p followed by a displacement of −p.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 17

 WS
1.03 Scalar multiples of vectors
If you wanted to make a new vector twice as big as a given vector, then you wouldn’t change
Homework
Scalar
multiplication the direction. You would just double the magnitude.
For a vector in polar form such as a = (3, 60°), 2a = (2 × 3, 60°) = (6, 60°)
For a vector in Cartesian form such as b = (4, 5), 2b = (2 × 4, 2 × 5) = (8, 10).
Multiplying a vector by a scalar quantity is called scalar multiplication.

Multiplication by a scalar
For a vector a = (a1, a2) and a constant c, the scalar multiple ca is defined as:
ca = (ca1, ca2).
If the vector is in polar form, i.e., a = (r, θ), the scalar multiple ca is defined as:
(cr, θ) for c ≥ 0, or (cr, 180° + θ) for c < 0.
(If c < 0, 180° is added to reverse the direction of the scalar multiple.)
The product (−1)a is normally written as −a.

EXAMPLE 7

The vector a is shown on the right.

a
Draw vectors representing:
1
a 2a  b −3a  c a
2

Solution

a 2a will be in the same direction but will be

twice as long as a. 2a

b −3a will be in the opposite direction and

−3a
will be 3 times as long as a.

1
c a will be in the same direction but will be 1a
2 2

half as long as a.

18 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 EXAMPLE 8

 −6 
a If f =   , find 3f.
 3
b If m = (7, 251°), find −5m.

Solution

 −6 
a Write the product. 3f = 3  
 3

3 × ( −6 ) 
Multiply the components of f by 3. = 
 3× 3 

Evaluate and state the result.  −18 

3f =  
 9

b Here the scalar, c < 0. c = −5

Use the rule for scalar product. cm = (cm, 180° + θ)

Here m = (7, 251°) and c = 5. −5m = (5 × 7, 180° + 251°)

Evaluate. = (35, 431°)

Convert the angle so it is in the domain −5m = (35, 71°)

0 ≤ θ < 360° and state the result.

You can do scalar multiplication with a graphics calculator.

TI-84 Plus CE

You can’t enter vectors with the TI-84 Plus CE, TI-Nspire CX
so enter the vector as a matrix. Chapter 1

Press y — (Matrix) and select EDIT, then select

1: [A] (matrix A) and press Í. Set the matrix to
1 row and 2 columns (1 × 2) and then press Í.
Press Ì ¸ Í and then  Í. Vector A is now
defined as A = (−6, 3). Press y z to quit the
screen. Enter  ¯ y — (Matrix) and select A.
Press enter to display the result.
Vectors cannot be entered in polar form on the TI-84 Plus CE.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 19

 Casio fx-CG20AU

Enter the vector (−6, 3) by pressing e [uMAT/VCT].

Select the vector mode using [M⇔V] if necessary.
Select Vct A and press e [DIM]. Enter 1 against m
and 2 against n. Press l and then enter the
components. Press d d. Now A = (−6, 3).
Enter 3 m iw[MAT/VCT] u u q [Vct]
and then press a f [A]. Press l and the scalar product is displayed.
Vectors cannot be entered in polar form on the Casio fx-CG20AU.

Exercise 1.03 Scalar multiples of vectors

1 Write each of the vectors b, c, d, …, h shown in the diagram below in terms of a.
y
7
6
b d
5
4
h 3 a
2
g
1

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
f −1
c −2
−3 e

−4
−5

Example
2 Make a copy of this diagram and draw y
7 each of the following vectors on it. 6
1 5
a m
2 4
b −m 3 m
c −2m 2
d 3m 1

e −3m −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1
f 1.5m −2
g −1.5m −3
h − 4m −4
−5

20 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 3 If n = (4, −2), draw each vector on the same set of axes.
1
a 2n b n c −n d 3n
2
e 4n f 1.5n g −2.5n h −4n

4 If p = (8, 2), find: Example

1
a 3p b −p c p d 1.5p 8
2
1 3
e −2.5p f 4p g − p h p
4 4
 −12
5 If w =  , find:
 30 
1
a 2w b −3w c w d −2.5w
3
2 1
e − w f 1.5w g − w h 0.5w
3 6
6 If u = (5, 58°), find:
1
a 2u b −u c 3u d u
2
1
e −1.5u f 2.5u g − u h −6u
5
7 If p = (9, 3), q = (−6, 4) and r = (4, −10), find:
1
a 4q b −2r c p d −2.5r
3
3 3 1
e − q f 3p g r h − q
2 4 4
8 If d = (6, 36°), e = (4, 124°) and f = (9, 218°), find:
1
a 3d b −f c 2e d − d
3
1
e −2.5e f 1.5d g − f h −5e
3

1.04 Addition of vectors WS

You have seen that you can draw a vector in any position on
b Homework
Triangle addition
the plane. This means that a vector can slide (translate) from of vectors

one position to another without changing its value. a

WS
Consider the two displacements a and b shown on the right.
Homework
Parallelogram
rule for vector
addition

To work out the displacement that results from b

displacement a followed by displacement b, you can slide b

b across until its tail coincides with the head of a. a

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 21

 The overall result of adding the displacements a and b is the
b
vector a + b. This vector goes from the tail of a to the head of b.
a

a+b

Triangle rule for vector addition

If two vectors a and b are placed head-to-tail, the sum
a + b, is the third side of the triangle. b
a+ b
The sum a + b is also called the resultant (r) of a and b.

The triangle rule for vector addition is also called the head-to-tail rule because it requires
that vectors be arranged head-to-tail.

EXAMPLE 9

Find the resultant (sum) of p and q in polar form. y

4
p
3
2
1

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 x
−1
−2
−3
q −4
−5
−6
−7

22 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Solution

Start by re-drawing the vectors head-to-tail. y

4
It is convenient to place the first vector with
its tail at the origin. 3
2
It doesn’t matter whether you start with
1
p or q. p

Draw in the resultant vector (r) and mark in −5 −4 −3 −2 θ 1 2 x

−1
the angle (θ) that the resultant vector makes −2
with the x-axis. q −3
r
−4
−5
−6
−7

Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the r = 4 2 + 62

magnitude of r.
= 2 13

6
Use the tan ratio to calculate θ. tan (θ) =
4

 6
Use tan–1 to find θ. θ = tan–1  
 4

Evaluate. = 56.3099…°

The direction of r is measured relative to Direction of r = 180° + 56.3099…°

the positive direction of the x-axis.
= 236.3099…°

Round off and state the result. r = (2 13, 236.3°)

There is an alternative rule to the triangle (head-to-tail) rule for adding vectors.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 23

 Parallelogram rule for vector addition
Consider vectors a and b as shown below.
If you form the parallelogram ABCD using a and b as the sides, the diagonal AC is the
resultant a + b.

