UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

COURSE TITLE:

ESS 433D Methods of Teaching Social Studies (reviewed)

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019

 ESS 433D METHODS OF
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

Prof. Kankam Boadu

Prof. M. B. Yidana
 First printed in 2005 by University Printing Press, Cape Coast
Third printing in 2011 by Paramount, Accra
Fourth printing in 2016 by Runbelows Ventures Limited, Accra
Fifth printing in 2017 by Hampton Press Ltd., Cape Coast
Sixth printing in 2017 by UCC Press, Cape Coast
Seventh printing in 2018 by Julcourt Ventures
Eighth printing in 2019 by Pulp Plus Printing Ltd., Accra
Ninth printing in 2019 by Paramount Paper Works, Accra
Tenth printing in 2020 by UCC Press, Cape Coast
Eleventh printing in 2021 by UCC Press, Cape Coast
Twelfth printing in 2022 by UCC Press, Cape Coast

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

(CoDEUCC) 2005, 2008, 2011, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022

ISBN 978-9988-8464-7-6

CoDE PUBLICATIONS, 2022

REVISED, 2015

All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or
otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright holder.

Cover page illustrated by R. Y. Essiam

 ABOUT THIS BOOK

This Course Book “ESS 433D METHODS OF TEACHING SOCIAL

STUDIES” has been exclusively written by experts in the discipline to up-date
your general knowledge of English Language in order to equip you with the basic
tool you will require for your professional work as a basic school teacher and
administrator.

This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been structured to
reflect the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus, each
session is equivalent to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance learner,
however, you are expected to spend a minimum of three hours and a maximum of
five hours on each session.

To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly designed to
show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly schedules
are clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and examinations.

Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are
meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are
expected to perform.

Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you may
find difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course tutor during
your face-to-face meetings.

We wish you a happy and successful study.

Prof. Kankam Boadu

Prof. M. B. Yidana

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education i

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Driven by the desire to always deliver quality, cost-effective tertiary education to

clients, it is necessary to appreciate all colleagues and staff of the College of
Distance Education (CoDEUCC) who have contributed in attaining this objective.
The revision of this module has been made possible through the support and
commitment of several people whose contribution in diverse ways is making
CoDEUCC attain its mission in the history of distance education in Ghana.

First, I acknowledge the hard work of the authors of the reviewed modules. The
purpose of the review was to bring to bear new knowledge and trends in the subject
content. I therefore appreciate the work of the reviewers of this module for making
the content of this module indispensable in attaining success for all clients. Thus,
much thanks go to the following Prof. Kankam Boadu and Prof. M. B. Yidana,
University of Cape Coast, for their painstaking effort.

I also acknowledge the support of the Co-ordinator and Staff of the Reprographic,
Productions and Dispatch Unit, CoDE, who worked hard to bring this material into
print. The support of the Advisory Committee, particularly Heads of Department
and Chief Examiners has also been invaluable.

I thank the Vice Chancellor, Prof. Johnson Nyarko Boampong, all UCC
Management and the various printing houses without whose support this module
would not have been produced.

Special thanks go to Ms. Laureen Afrifa-Mensah, Ms Diana Twene for typesetting

into the housestyle of CoDE.

Prof. Isaac Galyuon

(Provost)

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

About this Book … … … … … … … i

Table of Contents … … … … … … ii
Symbols and their Meanings … … … … … vii
Acknowledgement … … … … … … viii

UNIT 1: THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING … 1

Session 1: Teaching and Learning … … … 3
1.1 The Concept of Teaching and Learning Explained… … 3
1.2 The Teacher, The Student and The Subject … … 4

Session 2: Principles of Teaching … … … … … 7

2.1 Principles of Teaching … … … … … 7
2.1.1 Active Learning and Participation … … … 7
2.1.2 Motivation and Interest … … … … … 8
2.1.3 Principle of Variety … … … … … 8
2.1.4 Principle of Individual Difference … … … 8
2.1.5 Principle of Student centredness … … … 9
2.1.6 Creating Conductive Environment … … … 9
2.1.7 Proceed from Known to the Unknown … … … 9
2.1.8 Proceed from Simple to Complex … … … 9
2.1.9 Proceed from Easy to Difficult … … … … 10
2.1.10 Proceed from the Concrete to the Abstract … … 10
Session 3: Phases and Stages of Teaching … … 11
3.1 Phases of Teaching … … … … … 11
3.2 The Planning Stage … … … … … 11
3.3 The Instruction Phase … … … … … 13
3.4 The Evaluation Phase … … … … … 14
Session 4: Essential Components of a Lesson Plan … … 17
4.1 Components of a Lesson … … … … 17
4.2 Importance of Lesson Preparation … … … 19
4.3 A Model lesson Plan … … … … … 20
Session 5: Instructional Objectives in Social Studies … … 23
5.1 Instructional Aims … … … … … 23
5.2 Instructional Objectives … … … … 24
5.3 Criteria for stating Instructional Objectives … … 24
5.4 Instructional Objectives and Domain of Learning … 25

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Session 6: Methods of Teaching Social Studies … … 29

6.1 Meaning of a Method … … … … 29
6.2 Factors that influence the choice of
Teaching Methods … … … … 30

UNIT 2: THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS

OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES … 33
Session 1: The Lecture Method … … … … 35
1.1 Meaning for the Lecture Method … … 35
1.2 Forms of the Lecture Method … … … 35
1.3 How to Achieve Good delivery of a Lecture … 36
Session 2: Strengths and Limitations of the
Lecture Method … … … … … 41
2.1 Strength of the Lecture Method … … … 41
2.2 Limitations/ Disadvantage … … … 43

Session 3: The Discussion Method … … … … 45

3.1 Nature of the Lecture Method … … … 45
3.2 Purposes of Discussion … … … 46
3.3 Organization of Discussion … … … 46
3.4 The Role of the Teacher in a Discussion Class 47
Session 4: Merits and Limitations of Discussion … 49
4.1 Merits of Discussion Methods … … … 49
4.2 Limitation/Disadvantages of Discussion … … 50
4.3 Meaning of Exposition … … … … 51
Session 5: The Demonstration Methods … … … 53
5.1 Nature of the Demonstration Methods … … 53
5.2 Instances when Demonstration is Necessary … 54
5.3 Techniques in Preparing a Demonstration … 55
5.4 Guidelines on Performing Demonstration … 55
5.5 Disadvantages and Limitations of Team Teaching 56
Session 6: Illustration and Story Telling Method … 59
6.1 Meaning and Significance of Illustration … 59
6.2 Types of Illustration … … … … 59
6.3 Merits of Illustration … … … … 60
6.4 Guidelines for the use of Illustration … … 61
6.5 Story Telling … … … … … 62

