What is a Database?

• A Database is a collection of related data organised in a way

that data can be easily accessed, managed and updated.
Database can be software based or hardware based, with
one sole purpose, storing data.
• During early computer days, data was collected and stored
on tapes, which were mostly write-only, which means once
data is stored on it, it can never be read again. They were
slow and bulky, and soon computer scientists realised that
they needed a better solution to this problem.
• Larry Ellison, the co-founder of Oracle was amongst the first
few, who realised the need for a software based Database
Management System.
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 What is DBMS?
• A DBMS is software that allows creation, definition and
manipulation of database, allowing users to store, process and
analyse data easily. DBMS provides us with an interface or a tool, to
perform various operations like creating database, storing data in it,
updating data, creating tables in the database and a lot more.
• DBMS also provides protection and security to the databases. It also
maintains data consistency in case of multiple users.
• Here are some examples of popular DBMS used these days:
• MySql
• Oracle
• SQL Server
• IBM DB2
• PostgreSQL
• Amazon SimpleDB (cloud based) etc.
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Characteristics of Database Management System
• A database management system has following characteristics:
• Data stored into Tables: Data is never directly stored into the database. Data is stored into
tables, created inside the database. DBMS also allows to have relationships between tables
which makes the data more meaningful and connected. You can easily understand what
type of data is stored where by looking at all the tables created in a database.
• Reduced Redundancy: In the modern world hard drives are very cheap, but earlier when
hard drives were too expensive, unnecessary repetition of data in database was a big
problem. But DBMS follows Normalisation which divides the data in such a way that
repetition is minimum.
• Data Consistency: On Live data, i.e. data that is being continuously updated and added,
maintaining the consistency of data can become a challenge. But DBMS handles it all by
itself.
• Support Multiple user and Concurrent Access: DBMS allows multiple users to work on
it(update, insert, delete data) at the same time and still manages to maintain the data
consistency.
• Query Language: DBMS provides users with a simple Query language, using which data
can be easily fetched, inserted, deleted and updated in a database.
• Security: The DBMS also takes care of the security of data, protecting the data from un-
authorised access. In a typical DBMS, we can create user accounts with different access
permissions, using which we can easily secure our data by restricting user access.
• DBMS supports transactions, which allows us to better handle and manage data integrity in
real world applications where multi-threading is extensively used.

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Advantages of DBMS
• Segregation of application program.
• Minimal data duplicity or data redundancy.
• Easy retrieval of data using the Query Language.
• Reduced development time and maintenance need.
• With Cloud Datacenters, we now have Database Management
Systems capable of storing almost infinite data.
• Seamless integration into the application programming
languages which makes it very easier to add a database to
almost any application or website.

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 Disadvantages of DBMS
• It's Complexity
• Except MySQL, which is open source, licensed DBMSs are
generally costly.
• They are large in size.

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Applications of DBMS
Database is widely used. The some of the representative applications are:
• Banking: for customer information, accounts and loans and banking transactions.
• Universities: for student registrations and grades.
• Online shopping: Everyone wants to shop from home. Everyday new products are added and sold only
with the help of DBMS. Purchase information, invoice bills and payment, all of these are done with the
help of DBMS.
• Airlines: for reservations and schedule information.
• Credit Card Transactions: for purchases on credit cards and generation of monthly statements.
• Library Management System: maintain all the information relate to book issue dates, name of the
book, author and availability of the book.
• Telecommunications: for keeping records of call made, generating monthly bills, maintaining balances
on prepaid calling cards.
• Sales: for customer, product and purchase information.
• Finance: for storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of financial instruments such as
stocks and bonds.
• Manufacturing: for management of supply chain and for tracking production of items in factories,
inventories of items and orders for items.
• Human Resource: for information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes and benefits.

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 Components of DBMS
• The database management system can be divided into five
major components, they are:
• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• Procedures
• Database Access Language
• Let's have a simple diagram to see how they all fit together to
form a database management system.

Cont….