B b
C

a b a
+
a
a

b
A D
    b

Note that the parallelogram shows that a + b = b + a so the order in which the vectors
are added doesn’t matter.

The application of the triangle rule and the parallelogram rule involve the use of Pythagoras’
theorem and the trigonometric ratios. You may also be required to use the sine rule and the
cosine rule.

Sine rule
For any  ABC: B
a b c
= =
sin( A) sin( B ) sin(C ) c a

Cosine rule
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos (A) A b C

b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos (B)

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos (C)

EXAMPLE 10

Two forces, one of 7 N and one of 5 N, act on an object.

The forces are separated by an angle of 58°, as shown 5N
in the diagram. Calculate the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force acting on the object. 58°
7N

24 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Solution

Redraw the diagram and complete the Q 7 R

parallelogram. Label the vertices and draw
in the resultant vector. 5 r
5

P 7 S

Use geometry and the given information ∠P = 58° (Given.)

to calculate the internal angles of the
∠R = 58° (Opposite angles of a
parallelogram.
parallelogram.)
∠Q = 122° (Co-interior angles on
parallel lines.)
∠S = 122° (Opposite angles of a
parallelogram.)

Use the cosine rule to calculate the PR2 = PS2 + SR2 − 2 × PS × SR cos (∠S)
magnitude of r (r).

Substitute for known values. r2 = 72 + 52 − 2 × 7 × 5 cos (122°)

Evaluate. = 111.0943…

Take square roots of both sides. r = 10.5401…

Use the sine rule to calculate ∠RPS. PR SR

=
sin ( ∠RSP ) sin ( ∠RPS )

10.5401... 5
Substitute for known values. =
sin (122° ) sin ( ∠RPS )

5 × sin (122° )
Rearrange to isolate ∠RPS. sin (∠RPS) =
10.5401...
= 0.4022…

Use sin–1 to calculate ∠RPS. ∠RPS = sin–1 (0.4022…)

Evaluate. = 23.7217…

Round off and state the result. The resultant force has a magnitude of
about 10.5 N at an angle of 23.7° above
the horizontal.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 25

 EXAMPLE 11

Calculate the resultant of a = (12, 235°) and b = (18, 169°).

Solution

Draw a rough sketch to help with the

calculations. Use either the triangle 235°
rule or the parallelogram rule.
Draw a at 235°. α

a
Draw b in the direction of 169°, θ
starting where a finishes. You should α
make b about 1 1 times the length of a. b 169°
2
You need to find the angle between
a and b.
Mark in angles as required.

Use the diagram to find θ, the angle α = 235° − 180° = 55°

between the vectors.
θ = 169° − α
= 169° − 55°
= 114°

Represent the information in a B

simpler diagram. c
Label the vertices and sides of the a = 12
triangle. A
114°
b = 18
The magnitude of the resultant is c. C

Use the cosine rule to find c. c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos (C)

Substitute known values. = 122 + 182 − 2 × 12 × 18 × cos (114°)

Evaluate. c2 = 643.7102…

Take square roots of both sides. c = 25.3714…

b c
Use the sine rule to find B. =
sin ( B ) sin (C )

26 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Substitute known values. 18 25.3714...
=
sin ( B ) sin (114° )

18 × sin (114° )
Rearrange. sin (B) =
25.3714...

Evaluate. = 0.6481…

Use sin–1 to calculate B. B = sin–1 (0.6481…)

= 40.4002…°

Refer to the first diagram to calculate Direction = 235° − 40.4002…°

the direction of the resultant.
= 194.5997…°

State the result. The resultant vector ≈ (25.4, 194.6°).

Exercise 1.04 Addition of vectors

1 Calculate the resultant of each set of vectors. Write your answer in terms of ‘left’ or ‘right’.

a 4 9

b 3 16 8

c 12 17

d 15 15

e 13 6 10

2 In each situation, a block is subjected to a number forces (in newtons). Calculate the
resultant force acting on each block.
a b c d e
32 N
50 N 46 N

78 N 37 N
22 N
38 N
48 N 46 N
56 N
90 N
27 N 33 N

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 27

Example
3 Find the resultant of each pair of y
9 vectors, giving your answer in polar 7
form. 6
a m+p 5
m w
b w+q 4

c s+p 3
u
2
d w+u p
1
e w+m
f p+u −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
q −1
g s+q −2
s

h w+s −3
−4

Example
4 Calculate the resultant force acting on each object.
10 a b
28 N
12 N
25°
36 N
20 N

c 45 N
d
46°
61 N
31 N
63°

75 N

e 56 N f

48 N 138° 57 N
126°

84 N

Example
5 Find the resultant of p = (6, 20°) and q = (9, 55°).
11
6 Calculate (25, 120°) + (16, 80°).

7 Given w = (6, 220°), x = (10, 60°), y = (8, 100°) and z = (9, −50°), calculate:
a w+y b y+z c x+z
d w+z e y+x

8 Given m = (10, 140°), n = (8, 70°), p = (11, −80°) and q = (12, −120°), calculate:
a m+n b p+q c m+p
d q+n e n+p

28 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

Problem solving
9 Vectors a and b represent two adjacent sides of a rectangle. Find a vector expression
which represents the diagonals of the rectangle.

10 In the parallelogram ABCD, side AD is represented by the vector p and side AB is

represented by the vector q. State the physical significance of the vector p + q.

11 A boat travels 5 km NE and

then 7 km at a bearing of 120°.
Find its distance and direction
from its starting point.

Shutterstock.com/freevideophotoagency

12 For the rectangular prism ABCDEFGH shown, G

H
if AB = p, AD = q and AE = r,
D
write each vector in terms of p, q and r. C

a AF q
E F
b AH r
A p B
c BG
d FC
e GE

1.05 Subtraction of vectors

You can subtract vectors by combining the concepts of vector addition and negative vectors.
Consider the vectors a and b.
You can write a − b as follows.
a − b = a + (−b) b
This can be shown geometrically. a

Begin with vectors a and b as shown on the right.

You can find a − b by changing the subtraction to addition:
-b
a − b = a + (−b) a

Redraw b as −b by reversing its direction.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 29

 The vectors a and −b may now be added by arranging the vectors -b
head-to-tail.
a
a + -b

EXAMPLE 12

Use the diagram to calculate p − q. y

8
7
6 q
5
4
3
p
2
1

−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
−1
−2

Solution

Write the subtraction as an addition. p − q = p + (−q)

Redraw the diagram by placing p at the y

origin and reversing the direction of q 4
to form −q. Then place −q head-to-tail 3
with p. -q
2 p
Name the resultant vector r. 1 r
θ
Mark in θ, the angle that r makes with −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
−1
the x-axis.