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 3: QUESTIONS AND QUESTIONING SKILLS IN

SOCIAL STUDIES … … … … … 65

Session 1: The Concept of Questioning … … … 67

1.1 Concept of questioning … … … … 67
1.2 Classifications of Questions … … … 67

Session 2: Techniques of Questioning … … … 71

2.1 Techniques of Questioning … … … 71
2.2 Characteristics of a Good Question … … 74

Session 3: Classification of Questioning … … … 77

3.1 Knowledge level Questions … … … 77
3.2 Comprehensive level Question … … … 79
3.3 Application Questions … … … … 79
3.4 Questions on Analysis … … … … 79
3.5 Questions of Synthesis … … … … 80
3.5 Evaluation Questions … … … … 80

Session 4: When to Ask Question in a Social Studies Class 83

4.1 Questions at the Beginning of a Lesson (Introduction) 86
4.2 Questions at the course of a Lesson (Presentation) 84
4.3 Questions at the End of a Lesson (Closure) … 84
4.4 Handling students Question … … … 85

Session 5: The Importance of a Question in Social Studies 87

5.1 Important Roles of Question in Social Studies
Lesson … … … … … 87

Session 6: Students’ Assignments in Social Studies … 91

6.1 Nature and functions of assignment … … 91
6.2 Function of Assignment … … … 92
6.3 Techniques of giving Assignment … … 94

UNIT 4: THE USE OF FIELDWORK AND RESORICES

PERSONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES … … 97

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Session 1: Meaning of Field Work … … … … 99

1.1 Explanation of Fieldwork … … 99
1.2 Types of Fieldwork … … … … 99
1.3 Area where fieldwork can be conducted Studies 100

Session 2: Rationale for Organising Field Work … 103

2.1 Rationale for organising fieldwork … … 103
2.2 Problems of embarking on fieldwork … … 104

Session 3: The Planning and Organising of Fieldwork 107

3.1 Phase of fieldwork … … … … 107
3.2 Preparing for the pre-fieldwork … … … 108
3.3 Actual fieldwork … … … … 109
3.4 Post-field work activities … … 109

Session 4: Meaning Of Resource Person … … … 111

4.1 Explanation of a resource person … … 111
4.2 Examples of resource persons … … … 111
4.3 Reasons for inviting resource persons … … 112

Session 5: Procedure for Inviting Resources Persons … 115

5.1 Things to consider in inviting a resource person 115
5.2 Approaches to the use of resource person … 116
5.2.1 Bringing the resource person to the classroom … 116
5.2.2 Visiting the resource person … … … 116

Session 6: Letter of Application … … … … 119

6.1 Importance of using resource persons … … 119
6.2 Problems in using resource persons … … 120

UNIT 5: ROLE PLAY/TEAM TEACHING CONCENTRIC

APPROACHING/BRAINSTORMING/
DEBATE AND DISCIVERY METHODS IN
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES … … 121

Session 1: Explanation of Concentric Approach/

Spiral Approach … … … … … 123
1.1 The meaning of concentric Spiral Approach … 124

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1.1 Diagrammatic representation of Concentric and
Spiral Approaches … …. ... ... 124
1.1.2 Benefits Associated with the use of Concentric/
Spiral Approaches in Social Studies … … 125
1.1.3 Problems Associated with the use of Concentric/
Spiral Approach … … … … 126
Session 2: Role – Play/Dramatization … … … 129
2.1 Meaning of Roles-Playing … … … 129
2.2 When to Use Role-playing … … … 130
2.3 How to Use Role-playing … … 131
2.4 Advantages of Role-pay … … … 131
2.5 Disadvantages of Role-play … … … 132
Session 3: Debate Techniques in Teaching/
Learning of Social Studies … … 135
3.1 Meaning and types of Debates … … 135
3.2 How to use Debates technique … … 136
3.3 How to deliver debates … … … 136
3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of Debating … 137
3.5 Disadvantages of debate technique in Social Studies 138
Session 4: Brainstorming Technique in Teaching/
Learning Social Studies … … … … 139
4.1 The Concept ‘’Brainstorming’’ … … 139
4.2 How to Use Brainstorming Technique in Social
Studies 1 ... ... ... ... ... 140
4.3 Advantages of Using Brainstorming … … 140
4.4 Disadvantages of using Brainstorming Management 141

Session 5: Team Teaching in Social Studies … … 143

5.1 Concept of Team Teaching … … … 143
5.2 Philosophy of Education and Team Teaching 144
5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Team Teaching 145
Session 6: Class Studies … … … … … … 147
3.2 The Concept ‘’Case Study’’ … … … 147
3.3 Step/procedure in using case study … … 148
3.4 The Merits of case study … … … 148

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 6: EVALUATION IN SOCIAL STUDIES … 151

Session 1: The Concept ‘’Evaluation/Measurement’’ … 153
1.1 The concept ‘’Evaluation and Measurement’’ 155
1.2 Guiding Principles in evaluation … … 155
Session 2: Types of Evaluation … … … … 157
2.1 Diagnostic Evaluation … … … 157
2.2 Formative Evaluation … … … 157
2.3 Summative Evaluation … … … 158
2.4 Approaches to evaluating student achievement 158
Session 3: Formal Assessment Tools (Items) … … 161
3.1 Objective Test … … … … … 161
3.1.1 Supply Test items … … … … 161
3.2 The true – false items … … … … 162
3.3 Matching items … … … … 163
3.4 Multiple – choice items … … … 163
3.5 Essay test items … … … … 164
Session 4: Informal Assessment Tools … … … 167
4.1 Observation … … … … … 167
4.1.2 Rating Scales … … … … … 168
4.2 Quizzes … … … … … 169
4.3 Interviews and Chats … … … … 169
4.4 Assignment and projects … … … 169
Session 5: The Use of Continuous Assessment in
Social Studies … … … … … 171
5.1 Meaning Of Continuous Assessment … …. 171
5.2 Features of Continuous Assessment … … 171
5.3 The implementation of Continuous Assessment 172
5.3.1Guidelines for Continuous Assessment … 174
5.4 Advantages of Continuous Assessment … 174
5.5 Problems of Continuous Assessment … 175
Session 6: Importance of Evaluation … … ... 177
6.1 Importance of Evaluation … … … 177
6.2 The cognitive Domain and evaluation instrument 178
6.3 The Effective Domain and its Evaluation Instrument179
6.4 The Psychomotor Domain and its Evaluation Instrument
and Lesson Plans … … … … 179