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Cont..
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DBMS Components: Hardware
• When we say Hardware, we mean computer, hard disks, I/O channels for
data, and any other physical component involved before any data is
successfully stored into the memory.
• When we run Oracle or MySQL on our personal computer, then our
computer's Hard Disk, our Keyboard using which we type in all the
commands, our computer's RAM, ROM all become a part of the DBMS
hardware.
DBMS Components: Software
• This is the main component, as this is the program which controls
everything. The DBMS software is more like a wrapper around the physical
database, which provides us with an easy-to-use interface to store, access
and update data.
• The DBMS software is capable of understanding the Database Access
Language and interpret it into actual database commands to execute them
on the DB.

Cont..

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DBMS Components: Data
• Data is that resource, for which DBMS was designed. The motive behind the creation of DBMS was to store
and utilize data.
• In a typical Database, the user saved Data is present and meta data is stored.

Metadata is data about the data. This is information stored by the DBMS to better understand the data stored
in it.
• For example: When I store my Name in a database, the DBMS will store when the name was stored in the
database, what is the size of the name, is it stored as related data to some other data, or is it independent,
all this information is metadata.

DBMS Components: Procedures

• Procedures refer to general instructions to use a database management system. This includes procedures to
setup and install a DBMS, To login and logout of DBMS software, to manage databases, to take backups,
generating reports etc.
DBMS Components: Database Access Language
• Database Access Language is a simple language designed to write commands to access, insert, update and
delete data stored in any database.
• A user can write commands in the Database Access Language and submit it to the DBMS for execution,
which is then translated and executed by the DBMS.
• User can create new databases, tables, insert data, fetch stored data, update data and delete the data using
the access language.

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11 Dr. E. F. Codd’s
Rules for RDBMS
Dr. E.F. Codd was an IBM
researcher who first developed
the relational data model in
1970. In 1985 Dr. E.F. Codd
published a list of 12 rules that
define an ideal relational
database and has provided a
guide line for the design of all
relational database systems.
Dr. Codd has used the term
guideline because till date no
commercial relational database
system fully conforms to all 12
rules.
 Rule 1: The Information Rule

All Data should be presented in table form.

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Rule No. 2: Guaranteed Access
Rule
All Data should be accessible without ambiguity.
This can be accomplished through the combination
of table name, primary key, and column name.

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Rule No. 3: Systematic treatment
of null values
A field should be allowed to remain empty. This involves the
support of null value, which is distinct from an empty string or
a number with a value of zero. Of course this can not apply to
primary keys.

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Rule No. 4: Dynamic online catalog
based on the relational model
A relational database must provide access to its
structure through the same tools that are used to
access data. This is usually accomplished by storing
the structure definition within special system tables.

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Rule No. 5: Comprehensive Data sub- 16
language Rule

The database must support at least one

clearly defined language that includes
functionalities for data definition, data
manipulation, data integrity and
database transaction control. All
commercial and free databases use
forms of standard SQL as their supported
comprehensive language.
 Rule No. 6: View
Updating Rule

Data can be
presented in
different logical
combinations
called views. Each
view should
support the same
full range of data
manipulation that
has direct access
to a table
available.

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Rule No. 7: High-level Insert,
Update, and Delete
Data can be retrieved from a relational database in
sets constructed of data from multiple rows and /or
multiple tables. This rules states that insert, update
and delete operations should be supported for any
retrievable set rather than just for a single row in a
single table.

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Rule no. 8: Physical Data Independence 19

The user is isolated from the

physical method of storing and
retrieving information from the
database. Changes can be made to
the underlying architecture
(hardware, disk storage methods)
without affecting how the user
accessed it.
Rule No. 9: Logical Data Independence 20

How data is viewed should not be

changed when the logical structure
(table’s structure) of the database
changes. This rule is particularly
difficult to satisfy. Most databases
rely on strong ties between the
data viewed and the actual
structure of the underlying tables.
Rule 10: Integrity Independence 21

The database language (like SQL)

should support constraints on user
input that maintain database integrity.
This rule is not fully implemented by
most major vendors. At a minimum,
all the databases do preserve two
constraints through SQL. No
components of a primary key can have
a null value. If a foreign key is defined
in one table, any value in it must exist
as a primary key in another table.
Rule no. 11: Distribution
independence

A user should be totally unaware of

whether the database is distributed(
parts of the database exist in multiple
locations ) or not. A variety of reasons
make this rule difficult to implement.