Calculate the norm of r. r = x 2 + y2

Substitute for known values. = 82 + 12

Evaluate. = 65

1
Use the tan ratio to calculate θ. tan (θ) = = 0.125
8

30 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Use tan–1 to find θ. tan–1(0.125) = 7.1250…°

Round off and write the result. p − q ≈ ( 65, 7.1°)

EXAMPLE 13

Given that a = (35, 130°) and b = (40, 50°), calculate a − b.

Solution

Write a − b as an addition. a − b = a + (−b)

Draw a sketch showing a and b.

Draw −b and then place it head-to-tail
b 40
with a.
Mark in the magnitudes and directions E 50°
of a and b. w u

Label other angles as required. -b a

40 35
Label the vertices of DEF. 130°
θ D
r
F

Calculate required angles using the u = 50° (Co-interior angles.)

rules of geometry.
w = 50° (Vertically opposite angles.)
∠FED + 50° + 50° = 180° (Angles on a line.)
∠FED = 80°

Use the cosine rule to find r. r2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos (∠FED)

Substitute known values. = 352 + 402 − 2 × 35 × 40 × cos (80°)

Evaluate. r2 = 2338.7851…

Take square roots of both sides. r = 48.3609…

Use the sine rule to find ∠EDF. b r

=
sin ( ∠EDF ) sin ( ∠FED )

Substitute known values. 40 48.3609...

=
sin ( ∠EDF ) sin (80° )

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 31

 Rearrange. 40 × sin (80° )
sin (∠EDF) =
48.3609...

Evaluate. = 0.8145…

Use sin–1 to calculate ∠EDF. ∠EDF = sin–1 (0.8145…)

= 54.5426…°

Refer to the first diagram to calculate Direction = 130° − 54.5426…°

the direction of the resultant.
= 184.5426…°

State the result. r = a − b ≈ (48.4, 184.5°).

Exercise 1.05 Subtraction of vectors

1 Find each vector in polar form. y
a a−c g 5
a
b c−e 4

c d−f 3
2 c
d f−b
1
e e−g f b
f d−b −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
−1
d
−2
e
−3
−4

2 Find each vector in polar form. y

a p−q 6
b s−r 5

c u−t 4
3 t
d q−r q
2
e s−t p
1
f u−p
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
r −1
−2 s
−3

u −4
−5

32 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 3 Find each vector in polar form. y
Example
6
a a−b 12
5
b c−b a
4
c d−a 3
d
d c−d 2
e a−c b 1
f b−a
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1 c
−2
−3

4 Calculate each vector in polar form. Example

a (7, 30°) − (9, 100°) b (105, 300°) − (95, 60°) c (6, 70°) − (6, 10°) 13
5 Given w = (6, 220°), x = (10, 60°), y = (8, 100°) and z = (9, −50°), calculate each vector
difference without changing to component form.
a w−x b z−y c x−z d y−w e w−y

Problem solving
6 A rectangular prism PQRSTUVW is shown. V
W
If PQ = a, PS = b and PT = c, write each
vector in terms of a, b and c. R
S
a UP b
T U
b RP c
P a Q
c WP
d UR
e WU

7 The diagram on the right shows OA = a and OB = b. A

M is the midpoint of OA and N is the midpoint of OB. a

a Write AB in terms of a and b. M

1 B
b Show that MN = AB. b
2 N
O

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 33

 WS
1.06 Unit vectors
So far you have seen how a vector can be written in polar form,
Homework
Unit vectors
x 
a = (r, θ), or in component form, a = (x, y) or a =   .
 y
Vectors can also be expressed in terms of unit vectors.
a
A unit vector has a magnitude of 1.
1
If a has magnitude 4, then a unit vector in the direction of a is a,
4 1a
as shown in the diagram. 4

The unit vector has a length of 1 unit and is in the same direction as a.

Unit vectors
A unit vector has magnitude 1. The unit vector in the same direction as a given vector p
is symbolised by placing a circumflex (ˆ) over the vector symbol, for example, p̂.
1
A unit vector may be derived from any vector p by multiplying by . Thus:
p
p
p̂ = , where p is the norm of p.
p
The unit vectors in the directions of the x- and y-axes are commonly given the special
symbols i and j, so i = x̂ and j = ŷ.
1  0 
Therefore i = (1, 0) =   and j = (0, 1) =  .
0  1 

EXAMPLE 14

If p = (3, −4), find p̂.

Solution
1
Write the rule for the unit vector. p̂ = p
p

Substitute values. 1
= (3, −4)
32 + ( −4)2

Evaluate. 1
= (3, −4)
5

State the result.  3 −4 

p̂ =  , 
5 5 

Unit vectors can be calculated on a Casio graphics calculator, but not on a

TI-84 Plus CE calculator.

34 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Casio fx-CG20AU

Assign vector A as (3, −4) using the procedure outlined

in Example 8.
Press iw[MAT/VCT] uuy [Unit V].
Then press q and press a f (A). Close the
brackets and press l and the unit vector is displayed.

A linear combination of vectors is a sum of scalar multiples of the vectors. Thus, a linear
combination of vectors p and q is of the form ap + bq, where a and b are real numbers.
x 
Any vector in two dimensions may be written in the form (x, y) or   . Because i and j are the
 y
unit vectors in the direction of the x- and y-axes respectively, any two-dimensional vector can
be written as a linear combination of i and j.

EXAMPLE 15

Write each vector as a linear combination of i and j.

 −6 
a f = (5, −3)   b g =      c h = (5, 300°)
 0
Solution

a Write f. f = (5, −3)

Express as a sum of vectors. = (5, 0) + (0, −3)

Write as multiples of unit vectors. = 5(1, 0) + [−3(0, 1)]

State the result. f = 5i + (−3j)

b Write g.  −6 
g= 
 0

Express as a sum of vectors in the  −6  0 

= + 
direction of the x- and y-axes.  0  0 

 1 0 
Write as multiples of unit vectors. = −6   + 0  
0   1

State the result. g = −6i + 0j

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 35

 c Write h. h = (5, 300°)

Express in component form. = (5 cos (300°), 5 sin (300°))

Evaluate and round off. ≈ (2.5, −4.33)

Express as a sum of vectors. = (2.5, 0) + (0, −4.33)

Write as multiples of unit vectors. = 2.5(1, 0) + [−4.33(0, 1)]

State the result. h ≈ 2.5i + (−4.33)j

It is also possible to write the exact value y

of h.
Draw a diagram. 300° x
60° x

h y
5

5
Calculate the components of h. x = 5 cos (60°) =
2
−5 3
y = −5 cos (60°) =
2

5 5 3
Write as multiples of unit vectors. h= i− j
2 2

You can use a graphics calculator to express a vector in component form.