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education vii

SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS

INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

UNIT OBJECTIVES

SESSION OBJECTIVES

DO AN ACTIVITY

NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT

TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)

REFER TO

READ OR LOOK AT

SUMMARY

SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST

ASSIGNMENT

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education vi

THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND UNIT 1
LEARNING

UNIT 1: THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

Unit Outline
Session 1: Teaching and Learning
Session 2: Principles of Teaching
Session 3: Phases and Stages of Teaching
Session 4: Components of a Lesson
Session 5: Instructional Objectives
Session 6: Methods of Teaching

You are welcome to unit one of methods of teaching Social Studies.

This unit will take you through the meaning of teaching and learning,
the principles of teaching as well as the phases and stages of
teaching. The unit will also look at the components of a lesson plan and how
instructional objectives are composed. The unit finally discusses the factors to
consider when choosing the various methods of teaching

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit the students should be able to:
a) Explain the concepts of teaching and learning
b) Identify the principles of teaching
c) State and explain the various phases and stages in teaching social studies
d) State and explain the components of a lesson plan
e) Explain how to compose instructional objectives
f) Identify and explain the various factors to consider when choosing a
particular method of instruction in social studies

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 1

 UNIT 1
THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

2 CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND UNIT 1
SESSION 1
LEARNING

SESSION 1: TEACHING AND LEARNING

In the session, we shall look at the concept of “teaching” and
“learning”. We shall discuss the features which constitute teaching
and learning.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
(a) define “teaching”
(b) explain the concept of learning
(c) identity at least 2 essential features of teaching.

Now read on……..

1.1 The Meaning of Teaching and Learning

The concept of “Teaching” and “learning” are not strange to you. You have heard
of these two concepts long ago, probably at the time you started going to school.
Can you tell us what they stand for?

These two concepts are like two sides of the same coin. They move hand- in- hand.
We cannot talk of one without making reference to the other. When a teacher
teaches, it is expected that the educand should be learning what is being taught.
Here, two complementary roles are being played side by side, namely the role of
the student. According to Farrant (1980), a lesson that has been taught is one that
has been learned. One way by which we can therefore view teaching is that, it is a
process that brings about learning.
Tamakloe, Atta and Amedahe (1996) have, however, argued that learning can take
place without a teacher. For example, if a farmer discovers that one foot-path is
longer than the other, he will follow the shorter path. Under this circumstance, the
farmer has gained knowledge without the help of a teacher.
Here, the farmer can be perceived as his own teacher. Teaching and learning have
taken place in the same person. We can further argue that teaching and learning
could be a one-way affair since there was no second person involved. It is therefore
possible that in the school situation, without a teacher, student’s can acquire
knowledge by interacting the environment.

Let us now make an attempt to define teaching. Teaching is an act of inducing

students to behave in ways that are assumed to lead to learning including attempts
to induce them to behave in that way.
CoDEUCC /Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 3
 UNIT 1
SESSION 1 TEACHING AND LEARING

1.2. The Teacher, the Student and the Subject.

For teaching to take place effectively, there should be the focal points forming a
triadic relationship. The relationship involves the taught and the discipline. In other
words, the relationship is complete when there is ‘A’ teaching ‘B’ to ‘C’, where A
is the teacher, B the discipline or subject area and C the pupil or the taught (
Tamakloe, Atta & Amedahe, 1996)

Let us give this illustration to throw more light on the triadic relationship.

Teacher

Taught Subject (Social Studies)

The teacher, at the apex of the triangle means that he is expected to have
knowledge of himself. This means that he should know his own likes and dislikes,
his strengths and weakness so as to be able to control his impulses during his
interaction with the learner.

Furthermore, at the apex of the triangle means that he is expected to have

knowledge of himself. This means that he should know his likes and dislikes, his
strengths and weaknesses so as to be able to control his impulses during his
interaction with the learner.

Furthermore, as a teacher of social studies, your knowledge of the subject matter is

very important. You are expected to demonstrate a mastery of the subject matter as
well as its methods. That is the reasons why this module is specifically devoted to

4 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in Degree in Basic Education

THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND UNIT 1
SESSION 1
LEARNING
the methods of teaching the subject. A thorough knowledge of the content and the
methods of teaching it endow the teacher with authority over the learner.
Let us look at the last aspect of the triadic relationship that is taught, or the learner
as a unique individual. You must always have at the back of your mind that every
leaner differs from every other learner in terms of physique, intelligence, ability ad
emotions. Your teaching strategies must therefore cater for all these differences.

Having looked at what ‘teaching’ is, let us look at the other side of the coin which
is ‘learning’ In the opinion of Gagne (1985), “Learning is a change in human
disposition or capacity that persists over a period of time …” (p2). On his part,
Slavin (1991) is of the view that learning is a “change in an individual that results
from experience” (p. 98). From these two definitions, can you point out this word?
It is the word “change”. This change is brought about through perception,
observation and experiences of the individual which make him behave in a way
which he otherwise would not have been able to. Learning is, therefore, the
individual’s ability to exhibit, for instance, new intellectual skills, acquire new
information and attitudes as well as motor skills as a result of his mental
capabilities and his reaction to environmental stimuli that do not, in any way cause
harm to his body (Tamakloe, Atta & Amedahe, 1996).

Another important dimension of learning is that, it is not limited to only the formal
process of education. That is, one can learn without necessarily going to school. It
is a phenomenon which continually takes place from the cradle till the grave is
reached. Further more, another important feature is that the change in behaviour or
the learning which occurs must last.

Indeed, we have closely looked at the two concepts, “teaching” and “ learning” We
have established the fact that teaching involves three basic issues which are the
teacher, the subject and the taught .The triadic relationship of these elements
constitute teaching. Again, from our discussion we have appreciated the fact that
learning is a positive change in behaviour which is brought about through
perception, observation and experiences. We hope your understanding of these two
concepts, “teaching” and “learning” should enable you to learn the various methods
and strategies of teaching social studies.