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 Rule no. 12: Non subversion
Rule

There should be no way to modify the database

structure other than through the multiple row
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database language (like SQL). Most databases
today support administrative tools that allow
some direct manipulation of the data structure.
Database system Vs File System
File System Database System
(like data in text file as in C
programs )
Data redundancy Same information is duplicated in Data redundancy can
(lead to higher many places eg. Mobile and email id be deal by creating a
storage and access of student in cse_student_detail separate table having
cost) records and in Btech_student_detail student#, mob &
records as well. email.
Difficulty in If user need all student having Searching required
Accessing data GPA>3.5 then we need to create data is easy by
(Need to write a such program or if this program writing small queries
new program to exist then also file system can meet system get adapted
carry out each new with changing needs as need to changing needs
task) student having GPA>3.5 and are
from Delhi.

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 File System Database
(like data in text file as in C programs ) System
Data As data are scattered in different files and file may be of Uniformity in the
Isolation different formats as some in .doc or .txt or .xls need way data is stored
require coding for each of them.

Integrity Data values must follow some consistency constraint New constraint can
problems such as no account should have less than Rs 5000. in File easily be add,
System we need to code it and if in future we want to modify & drop
change it we need to recode it! easily.
• Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 5000)
become part of program code
• Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
Inconsistency Computer systems are prone to failures. Suppose a Atomicity can
and program transferring Rs 5000 from account A to B but in easily be
Atomicity middle system crash then Rs 5000 was removed from maintained, these
but not credited to B. This lead to inconsistent state. It is system have
Problem
difficult to ensure atomicity in File system. recovery and back
• Transfer of funds from one account to another up tools.
should either complete or not happen at all

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 File System Database System
(like data in text file as in C programs )
Concurrent Consider an account A holding $500, if two Support multi-user
- access customer C1 & C2 withdraw $100 and $50 from system.
anomalies A simultaneously then initially C1 & C2 see $500
now whichever write last it either show $400 or
$450 while correct is $350.
Hence File system have greater challenge as
many application programs access same data
simultaneously in multi-user system.
Security Enforcing security constraint is difficult. Database has
problem As faculty can upload and see attendance of internal procedures
student, whereas and commands for
only class advisor can modify already uploaded this.
attendance and
students can only see their own attendance.

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 Schema and Instance
• Similar to types and variables in programming languages
• Schema – the logical structure of the database
• the overall design of the database
• e.g., the database consists of information about a set of customers
and accounts and the relationship between them)
• Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
• Physical schema: database design at the physical level
• Logical schema: database design at the logical level
• Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular
point in time
• Analogous to the value of a variable

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Data Abstraction
• For the system to be usable, it must retrieve data
efficiently.
• The need for efficiency has led designers to use
complex data structures to represent data in the
database.
• Developers hide the complexity from users through
several levels of abstraction to simplify users’
interactions with the system.
• It follows three Schema Architecture:
• Physical Level
• Logical Level
• View level

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Three Schema Architecture
END User
Forms, Login Pages,
Command prompt External View External View External View

What data are CONCEPTUAL SCHEMA

stored? OR
LOGICAL LEVEL

How data actually INTERNAL SCHEMA

stored? OR
PHYSICAL LEVEL

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• Physical level
• Has an internal schema
• Describes the physical storage structure of the database
• Data structure used to store data
• Access paths for database
• The lowest level of abstraction describes how the data are actually
stored.

• Conceptual level
• The next-higher level of abstraction describes what data are stored
in the database, and what relationships exist among those data.
• DBA uses this level
• Hides details of physical storage structures
• External View or View level
• The highest level of abstraction describes only part of the entire
database.
• Application programs
• Describe part of the database that a particular user group is
interested in
✓ Hides rest of database from that user group
✓ hide information (e.g., salary) for security purposes.