TI-84 Plus CE

TI-Nspire CX
For a vector in polar form e.g.
Chapter 1
(5, 300°), press y Œ and select 7:
PuRx. Enter 5 ¢ and then 300 and
then close the brackets and press Í.
The x-coordinate is displayed.
Press y Πand select 8: PuRy.
Enter 5 ¢ and then 300 and then
close the brackets press Í. The
y-coordinate is displayed.

36 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Casio fx-CG20AU

Open a Run-Matrix screen and press

i, then select u, y [ANGLE].
Select u and then w [Rec(].
Enter 5 ¢ and then 300 and then close
the brackets and press l.
The Cartesian form of h is then
displayed.

Exercise 1.06 Unit vectors

1 Draw a vector to represent each expression.
a 0i + 7j b 3i + 6j c −4i + 0j d 7i + 0j
e 0i − 5j f −7i + 4j g −6i − 3j h 2i − 7j
i 4i + j j −4i + 9j k −6i − 8j l 7i − 3j
m 4i − 6j n −i − 8j

2 If m is a unit vector, what is the length of 7m?

Example
3 Calculate the unit vector for each vector as an exact value.
14
 5
a (3, 4) b (−2, 8) c  −1 d (−6, −3)
 
 −2   −5
e (−5, 3) f  −6  g (−1, 4) h  
   12
4 Calculate the unit vector for each vector as an exact value where possible.
a (4, 30°) b (7, 60°) c (12, 90°) d (6, 180°)
e (11, 270°) f (8, 0°) g (4, 48°) h (9, 156°)
i (6, 295°) j (13, 328°) k (10, −52°) l (15, −143°)

5 Write each vector as a linear combination of i and j. Example

a (5, −3) b (−6, 4) c (−4, −7) d (6, 5) 15

 1  −2   −3
e (−3.2, −9.4) f  −4  g   h  5
   −8   
7.59  0.07 
i 3.68  j 0.19 
   
6 Write each vector as a linear combination of i and j.
a (7, −74°) b (9, 125°) c (11, 330°)
d (16, 240°) e (4.8, −119°) f (8, 85°)
g (3, 158°) h (10, −87°)
i (15, −255°) j (20, −119°)

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 37

 Problem solving
7 OABC is a rectangle in which the vector OA = 6i and OC = 4j. Express each vector in
terms of i and j.
a CA b AC

8 Find a unit vector in component form that is in the opposite direction to g = −5i + 12j.

9 Given h = −6i + 8j, find a vector in component form that has a magnitude of 15 in the
same direction as h.

WS 1.07 Vector components

Homework You have previously seen how to add vectors in polar form. y
Addition of
vectors using (1, 5)
components It is also possible to add vectors in component form.
Consider displacements from (−2, −1) to (3, −4) and then
from (3, −4) to (1, 5), as shown in the diagram. The overall
d
displacement is from (−2, −1) to (1, 5). The arrows in the
d2
diagram show that the total displacement is formed as the
third side of the triangle made by the first two displacements, x
with the vectors placed head-to-tail. (−2, −1)

In component form, the displacements are d1 = (5, −3) and

d1
d2 = (−2, 9). The total displacement is d = (3, 6).
(3, −4)
The resultant of d1 and d2 can be found by adding the
components of d1 and d2 as shown below.
d1 + d2 = (5, −3) + (−2, 9)
= (5 + (−2), −3 + 9)
= (3, 6)
=d

Addition of vectors using components

The sum of two vectors a = (x1, y2) and b = (x2, y2) is defined by:
a + b = (x1 + x2, y1 + y2)
In terms of the unit vectors i and j, if a = x1i + y1j and b = x2i + y2j, then:
a + b = (x1 + x2)i + (y1 + y2) j

38 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 EXAMPLE 16

Find the sum of each of the following vectors.

7   5 
a (5, −7) + (−12, 4)   b   +     c 3i − 8j and −5i + 7j
3   −4 

Solution

a Add the components. (5, −7) + (−12, 4) = (5 + (−11), −7 + (−12))

Evaluate. = (−6, −19)

Add the components. 7   5   7 + 5 

b 3  +  −4  = 3 + −4 
     ( )

Evaluate.  12
= 
 −1

c Add the i and j parts separately. (3i − 8j) + (−5i + 7j) = (3 + (−5))i + (−8 + 7)j

Evaluate. = −2i − j

You can also add scalar multiples of vectors using the component form.

EXAMPLE 17

Given that p = (−4, 7) and q = (3, −5), calculate:

a q−p b 3p − 5q

Solution

a Write subtraction as an addition. q − p = q + (−p)

Substitute for known values. = (3, −5) + [−(− 4, 7)]

= (3, −5) + (4, −7)

Add the components. = (3 + 4, −5 + (−7))

= (7, −12)

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 39

 b Write the sum using scalar multiples. 3p − 5q = 3(−4, 7) − 5(3, −5)

Evaluate. = (−12, 21) − (15, −25)

Write the subtraction as an addition. = (−12, 21) + [−(15, −25)]

Add the components. = (−12 + (−15), 21 + 25)

= (−27, 46)

You can use a graphics calculator to calculate the sums of scalar multiples of vectors.

TI-84 Plus CE

TI-Nspire CX
Assign vector p as matrix A and vector q as matrix B
Chapter 1
as previously described in Example 8.
To find q − p, press Enter y — (Matrix) and select B,
then press j and enter  ¯ y — (Matrix) and
select A. Press Í to display the result.
To find 3p − 5q, press  ¯ y — (Matrix) and select A,
then press j and press · ¯ y — (Matrix) and select B.
Press Í to display the result.

Casio fx-CG20AU

Enter the vector (−4, 7) as vector A and (3, −5) as

vector B,as previously described in Example 8.
Press i, w [MAT/VCT], uu q [Vct],
ag [B]. Press ¹ and then press q [Vct],
af [A] and press l to display the result.
To find 3A − 5B, press  ¯ q [Vct], af
[A] ¹ · ¯ q [Vct], a g [B]. Press l to display the result.