CoDEUCC /Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 5

 UNIT 1
SESSION 1 TEACHING AND LEARING

Self –Assessment Questions

Exercise 1.1
Assess yourself by answering the following questions.
1. Define the concept “teaching”
2. What is ‘Learning?
3. Identify and explain at least 2 essential features of learning.

6 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in Degree in Basic Education

 UNIT 1
THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING SESSION 2

SESSION 2: PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

In the last session, we looked at the meaning of the concepts;
“teaching: and “learning” We discussed the various dimensions of
each these concepts. In this session, we shall discuss the principles
that ought to be followed in the course of teaching

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) explain the concept “ principle of teaching”
(b) explain at least any three principles of teaching
(c) explain why effective teaching should ensure the participation of the
pupils.

Now read on…

2.1 Principle of Teaching

Principles are fundamental laws or rules governing the way things are done. They
are more or less doctrines and assumptions which govern the conduct of affairs.
Therefore, principles of teaching are assumptions which govern the conduct
acceptable teacher behaviour based on the nature of the child and classroom
learning situation. Let us throw more light on what we have said so far. By
principles of teaching; we are looking at the prescribed procedures and behaviour
of the teacher under certain situations during instructional sessions. These
principles are supposed to ensure effective teaching as well as learning. Among the
number of principles that can be considered in teaching are the following:

2.1.1 Active Learning and Participation

The first principle which is most important is that, teaching should ensure the
active participation and involvement of the leader. He should be mentally and
physically involved in all the instructional processes in the class.
Activity has a direct influence on the development of the intellect. As social
studies teachers, how then can we ensure the effective participation and
involvement of our students during instruction sessions? The answer to this
question is very simple. One way of ensuring their participation is by posing
relevant questions to the students at the beginning, during and the end of the
lesson. Can you think of another way by which we can involve our students during
our social studies lessons? Don’t you think by giving class exercises to individual
students or groups can equally ensure their participation?
CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 7
 UNIT 1
SESSION 2
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

The substance of this principle is that, we should not be seen doing the talking
alone, we must as a matter of principle involve them, irrespective of the method of
teaching employed. The student must be made to utilize his hand, mind, eyes, body
and metal capacity, as well as other channels of learning. This is because body and
mental capacity, as well as other channels of learning. This is because the student
learns by doing. In the classroom, he could be asked to arrange objects and
instructional materials, move tables and chairs, provide information, collect and
collate data, take part in brainstorming, go on filed trips and so on.

2.1.2 Motivation and Interest

Motivation is the arousal of desire for students to learn. It is the forces that
determine how much effort an individual puts into learning. If the students’
motivation is limited, he will not put much energy and enthusiasm into his learning
as when he is strongly motivated. What then is the implication of this principle? It
simply implies that as social studies teachers, we need to ensure that the students’
interest and appropriate desires are aroused before we start to teach him or her.
Another point worth noting is that, the student’s interest and desires must be taken
into consideration throughout the lesson so as to sustain the needed motivation.
Usually, when students are encouraged by reinforcement in the form of praises and
prizes, their efforts and motivation are sustained. In principle, to make our
teaching meaningful, we need to sustain the interest and desire of our students
through motivation.

2.1.3. Principle of Varity

A variety of teaching aids and strategies should be adopted to motivate and sustain
the interests of your students. The teaching strategies could take the form of
storey-telling, showing a film, bringing somebody (resource person) to talk to your
students, and so on.

2.1.4 Principle of Individual Differences

Students have different levels of understanding whatever you teach them. No two
students are alike. By implication, for your teaching to be most effective, you need
to take note of the individual differences of your students. Indeed, there are bound
to be very slow learners in the class, and what you need to also know is that is
what the majority of your students are able to understand which matters and not
what you are able to cover in a lesson. You could cover a lot of issues in a lesson,
yet only a few of your students might have understood you due to their individual
differences.

8 CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

 UNIT 1
THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING SESSION 2

2.1.5. Principle of Students Centeredness

Your teaching style, strategies and methods should ensure that the student is
always at the centre of the learning process. This principle is quite similar to the
principle of active involvement and participation of the student in the learning
process. What we need to bear in mind is that the entire teaching process is for the
student. It is therefore important that our teaching strategies should as well cater
for the interest, aptitude and abilities of the students.

2.1.6 Creating Conductive Environment

The physical as well as social environment of the classroom plays an important
role in motivating the learners. You must ensure that before teaching commences,
the arrangement of light and furniture are properly attended to. There should be
proper discipline and order in the class. As the classroom teacher, you should be
sympathetic but firm.

2.1.7 Proceed from the Known to the Unknown

A good teacher should always start teaching on what the student already know.
Try to build on what they already know to those issues which they do not know.
What is already known to the students is of great use to them. This simply suggest
that before you start teaching, arouse the interest of your students by posing
questions on the subject matter already know to them. After this, if you want to
teach a lesson on the duties of government, first of all, find out from the students,
the duties their parents owe them at home. We hope you can give further
illustrations on start teaching form the known to the unknown.

2.1.8 Proceed from Simple to Complex

Never start teaching your students on a lesson which seems complex. If you do
this, you are likely to lower their interest in the lesion or even the subject. What
then are you expected to do? The answer to this is quite simple. For example, if
you want to treat a lesson on the topic “Elasticity of Demand” you will be
expected to first of all to teach the less complex a topic than the Concept of
demand. Can you think of another suitable example?

2.1.10 Proceed from Easy to Difficult

As teachers, we need to sequence our lessons in a manner that will facilitate
understanding. We should always keep in mind, the standards of our students.
There are many things which look easy to us but are in fact difficult for the
students. The interest of the student has to be taken into account. For example,
lines are very easy to draw but a pupil may not like to draw lines. He may try to

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 9

 UNIT 1
SESSION 2
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
draw an animal. Certainly, that may be difficult, but it is more interesting to him
and so is easy for him. What you need to do here is to encourage him.

2.1.11 Proceed from the Concrete to the Abstract

As pupil’s ability to imagine is facilitated by a concrete material.
“Things first and worlds after” is the common saying associated with this
principle. Pupils in the beginning cannot think in abstraction. Small pupils learn
first from things which they can see and handle. For example, very young pupils
learn counting with the help of pebbles.
Again, a pupil understands an aeroplane with the help of a model. A lesson in
Social Studies can be made interesting with the help of models.