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Data Independence
• Data Independence is defined as a property of
DBMS that helps you to change the Database
schema at one level of a database system
without requiring to change the schema at the
next higher level.
• Data independence helps you to keep data
separated from all programs that make use of
it.
• In DBMS there are two types of data
independence
• Physical data independence
• Logical data independence.

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Data Independence
• Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the
physical schema without changing the logical schema
• Applications depend on the logical schema
• In general, the interfaces between the various levels and
components should be well defined so that changes in some parts
do not seriously influence others.
• Numeric(7) to numeric(10)
• Logical Data Independence- the ability to modify the
logical schema without having to change external schema or
application programs.
S# Sname Grade

Convert S# Sname Branch Grade

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Logical Data Independence vs Physical Data Independence

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Instances and Schemas
• Databases change over time as information is
inserted and deleted.
• The collection of information stored in the
database at a particular moment is called an
instance of the database.
• The overall design of the database is called the
database schema. Schemas are changed
infrequently, if at all.
• Database systems have several schemas,
partitioned according to the levels of abstraction.
• The physical schema describes the database
design at the physical level, while the logical
schema describes the database design at the
logical level.
• A database may also have several schemas at the
view level, sometimes called subschemas, that
describe different views of the database.
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Data Models

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Data Models
• A collection of conceptual tools for describing data,
data relationships, data semantics, and consistency
constraint.
• A data model provides a way to describe the design
at physical, logical & view level.
• Various data models are:
1. The entity- relationship model
2. The object oriented model
3. Relational model
4. Network model and
5. Hierarchical model

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 Hierarchical database model
In the hierarchical model, data is organized as an inverted
tree. Each entity has only one parent but can have several
children. At the top of the hierarchy, there is one entity,
which is called the root.

An example of the hierarchical model representing a university

14.37
 Network database model
In the network model, the entities are organized in a graph,
in which some entities can be accessed through several paths
(Figure).

Figure An example of the network model representing a university

14.38
 Relational database model
In the relational model, data is organized in two-dimensional
tables called relations. The tables or relations are, however,
related to each other.

Figure 14.5 An example of the relational model representing a university

14.39
The Entity-Relationship Model
• Entity is real world object or thing that is
distinguishable from others
• The entities for which information needs to be
stored and the relationship among these entities. E-
R diagrams uses several geometric shapes, but we
use only a few of them here:

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Object Oriented Model
• This is extended ER model
• Having notion of encapsulation, methods (functions) &
object identity.
• Object Relational Data Models
• Extend the relational data model by including object
orientation and constructs to deal with added data types.
• Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including
non-atomic values such as nested relations.
• Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative
access to data, while extending modeling power.
• Provide upward compatibility with existing relational
languages.

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Database languages

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Data Definition Language

• Data Definition Language (DDL) statements are used to classify

the database structure or schema. It is a type of language that
allows the DBA or user to depict and name those entities,
attributes, and relationships that are required for the
application along with any associated integrity and security
constraints. Here are the lists of tasks that come under DDL:
• CREATE – used to create objects in the database
• ALTER – used to alters the structure of the database
• DROP – used to delete objects from the database
• TRUNCATE – used to remove all records from a table, including
all spaces allocated for the records are removed
• COMMENT – used to add comments to the data dictionary
• RENAME – used to rename an object
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 Data Manipulation Language
• A language that offers a set of operations to support the fundamental data
manipulation operations on the data held in the database. Data Manipulation
Language (DML) statements are used to manage data within schema objects.
• Two types:
• Procedural DMLs: require a user to specify what data are needed and how to get those data.
• Declarative DMLs: (non-procedural DMLs) require a user to specify what data are needed
without specifying how to get those data.eg SQL

• Here are the lists of tasks that come under DML:

• SELECT – It retrieves data from a database
• INSERT – It inserts data into a table
• UPDATE – It updates existing data within a table
• DELETE – It deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain
• MERGE – UPSERT operation (insert or update)
• CALL – It calls a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
• EXPLAIN PLAN – It explains access path to data
• LOCK TABLE – It controls concurrency

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Data Control Language

• There is another two forms of database sub-languages.