40 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

Exercise 1.07 Vector components
1 Write each vector a, b, c, …, g y
as a position vector. Using this 7
information, calculate: 6
a a+b 5
b c+e f 4
c d+b 3
e a
d f+a 2
b 1
e g+f
f b+c −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
−1
g d+g
−2 c
−3
d
−4
g
−5
−6

2 Find the sum of each pair of vectors. Example

a (3, 6) and (−5, 7) b (−12, 7) and (−8, −6) 16

c (−11.5, −9.8) and (17.6, 13.5) d (7.05, −4.32) and (6.11, −5.87)
 1 2  5  3 3  7 1
e − 4 2 ,6 3  and 3 41 , −5 6  f  2 5 , −1 4  and −7 10 , 4 3 
       
3 Find the sum of each pair of vectors.
 9  −3  −4  11  −8   13
a  −7  and  12 b  −8  and  7  c  10  and  −6 
           
 1  1
3.9   7.4  7.09   −4.71   23  −3 6 
d 5.7  and  −2.6  e 5.46  and  −3.28  f   and  
         −4 1   −2 1 
 2   4 
4 Find the sum of:
a 2i − 10j and 4i + 11j b 7i + 9j and 6i − 4j
c −8.4i − 5.7j and 6.2i − 9.3j d −5.67i + 4.92j and 3.56i − 7.84j

e 1.06i − 9.22j and 7.17i − 10.09j f 3 1 i + 2 3 j and −5 5 i − 6 1 j

3 4 9 3

5 Given a = (1, 4), b = (−7, 8), c = (2, 4), d = (5, −2) and e = (−6, 1), find: Example

a c+e b b+c+d c 5a 17
d −2e e 3a + 2e f 4b − 2a
g a−c−e h 7c − 7a + d + 2e i 7a + 5b + e
j 2d − 7c

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 41

 6 If a = 2i + 3j, b = i − 4j and c = −3i + 2j, find each expression in i, j form.
a 3a − b b a + 2b c 3a − c
d 2c − 3b e a+b+c f 2b − c
g 3a + 2b + c h 4c + 2a i 4c − a
j 3c − a − b

7 Change each expression to component form, find the result, and change back to polar
form.
a (6, 20°) + (9, 55°) b (25, 120°) + (16, 80°) c (7, 30°) − (9, 100°)
d (105, 300°) − (95, 60°) e (6, 70°) − (6, 10°)

Problem solving
8 OP = 3i − j and OQ = 5i + 3j.
a Represent OP and OQ on a diagram.
b Find PQ in terms of i and j.
c If M is the midpoint of PQ, find the vector OM in terms of i and j.

9 If p = (x1, y1) and q = (x2, y2) and k is a scalar, show that k(p + q) = kp + kq.

1.08 Resolution of vectors

While the polar form is a better description of a vector, adding vectors in component form is
far easier than adding vectors in polar form.
The process of changing vectors to component form is called the resolution of vectors. It
is possible to resolve a vector into components which are horizontal and vertical, east and
north, or some other combination of directions. The unit vectors i and j are often used.

EXAMPLE 18

Resolve each vector into i and j components.

a m = (7, −9)   b p = (5, 68°)

Solution

a Write m in terms of i and j. m = (7, − 9)

= 7i + (−9j)
= 7i − 9j

42 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 b Draw a sketch. y
P

5 p

68°
O Q x

Calculate the horizontal component. OQ = 5 cos (68°)

= 1.8730…

Calculate the vertical component. PQ = 5 sin (68°)

= 4.6359…

Write p in terms of i and j. p = 1.8730… i + 4.6359… j

Round off and write the result. p ≈ 1.87i + 4.64j

You can calculate the resultant of two vectors by resolving the vectors and then adding their
components.

EXAMPLE 19

Calculate the resultant, r, of vectors a = (24, 60°), y

and b = (16, 30°), as shown in the diagram. a

24
16
b
60°

30°
x

Solution

To add the vectors, each can be resolved into its x and y-components using
x = r cos (θ) and y = r sin (θ).

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 43

 Resolve a. a = (24 cos (60°), 24 sin (60°))

 1 3
Evaluate. =  24 × , 24 ×
 2 2 

= (12, 12 3)

 3 1
Resolve b. b =  16 × , 16 × 
 2 2

Evaluate. = (8 3, 8)

Find the resultant, r. r=a+b

Substitute. = (12, 12 3) + (8 3, 8)

Add the x- and y-components separately. = (12 + 8 3, 12 3 + 8)

Calculate the magnitude of r. |r| = x 2 + y 2

Substitute known values. = (12 + 8 3)2 + (12 3 + 8)2

Evaluate. |r| = 38.6924…

12 3 + 8
Let r make an angle of θ with the x-axis. tan (θ) = = 1.1132…
12 + 8 3
Use the tan ratio to find the direction of r.

Use tan–1 to find θ. θ = 48.0675…°

Round off and state the result. The resultant, r ≈ (38.7, 48.1°).

You can use the same procedure to find the resultant of more than two vectors, as shown next
page.

44 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 EXAMPLE 20

Find the magnitude and direction of y

the resultant of the three forces
shown in the diagram on the right.
48 N

52°
34° 18° x
30 N 56 N

Solution

Write each vector in polar form. Let a = (48, [180 − 52]°) = (48, 128°)
Let b = (30, [180 + 34]°) = (30, 214°)
Let c = (56, [360 − 18]°) = (56, 342°)

Express each force in terms of a = (48 cos (128°), 48 sin (128°))

components.
b = (30 cos (214°), 30 sin (214°))
c = (56 cos (342°), 56 sin (342°))

Find the sum of the horizontal Sum of horizontal components

components.
= 48 cos (128°) + 30 cos (214°) + 56 cos (342°)

= −1.1637…

Find the sum of the vertical Sum of vertical components

components.
= 48 sin (128°) + 30 sin (214°) + 56 sin (342°)

= 3.7437…

Let the resultant be r. r = (−1.1637…, 3.7437…)

Calculate the magnitude of r. |r| = x 2 + y 2

Substitute known values. = ( −1.1637...)2 + (3.7437...)2

   = 3.9204…

Let r make an angle of θ with the 3.7437...

tan (θ) = = −3.2170…
x-axis. Use the tan ratio to find the −1.1637...
direction of r.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 45

 Use tan–1 to find θ. θ = −72.7327…°

Round off and state the direction as a The resultant, r ≈ (3.92, 287.3°).
positive value.