Self –Assessment Questions

Exercise 1.2
1. What do we mean by; “principles of teaching”?
2. State 3 principles of teaching
3. Why should teaching ensure that, students actively participate in the lesson?

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SESSION 3: PHASE AND STAGES OF TEACHING

This session will be as interesting as the previous one. We shall be

looking at the phase and stages of teaching. Do you know something?
The teaching of social studies, no matter how short the lesson might
be, is expected to go through certain processes. These processes are termed phases
or stages of teaching. Under each phase, we shall thoroughly discuss what you are
expected to do.

Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
a) state the phases of teaching
b) identify the phases in which the preparing of a scheme of work is done.
c) state at least two reasons for preparing the scheme of work
d) identify two materials that will assist in the preparation of a scheme of
work
e) state two types of evaluation.

Now read on …

3.1 Phases of Teaching

Teaching is a very challenging task. In fact, it requires systematic planning.
As we already indicated, teaching is to be considered in terms of various steps
which constitute the phases. If we are to give a completed description of the
teaching activity, then we need to consider what the teacher does before and after
his regular teaching in the class. By implication, the teaching exercise can be put
into three phases. Namely the Planning stage, implementation stage and
Evaluations stage.

3.2. The Planning Stage

The planning phase involves deciding on what to teach, how to teach and when to
teach it. This means that before actual classroom teaching begins, the teacher is
expected to perform a number of tasks. These include issues such as preparing
lesson plans, arranging furniture and equipment. Dear students, the message we
want to drive home is that, teacher’s preparation for the actual instructional session
within the classroom forms part of the planning process. As part of the preparatory
work, the teacher selects the materials to be used in the teaching process. Again,
the teacher determines the bench marks for all his teaching tasks.

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All these preparatory work culminate in what well call a weekly forecast,
otherwise known as the scheme of work. My dear student, how then do we prepare
the scheme of work…? In fact, before we set out to prepare the scheme, two
materials which are needed to guide us. They are:
1. The social studies syllabus
2. The National calendar

Now, let me pose this question. Why do you think the calendar is needed to guide
us in our preparation of the scheme of work? The answer is quite simple. The
calendar will enable the teacher to take note of all public holidays so that the he
does not plan his teaching to fall on term that is 13 weeks. The diagram below is
an outline scheme of work for SSS social studies.

SCHEME OF WORK
SSS 3 SOCIAL STUDIES: TERM 3 – 2006/2007
Wee Week Topic Reference Remarks
Beginning
1 3-07-06 General Cleaning Lesson we
taught
2 10-07-06 Festivals in Ghana “
3 17-07-06 Culture and Traditions “
4 24-07--6 Democracy and Governance “
5 30-07-06 Economy of Ghana “
6 07-08-06 Citizenship Education “
7 14-08-06 Political Instability in Ghana and Africa “
8 21-08-06 Post independence Ghana “
9 28-08-06 United Nations, Achievements “
10 04-09-06 ECOWAS, Achievements “
11 11-09-06 The Ashanti Kingdom “
12 18-09-06 Revision/Exam “
13 25-09-06 Revision/Exam “

There are two important issues you need to bear in mind when designing your
scheme of work for the term, the first week is often used to tidy up the school, as
such no effective teaching takes place during that week. In principle, toward s the
tail end of the examination. Here again, no effective teaching is expected to take
place during those two weeks. Therefore, in a term of 13 weeks, only 10 weeks can

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be used for effective teaching. Your scheme of work should therefore cater for
only 10 weeks of effective teaching.

Why do you think the scheme of work is very important in the planning process,
of teaching? Now, just listen to me. It is important to note these reasons;
1. It serves as a guide to the teacher.
2. It provides a record of lessons that have been taught and those not
taught.
Do you know something? As part of the planning process, the social studies
teacher is expected to undertake some form of mental and physical preparation
towards the lesson. What then is mental preparation? It is that aspect of preparation
where the teacher tries to assimilate the material to be taught, by revising what he
already knows and acquiring new information. The teacher does these things
through the reading of textbooks, journals, magazines, newspapers, listening to
radio broadcast, TV and consultation with peers (professional colleagues).

What of the physical preparation? Can you guess what it is? The physical
preparation takes two forms. They are;
1. Preparation of the lesson plan
2. Preparation for the our acquisition of learning materials.
We shall be looking at the preparation of a lesson plan in detail in the next
secession.

3.3. The Instruction Phase

This phase involves the transmission of new knowledge to the students through
interactions between the teacher and students, and among students, with the
teacher acting as a facilitator. Aggarwal (1996) describes this phase as the
interactive phase. The diagram below illustrates the sort of interaction we expect to
see in this. Let us call these interactions as Classroom Dynamics.

Classroom Dynamics

T: Teacher
S: Student.

In this imaginary classroom, we have a teacher represented (T) and eighteen students,
each student are identified by (s).
The communication flow is represented by a double headed arrow. That is, the teacher
gives information to all and also expected to communicate or interact among each other
the teacher serve as a guide.
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What we want to say is that, under this phase, there should be a fertilization of ideas.
The interaction should not be one- sided with the teacher acting as a giver of knowledge
and students seen as passive recipients of cooked knowledge. In due course, we shall be
looking at a number of techniques that can be used to provoke the involvement of the
students in the lesson.

3.4 The Evaluation Phase

Evaluation involves gathering information on a person, programme or a process and
trying to form judgments about the effectiveness of what being evaluated. In short, it
involves determining the worth of a thing.

Generally, there are two forms of evaluation. These are the formative and summative
evaluation.

Formative evaluation takes place during the instructional process and provides
information on the effectiveness of the method of instruction employed. Most of the
day-to – day evaluation of students in the form of quizzes, classroom questions or short
test can be termed formative if they are towards the provision of information that can
improve subsequent teaching and study.

Summative evaluation on the other hand refers to the evaluation conducted at the end of
an instruction, a course, or unit. This can be done when students have been exposed to
the entire contents of a course through instruction in relation to the established
objectives.