The Data Control Language (DCL) is used to control
privilege in Database. To perform any operation in the
database, such as for creating tables, sequences or views
we need privileges. Privileges are of two types,
• System – creating a session, table etc are all types of
system privilege.
• Object – any command or query to work on tables comes
under object privilege. DCL is used to define two
commands. These are:
• Grant – It gives user access privileges to a database.
• Revoke – It takes back permissions from the user.

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 Transaction Control Language

• Transaction Control statements are used to run the

changes made by DML statements. It allows
statements to be grouped together into logical
transactions.
• COMMIT – It saves the work done
• SAVEPOINT – It identifies a point in a transaction to
which you can later roll back
• ROLLBACK – It restores database to original since the
last COMMIT
• SET TRANSACTION – It changes the transaction
options like isolation level and what rollback segment
to use
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 Understanding DBMS Architecture
• A Database Management system is not always directly
available for users and applications to access and store data in
it. A Database Management system can be centralized (all the
data stored at one location), decentralized (multiple copies of
database at different locations) or hierarchical, depending
upon its architecture.
• 1-tier DBMS architecture also exist, this is when the database
is directly available to the user for using it to store data.
Generally such a setup is used for local application
development, where programmers communicate directly with
the database for quick response.
Database Architecture is logically of two types:
• 2-tier DBMS architecture
• 3-tier DBMS architecture

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Two – tier Architecture
• Application is partitioned into
two components:
• Server: runs query language client
statements
• Clients: provide user interface and
local processing
• JDBC & ODBC are used for
interaction between the client
Server
and the server.

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2-tier DBMS Architecture

2-tier DBMS architecture includes an Application

layer between the user and the DBMS, which is
responsible to communicate the user's request to the
database management system and then send the
response from the DBMS to the user.
An application interface known as ODBC(Open Database
Connectivity) provides an API that allow client side
program to call the DBMS. Most DBMS vendors provide
ODBC drivers for their DBMS.
Cont..

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Two-Tier Architecture
• The two-tier is based on Client Server architecture. The two-tier
architecture is like client server application. The direct communication
takes place between client and server. There is no intermediate between
client and server. Because of tight coupling a 2 tiered application will run
faster.

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• The above figure shows the architecture of two-tier. Here the direct communication between client
and server, there is no intermediate between client and server.
• Let’s take a look of real life example of Railway Reservation two-tier architecture:
• Let’s consider that first Person is making Railway Reservation for Mumbai to Delhi by Mumbai
Express at Counter No. 1 and at same time second Person is also try to make Railway reservation of
Mumbai to Delhi from Counter No. 2
• If staff from Counter No. 1 is searching for availability into system & at the same staff from Counter
No. 2 is also looking for availability of ticket for same day then in this case there is might be good
change of confusion and chaos occurs. There might be chance of lock the Railway reservation that
reserves the first.
• But reservations can be making anywhere from the India, then how it is handled?
• So here if there is difference of micro seconds for making reservation by staff from Counter No. 1 & 2
then second request is added into queue. So in this case the Staff is entering data to Client
Application and reservation request is sent to the database. The database sends back the
information/data to the client.
• In this application the Staff user is an end user who is using Railway reservation application software.
He gives inputs to the application software and it sends requests to Server. So here both Database
and Server are incorporated with each other, so this technology is called as “Client-Server
Technology“.
• The Two-tier architecture is divided into two parts:
• 1) Client Application (Client Tier)
2) Database (Data Tier)
• On client application side the code is written for saving the data in the SQL server database. Client
sends the request to server and it process the request & send back with data. The main problem of
two tier architecture is the server cannot respond multiple request same time, as a result it cause
51 a
data integrity issue.
• Advantages:
• Easy to maintain and modification is bit easy
• Communication is faster
• Disadvantages:
• In two tier architecture application performance will
be degrade upon increasing the users.
• Cost-ineffective

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 3-tier DBMS Architecture
3-tier DBMS architecture is the most commonly used
architecture for web applications.