Exercise 1.08 Resolution of vectors

Example
1 Resolve each vector into i and j components.
18 a (5, −3) b (−6, 4) c (−4, −7) d (6, 5)
 2 −4 
e (−3.2, −9.4) f (2 3, 5) g  ,  h (−5 7 , 6 2)
3 9 
2 Express each vector in terms of i and j components.
 1  −2   −3 7.59 
a   b   c  5 d 3.68 
−4
  −
 8    
 6
0.07   −3 5   11   −9 11 
e 0.19  f   g   h  
   4 7   −5   −7 15 
 4 
3 Write each vector using i and j components.
a (7, −74°) b (9, 125°) c (11, 330°) d (16, 240°)
e (4.8, −119°) f (13, 53°) g (8.7, −27°) h (10.6, 286°)

Example
4 Resolve each pair of vectors into components and then calculate the resultant vector in
19 component form.
a y
   b y

42
35° 20 40 36

30° 58° 38°

x x

46 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 c y

54
12°
68° x

48

5 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant of each pair of vectors.
a y    b y

28°
5
54° x 26 77° 82° 14 x

17

c
y

22
81°
33° x
38

6 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant of each pair of vectors.
a (15, 20°) and (50, 45°) b (37, 100°) and (20, 135°)
c (60, −15°) and (75, 118°) d (84, 230°) and (27, 320°)
e (25, −130°) and (60, 162°) f (44, −126°) and (32, 134°)

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 47

Example
7 For each set of forces, calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
20 a y
   b y

15 N

24°
58 N 73° x
45 N 48°
72° 26° 22 N
17 N
18° x
52 N

c
y

65 N
85°
64° 81° x
57 N
42 N

Problem solving
8 A small boat is being towed at constant speed
along a canal by two people walking along
the banks on opposite sides.

The people pull with equal forces of 2000 N 60°
at equal angles of 60º on ropes attached to 60°
the boat.

Calculate the resultant force exerted on

the boat.

9 An object is under the influence of two separate forces. One of the forces is 52 N at
N54°E and the second is 36 N at N63°W. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
minimum force required to prevent the object from moving.

10 A boat is floating on the surface of a body of water. The boat is subjected to two separate
forces causing it to move. The current exerts a force of 270 N acting in the direction
N6°E and the wind exerts a force of 320 N acting in the direction S42°E. In what
direction does the boat move?

48 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

1.09 Applications of vectors
WS
Situations involving forces acting on an object are a common example of where vectors can
be applied. Homework
Vector
applications

EXAMPLE 21

Two ropes are tied to the prow of a

rubber boat and are being pulled 800 N
600 N
towards the beach as shown here.
The first rope is being pulled at an
angle of 20° to the shoreline, 70° 20°
with a force of 800 newtons (N).
The second rope is being pulled in the
same general direction, with a force of 600 N at an angle of 70° to the shoreline.
What is the total force acting on the boat and in what direction is it acting?

Solution

Draw the forces head to tail to make the A

triangle of forces ABC and complete the 800
N
triangle with the resultant. 20°
E B
Since EBCD is a quadrilateral,
r 600
∠EBC = 110°, so ∠ABC = 130°. N

70°
D C

Use the cosine rule to find r. r2 = AB2 + BC2 − 2 × AB × BC cos (∠ABC)

= 8002 + 6002 − 2 × 800 × 600 cos (130°)

Keep the exact answer in your calculator. = 1 617 0076.1…

r ≈ 1271.64… N

Use the sine rule to find ∠BCA. AB AC

=
sin ( ∠BCA) sin ( ∠ABC )

Substitute for known values. 800 1271.64...

=
sin ( ∠BCA) sin (130° )

800 × sin (130° )

Rearrange to isolate ∠BCA. sin (∠BCA) =
1271.64...

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 49

 Evaluate. = 0.4819…

Use sin–1 to calculate ∠BCA. ∠BCA = sin–1(0.4819…)

= 28.8111…°

Calculate the angle of the resultant with the Resultant angle ≈ 70° − 28.8111…°
shoreline.
= 41.1888…°

Round off and state the answer in The total force acting on the boat is
appropriate form. about 1272 N at an angle of 41.2° to the
shoreline.

As you have seen previously, if a quantity x changes from x1 to x2 the change is calculated
using the formula Δx = x2 − x1. This also applies to vector quantities, but we need to use
vector addition. So, for velocity, Δv = v2 − v1 = v2 + (−v1).

EXAMPLE 22

The velocity of a boat changes from 25 knots at N

N38°E to 15 knots at a bearing of 107° 25 kn
as shown in the diagram on the right.
v1
What is the change in velocity? 38°

107°
v2
15 kn
Solution

Redraw the sketch.

You want to know Δv.
You know that Δv = v2 − v1. v1
38°
Draw −v1 on the diagram.
Rearrange −v1 and v2 on the diagram so that 107°
v2
the change of velocity (Δv) can be found. 73°
38°
Find the angle between the vectors. −v1 69°

The obtuse angle in the parallelogram ∆v

is 111° (i.e. 38° + 73°), so the acute angle −v1

is 69°.

v2

50 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Write the change of velocity in terms of v1 Δv = v2 − v1
and v2.
= v2 + −v1

This problem could be solved by using either C

b = 15
the component or polar form of the vectors.
69° A
The polar form will be used.
Draw a sketch to show the information of a
interest in a simplified form. c = 25
The resultant a represents the change of
velocity [v2 + (−v1)].
B
Now you can calculate the magnitude and
direction of the resultant a.

Use the cosine rule to find | a | (a). a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos (∠A)

Substitute known values. = 152 + 252 − 2 × 15 × 25 × cos (69°)

= 581.2240…

Evaluate on your calculator. a = 24.1085…

Use the sine rule to find ∠C. c a

=
sin ( ∠C ) sin ( ∠A)

Substitute known values. 25 24.1085...

=
sin ( ∠C ) sin (69° )

Rearrange to isolate sin (∠C). 25 × sin(69° )

sin (∠C) =
24.1085...

Evaluate. = 0.9680…

Use sin–1 to find ∠C. ∠C = sin–1(0.9680…)

= 75.4889…°

Calculate the bearing of the resultant. Bearing = 107° + 75.4889…°

Evaluate. = 182.4889…°

If you refer back to the original diagram, you can see that the sketch was slightly incorrect because it
shows the bearing of Δv as less than 180° (107° + 73°). So you can see that as long as the sketch is
roughly correct to start with, a slight error of this nature doesn’t matter.