Now, let us pause and ask ourselves this question. Why do you think evaluation is
necessary? Let me give you some few reasons so that you could also add yours.
Evaluation is necessary because of the following reasons:

1. To ascertain the extent to which instructional objectives have been

achieved.
2. To find out how much knowledge the students have acquired.
3. To determine the effectiveness of the method of instruction employed.
4. To assess the suitability of Teaching – Learning Resources (TLR’s) used in
the process of teaching
5. To facilitate the making of a decision with respect to the next line of action.

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This stage is also known as the post-active stage. As we already discussed, it is the
stage where you are expected to analyse the extent to which students have
understood the material presented to them. It is in fact the assessment of the
interactive process. It enables you to teach things better in future. It also helps your
students to learn things better (Aggarval, 1996).

Hello student, we have suddenly come to the end of this

interesting session. You are gradually becoming a graduate
professional teacher in view of these new ideas you are adding to
your stock of knowledge. This is very good of you. Keep it up.

Self – Assessment Questions

Exercise 1.3
1. State the 3 phases of any instructional process?
2. In which of the phases will you prepare a scheme of work
3. State two reasons why you think the preparation of a scheme of work is
necessary.
4. Identity 2 materials that will guide you in the preparation of a scheme of
work
5. State 2 types of evaluation
6. Explain 2 reasons why evaluation is necessary in the teaching learning
process of social studies.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

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THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING UNIT 1
SESSION 4

SESSION 4: ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF A LESSON

PLAN
Welcome to session 4 of this unit. I am very happy that you are
poised to acquire additional knowledge on the art of teaching. It will
be recalled that in the previous session, we did not state what the teacher ought to
do some kind of mental and physical preparation towards any instructional session
or lesson. In this session we shall focus on the physical preparation for lesson .The
physical preparation involves the preparation of a lesson plan and acquisition of
Teaching – Learning Materials (TLM’s). For the time being we shall be looking at
only the preparation of a lesson plan. We shall discuss the essential components of
a lesson and also propose a format for a lesson plan in social studies.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
a) state at least two components of a lesson plan
b) explain two reasons why the preparation of a lesson plan is necessary
c) drew an outline of a lesson plan

Now read on…

4.1. Component of a Lesson Plan
The Topic
This is the first essential element of a lesson plan. The student has to bear in mind
that the topic should be worded in such a way that it is easily understood by the
pupils for whom it is intended. A good topic does not need any explanation. It
should be self-explanatory. Instead of “vertebrate” It could be “The characteristics
of vertebrate”. Instead of “poetry” it could be “The Nature of African Poetry”.
Instead of “Mountains” it could be “Types of Mountains” Instead of “Poetry” it
could be “The Nature of African Poetry” Instead of “Mountains” it could be
“Types of Mountains”. Instead of “The Battle of Dodowa” it could be “why The
Battle of Dodowa was fought”.

Objectives
The next important aspect of a lesson plan is a clearly defined purpose or aim or
rational for teaching the topic or lesson. There may be more than one purpose.
Usually, there are series of statements all of which go to clarify the object of the
lesson. The statement contains objectives which the teacher hopes the students
would have attained by the end of the lesson. In our next session, we shall be
discussing instructional objectives in detail.
Introduction
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This is the beginning of actual classroom interaction. It is the stage when the
teacher refers to and explores the student’s experiences and interest, (about) what
may be something they are interested in; it may be what is in the current
newspapers. It may be what has currently been heard on the radio. The
introduction should be done in on exciting, stimulating way so that interest and
curiosity are aroused (Dodd, 1970).

Presentation
Various names have been given to the second stage of the “classroom” interaction
as procedure, learning and teaching activities, presentation or development. Here,
you are expected to state the learning experiences or teaching activities you have
planned for, you are expected to state the learning experiences or teaching
activities you have planned for the lesson. These activities should be planned in
such a way that they bring about the fulfilment of the major objective/objectives of
the lesson. The activities should be written out in the sequence in which they will
occur.

Every important aspect must be written down. These may include the type of
activity, whether discussion, questioning or lecture, etc. It may be necessary to
note what will be the answers to expect; what point to raise in the lesson, etc.

Teaching/Learning Resources (TLR’s)

The lesson plan must also include a section on teaching – learning resources. This
is where the teacher takes note of the materials or equipment he intends taking to
the class, and those he wants the students to bring to class. By this, the teacher
makes sure he is aware of the materials the students are to bring to class. By this,
the teacher makes sure he is aware of the materials and equipment and equipment
he needs for the lesson and that they are available for use. He also makes sure, by
this, that he selects a variety of materials which appeal to other senses than that of
hearing.

The materials the teacher can easily think of include charts, maps, the chalkboard,
flannel, graph, projectors, films, pictures, games, diagrams, models, talk extracts
and specimens (Tamkloe, 2000).

Revision or Recapitulation or Closure or Evaluation

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After the presentation comes the revision, closure or evaluation stage. In this, your
main task is to find out whether the students have mastered what you had planned
for them to learn. Revision facilities retention and recall and the most effective
means for achieving this is by question and answer. This usually culminates in the
drawing up of summaries on the chalk board or writing down notes, form the
major issues raised. The chalkboard summary should be drawn up form the
answers students give to the issues raised. A thorough and an effective
recapitulation can provide you with a good assessment as to whether your
instructional objectives have been achieved or not.

There are various ways of assessing the effectiveness of learning, that is, whether
the objective stated in the lesson has been achieved. We have the oral question and
written questions. Again, your students could be asked to carry out an experiment,
draw, and model or undertake a field trip and report.

4.2 Importance of Lesson Preparation

The following are some of the advantages that you can derive from a thorough
lesson preparation.
1. The vital aspects of the lesson are included. Without the lesson notes, it is
most likely that, such aspects will be left out.
2. Lesson preparation ensures that you give correct information to your
students. Giving wrong information can hardly occur.
3. Teaching any lesson often occurs within a specified time period. Lesson
preparation therefore enables that teacher to do proper timing.
4. Teaching is supposed to be done in an orderly manner; lesson preparation
ensures that systematic and orderly presentation is enhanced.
5. Again, lesson preparation makes it possible for you to incorporate suitable
illustrations and interesting details.
6. Another significant role lesson preparation plays is that, it helps to avoid
the unnecessary repetition of what might have been taught already.
7. The lesson plan also provides you with something to refer to when your
memory fails you.