Cont..
53
 Three tier Architecture
• Client: merely a user interface client
(form interface) but no direct DB
calls, client

• Application Server: communicates

with database system to access Application
data. Had coding for what action Server
to carried out under what
conditions.
• Database Server: handle data Database
Server
access for query receive by
Application Server
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It is an extension of the 2-tier architecture. In the 2-
tier architecture, we have an application layer which
can be accessed programmatically to perform
various operations on the DBMS. The application
generally understands the Database Access
Language and processes end users requests to the
DBMS.
In 3-tier architecture, an additional Presentation or
GUI Layer is added, which provides a graphical user
interface for the End user to interact with the DBMS.
For the end user, the GUI layer is the Database
System, and the end user has no idea about the
application layer and the DBMS system.
If you have used MySQL, then you must have
seen PHPMyAdmin, it is the best example of 3-tier
DBMS architecture.

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Three-Tier Architecture

• Three-tier architecture typically comprise a presentation tier, a business or data

access tier, and a data tier. Three layers in the three tier architecture are as follows:
• 1) Client layer
2) Business layer
3) Data layer
• 1) Client layer:
• It is also called as Presentation layer which contains UI part of our application. This
layer is used for the design purpose where data is presented to the user or input is
taken from the user. For example designing registration form which contains text
box, label, button etc.
• 2) Business layer:
• In this layer all business logic written like validation of data, calculations, data
insertion etc. This acts as a interface between Client layer and Data Access
Layer. This layer is also called the intermediary layer helps to make communication
faster between client and data layer.
• 3) Data layer:
• In this layer actual database is comes in the picture. Data Access Layer contains
methods to connect with database and to perform insert, update, delete, get data
from database based on our input data.

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• Advantages
• High performance, lightweight persistent objects
• Scalability – Each tier can scale horizontally
• Performance – Because the Presentation tier can cache requests,
network utilization is minimized, and the load is reduced on the
Application and Data tiers.
• High degree of flexibility in deployment platform and configuration
• Better Re-use
• Improve Data Integrity
• Improved Security – Client is not direct access to database.
• Easy to maintain and modification is bit easy, won’t affect other
modules
• In three tier architecture application performance is good.
•
• Disadvantages
• Increase Complexity/Effort

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Database Architecture
Overall database mgmt. structure

58
Use Write Use Use

Query Processor

Buffer manager File manager Authorization and Transaction

Integrity manager Manager

Storage Manager

Indices Data dictionary

DATA Disk Storage
Statistical data 59
Database Users
Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact
with the system
• Application programmers – interact with system
through DML calls, writes application programs
• Sophisticated users – form requests in a database query
language eg analysts
• Specialized users – write specialized database
applications that do not fit into the traditional data
processing framework
• Naïve users – invoke one of the permanent application
programs that have been written previously
• E.g. people accessing database over the web, bank tellers,
clerical staff
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Database Administrator (DBA)
• Coordinates all the activities of the database system;
the database administrator has a good understanding
of the enterprise’s information resources and needs.
• Database administrator's duties include:
• Schema definition- by executing statements in DDL
• Storage structure and access method definition
• Schema and physical organization modification
• Granting user authority to access the database
• Specifying integrity constraints eg. Primary key
• Back up data
• Ensure enough disk space for smooth performing of DB
• Monitors jobs running on DB

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Storage Manager
• Provide interface between low level data in
database and application program.
• Components:
• Authorization & integrity Manager: define role and
responsibility for users, and provide Integrity checks.
• Transaction manager: ensure DB consistency in
concurrent access
• File Manager: manage allocation of disk space and Data
structure used for storing data
• Buffer Manager: decide what data to cache

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Disk Storage
• Data Files: which stores database itself
• Data Dictionary: stores metadata about the
structure of the database
• Indices: provide fast access to data items

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Query Processor
• DDL interpreter: which interprets DDL statements
and records the definitions in the data dictionary
• DML Compiler: translate DML statements to
evaluation plan. Also perform query optimization.
(pick the lowest cost evaluation plan from among
the alternatives)
• Query Evaluation Engine: executes low level
instructions generated by DML compiler.

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