Round off and state the result. The change in velocity is about
24.1 knots at a bearing of 182.5°.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 51

 When steering a boat, the effect of the current must be
taken into account. Similarly, the effect of the wind must be
accounted for when determining the direction in which a
plane must fly to reach its destination.
True course
In marine navigation, the direction in which a boat is steered t
is called the heading. The speed through the water is the
apparent speed of the boat relative to the water. The speed Heading
h
and course made good is the true speed and course of the
boat when the effects of the current are taken into account.
Because a boat is carried with the current, the speed and
course made good is the vector sum of the heading and Current
speed through the water and the current. This is illustrated c
in the vector triangle on the right. It is standard practice to
use one arrowhead for the vector showing the course steered
and speed through the water (heading), two arrowheads for the vector showing the course
and speed made good (true course), and three arrowheads for the current vector.
Using h for the heading, c for the current and t for the course made good, you get t = h + c.

EXAMPLE 23

A yacht making 7 knots through the water is headed on a bearing of 285°. There is a
current of 3 knots in a direction of 215°. What is the speed and course made good?

Solution

Start by making a rough y

sketch.
Take east as the i direction and 235°
north as the j direction. φ x y
h
The heading h is on a bearing c
of 285°. 165°
θ x
This means h is at an angle of t
165° to the i direction.
The current, c, is at an angle of
235° to the i direction.

First calculate the magnitude

of t.

Write h in terms of i and j. h = 7 cos (165°)i + 7 sin (165°)j

Evaluate. = −6.761…i + 1.811…j

52 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 Write c in terms of i and j. c = 3 cos (235°)i + 3 sin (235°)j

Evaluate. = −1.720…i − 2.457…j

Find t using vector addition. t=h+c

Substitute for h and c. = −6.761…i + 1.811…j + (−1.720…)i − 2.457…j

Evaluate. = −8.482…i − 0.645…j

Find the magnitude of t. |t| = ( −8482...)2 + ( −0.645...)2

Evaluate. = 8.5067…

Now calculate the direction of t.

Use the diagram to find φ . φ = 360° − 235° − (180° − 165°)

= 110°

Use the sine rule to find θ. t c

=
sin (φ ) sin (θ )

Substitute values. 8.5067... 3

=
sin (110° ) sin (θ )

Rearrange. 3 × sin (110° )

sin (θ) =
8.5067...

Evaluate. = 0.3313…

Use sin–1 to calculate θ. θ = sin–1(0.3313…) = 19.3533…°

Calculate the bearing of t. Bearing of t = 360° − (165° − 90°) − 19.3533…°

= 265.646…°

State the result. The speed and course made good is about 8.5 knots
on a bearing of 265.6°.

In air navigation, the equivalent of speed through the water is air speed, shown with one
arrowhead. The course made good is referred to as the true course, and the speed made
good is called the ground speed, shown with two arrowheads. The air current is the wind
and this is shown with 3 arrowheads. In air navigation, you normally know the wind direction
and speed from meteorological data, and wish to choose your heading in order to fly in a
particular direction. In other words, t and c are known, and you usually wish to calculate h.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 53

 Exercise 1.09 Applications of vectors

Example
1 Two winches are being used to pull out a bogged car. One winch is on the driver’s side at
21 an angle of 32° to the forward direction and the larger winch is on the passenger’s side
at an angle of 39° to the forward direction. The first is exerting a force of 6000 N and
the other is exerting a force of 9000 N. What is the total force on the car, and in what
direction does it act?

Example
2 A car travelling at 20 m/s south changes velocity to 18 m/s east. Find the change in
22 velocity.

Example
3 Find the speed and course made good for a yacht sailing at 7 knots at 135° with a
23 current of 2 knots at 060°.

Problem solving
4 Three horizontal forces of 300 N, 400 N and 500 N are being exerted on an object. The
300 N and 500 N forces are exerted either side of the 400 N force at angles of 30° and
50° respectively. Find the total force acting and the direction of that force.

5 The winning team of a tug-of-war competition offers to take on two opponents. The
teams working together have their ropes at an angle of 70° to each other and are
exerting about the same force. The winning team is exerting a force of 1200 N but
is easily overcome by the other two teams. The combined force of the other teams is
actually 400 N more than the winning team. What forces were exerted by the two other
teams?

6 An aircraft travelling at 140 knots at a bearing of 197° changes direction to a bearing of

116° at the same speed to approach the runway from the seaward side. Find the change
in velocity.

7 What is the change of velocity when a cyclist in a road race changes velocity from
15 m/s NW to 12 m/s N?

8 Find the change of velocity when an object travelling at v m/s changes direction by θ°
without changing speed.

9 Find the speed and course made good for a boat sailing at 12 knots at 200° with a
current of 4 knots at 340°.

10 The owner of a cruiser wants to sail on a true course of 120°. The current is very strong,
being 5 knots towards the NW. The cruiser can make a speed of 15 knots through the
water. At what heading should the owner steer the cruiser, and what will be the true
speed?

11 A pilot wants to fly at 130 knots on a true course of 320°. The wind is a steady westerly
of 15 knots. Find the heading he should take and the speed over the ground of the
aircraft.

54 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

12 Wind can be much stronger at high altitudes. A passenger airliner with a cruising speed
of 560 km/h needs to travel 1500 km south-west at cruising height before beginning the
descent for landing. At this height, the wind is an 80 km/h northerly. The plane reaches
cruising height at 10:05 a.m. When will the plane commence the descent for landing?

13 A whale is moving up the east coast of Australia in a direction that is essentially at a

bearing of 25°. The whale moves at a leisurely pace of about 8 knots through the water
and the current up the east coast is about 2 knots northwards. What is the speed that
would be observed by a whale spotter at Point Lookout?

iStock/miblue5

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 55

 1. CHAPTER SUMMARY

Vectors
• A scalar is a magnitude expressed by a single number, but a vector has both a magnitude
(norm) and a direction.
• A vector is usually specified as a lower-case bold letter, such as a, and may be shown by a
directed line segment whose length represents the magnitude a = a. The initial point
of a vector is called the head of the vector and the terminal point is called the tail.
• A displacement vector showing a change of position from A to B may be shown as AB.
The position vector of a point P is the vector p = OP.
• The polar form of a two-dimensional vector v = (r, θ) shows the magnitude r and the
direction θ of the vector. θ is the angle in the positive direction (anticlockwise) from the
x 
x-axis. The component form (x, y) or   shows the vector as components in the
 y
x- and y-directions.
• The polar and component forms of the vector v are related by:
x = r cos (θ) and y = r sin (θ)
y
tan (θ) = and r2 = x2 + y2 so v = x 2 + y 2
x
• A unit vector has magnitude 1. The unit vector in the same direction as p is shown as p̂.
p
p̂ = , where p is the norm of p.
p
1  0 
• The unit vectors in the x- and y-directions are i = (1, 0) =   and j = (0, 1) =  .
0
  1 
Any vector can be shown as a linear combination of i and j, so v = r i + s j for some r, s ∈ R.
• The sum (resultant) of two vectors a = (x1, y1) and b = (x2, y2) is:
a + b = (x1 + x2, y1 + y2)
• The scalar multiple of a vector a = (x1, y1) and a scalar c is given by ca = (cx1, cy1).
• Addition of vectors is done using the triangle rule or the parallelogram rule.
The triangle rule is also known as the head-to-tail rule.
• Subtraction of vectors is done by adding a negative vector.
a − b = a + (−b)
• A vector may be resolved into components in any direction, although horizontal and
vertical components are the most common.
• The change in a vector from v1 to v2 is calculated using Δv = v2 − v1 = v2 + (−v1).