Dear student, these are some of the important reasons why you should always
prepare a lesson plan. Let us get these two concepts quite clear; “Lesson plan” and
“lesson preparation”. Lesson preparation is the process of bringing together the
essential components of a lesson for purposes of teaching. A lesson plan on the
other hand is the completed version of the preparation. That which contains all the
important elements of the lesson. We can also call it framework or the lesson

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blueprint. All these alterative names point to the fact that, the lesson plan is just to
guide us on what to do at the beginning of a lesson up till the end.

Now, let us look at a simple model of a lesson plan.

4. 3. A Model Lesson Plan

The lesson notes given below are means to give you a graphic of the descriptions
that we have discussed in respect of the important elements of a lesson plan.

A LESSON PLAN
School:…………………………………………………………………………….

Subject:……………………………………………………………………………

Class:………………………………………………………………………………

Date:……………………………………………………………………………….

Time:……………………………………………………………………………….

Topic:……………………………………………………………………………….

Sub Topic:……………………………………………………………………………

Reference… Name of author (Surname, initials), data of publication, title of book,

name of publishers, place of publication, pages,

Instructional Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Previous Knowledge (Entry Behaviour) P.K.

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

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Introduction (Set induction)

………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..

Presentation
Step I
Step II
Step III, etc.
Closure:
1. Briefly summarise the main points of the lesson
2. Invite questions from students

Evaluation:
Test students’ understanding of the lesson by asking the following question:
1……………………………………………………………………………………
2……………………………………………………………………………………
3……………………………………………………………………………………
Pre- Lesson Preparation:
Ask students to read on
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Remarks:
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(Adapted from Tamakloe, et al., 1996)

Self – Assessment Question

Exercise 1.4

1. Prepare a 30- minute lesson plan on the topic “Resource Development and
Utilization in Ghana” for an SSS 1 class.
2. State 2 components of a lesson plan
3. Explain two reasons for preparing a lesson plan.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

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THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING UNIT 1
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES IN SOCIAL

STUDIES
.
Hello students, you are welcome to this session. Here again, we
shall be looking at an important aspect of teaching, which is,
instructional objectives. To start with, we shall look at the meaning
of the two concepts, that is, instructional aims and instructional objectives. We
shall also discuss reasons for the use of instructional objectives. Again, we shall be
looking at certain rules which govern the writing of instruction objectives and the
domains of learning.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) differentiate between instructional aims and instructional
objectives.
(b) explain at least, 2 reason for the use of instructional objectives.
(c) identify and explain at least, 2 rules which govern the writing of
instructional objectives.
(d) state and explain any 2 domains of learning

Now read on……..

5.1 Instructional Aims

Dear students, how will you explain this concept, “instructional aims”? Well, an
instructional aim is a general declaration of intent which gives direction to a
teaching programme. It is used to convey a broader instructional intention. In
another sense, it can be defined as an answer to the question of why a topic is
taught. It is often stated in general terms.

5.2 Instructional Objectives

An instruction objective is a declaration of intent of a point in the direction of an
instruction programme. It is reserved for a more limited classroom instruction. It
can be defined as an answer to the question of what would have been achieved by
pupils when the specific topic has been taught.

Instructional objectives focus on what the teacher wants his/her students to be able
to do after the completion of his/her course, that is, teaching unit, lecture or
discussion. Carefully stated instructional objectives can be a valuable aid in
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 UNIT 1 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES IN SOCIAL
SESSION 5 STUDIES

providing direction for both students and teachers, and they are essential in
constructing tests to evaluate student and teacher performance.

5.3. Criteria for Stating Instructional Objectives

As we discussed earlier, instructional objectives are specific performances or
terminal behaviours that the instruction expects students to demonstrate after an
instruction session.

If your students are not able to give evidence of mastery of what has been faulty.

Mager (1962 has proposed three main components which every instructional
objectives should have. They are;
1. Specify the terminal behaviour the students are expected to demonstrate.
2. Specify the conditions under which the expected terminal should be
demonstrated.
3. Specify the acceptable level of performance of the expected terminal behaviour.

Do you know something? Instructional objectives can also be termed behavioural

objectives. Henceforth, we shall be using the two terms interchangeably. A
behavioural objective has many attributes. Tamakloe (1992) cites nine of such
attributes as follows. They are;

1. a behavioural objective is directed to the learner in the sense that is describes the
terminal behaviour of the learner and not what the teacher intends to do.
2.a behavioural or instructional objective is teacher goral oriented in the sense that
it describes what the teacher expects the learner to be do as a result of being taught.
3. behavioral or instructional objectives are stated in simple, lucid language for easy
understanding.
4. an instructional objective is specific in the sense that it is given a description of
what the leaner is expected to do.
5. instructional or behavioural objectives specify the degree of mastery or level of
performance required of the learner.
6. instructional objectives specify the condition in terms of limitations and material
to be used in order to reach the desired performance.
7.behavioural objectives are stated with action verbs which suggest activities to be
undertaken.

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8.instructional objectives are stated with words which are not open to several
interpretations or which have restricted meaning.
9.instructional objective are stated in such a way that the terminal behaviour of the
learner can be measured and observed.

You might have realised that Tamakloe, attributes are almost similar to Mager’s
three criteria of stating instructional objectives. Tamakloe has rather expatiated on
that of Mager.

Tamakloe discusses these attributes with the use of an example:

“By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to locate the “position” the
use of the word “by” to begin the objective means that the task could be
accomplished at any point in time during the instructional process. The use of” the
student” fulfils the first attribute. Emphasis is placed on the individual student
because in any teaching learning interaction process, it is what the student does
which constitutes to learning and not what the teacher does (Tyler, 1949)

Learning does not necessarily result because teaching is taking place. For example,
if particular students are absent minded because he is either hungry or day-
dreaming, whatever, the teacher teaches may pass away unheard, let alone learnt.

The plural form “students” is not appropriate because we are concerned with
individual student’s behaviour or achievement. The word “locate” covers three of
the attributes at once, it is an action verb, it is a singular task and it also specifies
the behaviour expected of the learner.

“On an outline map of Ghana” describes the condition under which the behaviour
is to take place. The phrase “Within 1mm of its correct position” specifies the
degree of performance or level of mastery expected of the student. The foregoing,
also indicate, of course, that the terminal learner behaviour can also be measured
and observed.