56 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

• The apparent velocity of a boat through water is given by its magnitude, called the
speed through the water, and its direction, normally called its heading. The speed and
course made good (true course) is the boat’s velocity relative to the land (Earth) and is
the vector sum of the current and the apparent velocity of the boat. That is,
t=h+c
where t = true course and speed, h = heading and speed through the water, and c is the current.
• For air navigation, speed through the air is called the air speed and the speed relative to
the Earth is called the ground speed. The true course is the direction of flight relative
to the Earth. The wind blows the aircraft so that the true course and ground speed is the
vector sum of the air velocity and the wind. That is,
t=h+c
where t = true course and ground speed, h = heading and air speed, and c is the wind.

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 57

 1. CHAPTER REVIEW

Vectors
Examples 1 Use vectors to represent each displacement on the same set of axes.
1,2 a 7 m in the direction NW b 8 m in the direction S30°E

2 An object moves from a starting point and travels 6 m west. It then changes direction
Example
and travels for 8 m in the direction S40°W.
3 a Use a diagram to show the displacements as vectors.
b Find the bearing of the final position of the object from its starting point.

Example 3 Vector p has a magnitude of 5 and is in the direction 120° to the x-axis.
4 a Write the polar form of the vector.
b Make a sketch of possible representations of the vector.

Example 4 Find the displacement vector for each movement.

5 a D(3, −4) to E(1, 2) b T(−3, −5) to S(5, 0)
c G(1, 1) to J(−3, 5) d R(2, 4) to K(0, 8)
e Y(−6, 3) to Z(1, −9)

Example
5 Find the norm of each vector.
 −8 
5 a (24, 10) b (−3, −4) c 15 
 
5 
d 9  e (10, 12)
 
Example
6 Convert each vector to component form.
6 a (3, 30°) b (8, 150°) c (4, 300°)
d (7, −45°) e (9, 230°)

Example
7 Convert each vector to polar form.
6 a (5, 8) b (−3, 4) c (−6, −10)
d (9, −3) e (−4, 0)

Example 8 Convert each vector to polar form.

6 3   −2   1
a   b   c  −4 
5   −6   
0   −2
d 5  e  8
   

58 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

 9 The vector p is shown on the right. Draw the vector for: p Example
1 7
a 3p b −2p c p
3
 5
10 If c =   and u = (8, 173°), calculate: Example
 −4  8
a 4c b −3c c −5u d 6u

11 Find the resultant of m and n in polar form. y Example

7 9
6
5
4 n

m 3
2
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1

12 Two forces, one of 28 N and one of 25 N, act on Example

an object. The 28 N force is 40° above the x-axis, 28 N 10

as shown in the diagram. The 25 N force runs along 40°
the x-axis. Calculate the magnitude and direction 25 N
of the resultant force acting on the object.

13 Given p = (5, 85°), q = (7, 146°) and r = (6, 212°), find each expression without changing Example

to component form. 11
a p+q b q+r c r+p d p−r e r−q

14 Calculate m − n in polar form. Example

12
y
6
5
m
4
3
2
1 n

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−2

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 59

Example 15 Given f = (5, 150°), g = (8, 60°) and h = (9, 225°), find each expression in polar form.
13 a f−g b g−h

Example 16 Calculate the unit vector for each vector.

14 a r = (15, 20) b n = (−8, 12)

Example 17 Write each vector as a linear combination of i and j.

15  4
a (1, −3) b (4, 5) c (−2, 5) d  −3
 
 −2
e  −5 f (6, 56°) g (8, 200°) h (3, 30°)
 
i (10, 142°) j (5, 120°)

Example 18 Find the sum of each pair of vectors.

16  6   11
a (−6, 11) + (9, −8) b  −7  +  −3 c 10i − 5j and −4i + 11j
   
Example 19 Given a = (3, 5), b = (−2, −3) and c = (−1, 4), find:
17 a a+c b b−a c 3b + 2c
d 5a − 3b e a+b+c

 −2  4 1
Example 20 Given x =  , y =   and z =   , find:
17  3  −1 3
a x−y b 2x + 3y c y + 3z
d z − 2x e x+z

Example 21 Resolve the each vector into i and j components.

18  1 −5 
a (−4, 3) b  ,  c (3 5, 6 )
8 7 
d (17, 38°) e (11, 251°)

Example 22 Calculate the resultant of m = (24, 60°) and y

19 n = (16, 30°), giving your answer in both
component and polar form.
31 m
n
22
39° 48°
x

60 NELSON QMATHS 11. Specialist Mathematics ISBN 9780170412995

23 Calculate the magnitude and direction y Example

of the resultant of the 3 force vectors 20

shown in the diagram. 31 N

38°
76° 81° x
84 N

58 N

24 Three forces are acting on an object in a vertical plane. The first force is of 28 N and it Example

acts vertically upwards. The second is a 45 N horizontal force and the third is a force of 21
36 N at an angle of 60° upward from the horizontal. Find the total force on the object.

25 A billiard ball approaching the cushion at an angle of 60° to the cushion has been given Example

spin that makes it bounce off at an angle of 45°. If the ball also changes speed from 22
0.3 m/s to 0.2 m/s, find its change of velocity.

26 Find the speed and course made good for a yacht on a heading of 225° with a speed Example

through the water of 12 knots, if a current is running north-west at 3 knots. 23

Problem solving
27 A police officer travels 3 city blocks south and then 2 blocks east. If each block is 300 m
long, find the officer’s total displacement as a vector in polar form.
Qz
28 A pilot is planning to fly north-east at an airspeed of 120 knots. There is a northerly
wind at 20 knots. Find the heading needed and the speed over the ground. Practice quiz

ISBN 9780170412995 1. Vectors 61