My dear student, at this stage, let us explain what action verbs and non-action
verbs are, and further give example of these two different types of verbs. Action
verbs are words which indicate definite, observable responses. That is, responses
that can be seen and evaluated by an outside observer (Gronlund, 1981). They are
often quite restrictive in meaning in the sense that they are “not open to several
interpretation” and they tend to suggest what the learner is going to do when they
are used in stating objectives.
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SESSION 5 STUDIES

Action verbs are distinguishable from non-action verbs which describe forms of
behaviour which cannot be observed directly, even through they take place all the
same (Adentwi, 2001). Such verbs usually describe covert behaviour or behaviour
which is held in the mind, heart or some other internal manner. The following are
examples of action verbs and non-action verbs.

ACTION VERBS NON – ACTION VERBS

To write to know
To recite to understand
To identity to perceive
To differentiate to appreciate
To explain to grasp
To constrict to enjoy
To compare to delieve
To describe to have faith
To discuss to think
To lift to infer
To spell to appraise
To add to influence
To compose to have insight
To operate
To label

Since you have been given these examples, try and see whether you can also come
out with your own examples

5.4. Reasons for Stating Instructional Objectives

There are three important reasons for stating instructional objectives in social
studies. They are as follows;
1. Guidance For students study efforts
It is extremely important for the teacher to give the students a precise statement of
what is expected of them. Carefully stated objective help prevent students from
wasting time and energy in studying wrong things or engaging in inappropriate
activities.

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2. Guidance for Teacher Teaching Efforts

Clearly stated objectives again provide an efficient way of planning teaching
activities. Once instructional objectives have been specified, it is easier to design
instructional and learning activities that are the most likely to help students reach
these objectives.

3. Guidance for student and Teacher Evaluation Efforts

Instructional objectives also help both students and instructors when it is time for
evaluation. Test aimed at clearly specified objectives give students an opportunity
to demonstrate that they have achieved and what is expected of them. Moreover, the
test results help the teacher to determine whether or not his or her teaching efforts
have been effective.

5.5. Instructional Objectives and Domains of Learning:

In principle, instructional objectives must be formulated to cover the three domains
of learning, namely; the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Let us
briefly look at each of these domains

a. Cognitive Domain: This has been defined as comprising objectives that

deal with abilities and skills (Bloom, 1956). Examples of instructional
objectives which cover this domain are, to explain, to interpreter, to
translate, to contrast, to classify, etc.
b. Affective Domain: The affective domain consists of objectives which
emphasise a feeling tone, and emotion, or a degree of acceptance or
rejection (Krathwohl, 1964). These are some example of instructional
objectives which touch on this domain. To participate, to respond, to
contribute, etc, etc.

c. Psychomotor Domain:
These deals with objectives which emphasise some muscular or motor skills,
some manipulation of materials and objects, or some act which requires a
neuromuscular coordination (Krathwol, 1964). Some are to measure, to push,
to weight, to stretch, to draw, etc.

Self – Assessment Questions

Exercise 1.5
1. explain the difference between instructional aims and instructional
objectives
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SESSION 5 STUDIES

2. state 2 reasons for stating instructional objective

3. identify and explain 2 rules for stating instructional objectives.
4. state and explain any 2 domains of learning.

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SEESION 6

SESSION 6: METHODS OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

Hello students, you are welcome to the last session of this unit, in
this session, we shall be looking at the concept, “methods of
teaching” and its classifications. We shall also discuss the various
factors to consider when choosing particular methods of teaching social studies.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) explain the Concept, “methods of teaching”.
(b) identify and explain at least one classification of methods of teaching.
(c) state any one factor to be considered when choosing any method of teaching
social studies.

Now read on…..

6.1 Meaning of a Method:

Aggarwal (1996) is of the view that the word method is often used very loosely.
What, it has been supposed to involve is a body of fixed and stereotyped modes of
procedures adopted by teachers to impart knowledge.

A method goes beyond this. Let us look at a method in terms of an orderly

procedure in teaching, an arrangement of subject matter which will avoid waste of
time and energy and a redistribution of emphasis which will secure the greatest
cooperation from the students and maintain their active interest. Simply put in a
different way, is is the processes through which learning is enhanced, but the
common parlance is “teaching methods”

When one takes a look at the spectrum of the processes which take place in a
teaching – learning interaction, one is tempted to opt for the first proposition “
teachers – learning methods” This stems from the fact that there are teachers and
students in the interaction and that each of the two groups engage in some types of
activity or the other. So, in the interaction there is an interplay of teacher activity
and students activity.

These two types of activities can be placed along a continuum where at one end
teacher activity is dominant through to the other end where students activity
predominates. At the other end of the continuum is where the teacher dominated
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activity is located is where the lecture method could be placed (Tamakloe,

Amedahe & Atta, 1996). Somewhere in the middle of the continuum where the
intensity of teacher activity is about equal that of students activity may be the area
where the discussion method could be located. After the discussion method are a
series of methods which are characterised by dominance of student’s activity.
Some of these are the project method, case study methods. Role-playing method
problems – solving method, ect, etc.

Social studies teaching methods may also be classified in terms of the environment
within they are used. For example, we have the typical classroom methods. These
are those which we can conveniently use in the classroom, to teach the subject. Can
you yet identify a few of them? This might seem difficult to identify since we have
not yet discussed these methods. However, let me help you with some examples of
these classroom methods. They are the question and answer methods, discussion
method, problem-solving, role playing, case study and seminars.

The other types of classification are the out-classroom methods. They are; Field
trips, Business visits, Projects, etc.

We have therefore classified the methods of teaching social studies in terms of who
plays a dominant role, that is whether the teacher or the students. Again, we have
also discovered that, the methods can be classified in terms of where the teaching
takes place. Let us now discuss the factors that are likely to influence our choice of
any of these methods.

6.2 Factors that Influence the Choice of Teaching Methods:

As teachers of social studies, we are supposed to be guided by certain principles
when considering the choice of method to employ for the teaching of lessons on
social studies. We have quite a number of methods that could be used for teaching
of the subject. Each method is to used as and when it becomes necessary. Let us
looking at some of the conditions which may suggest or influence our choice of the
method to use.

a. The objective of the lesson:

The purpose for which the learning situation is prepared and the expected learning
outcomes should suggest the method and types of instructional activity the teacher
and students should engage in. Now, let us look at this illustration. A lot of stories
have been told about the AIDS/HIV disease. I have prepared a lesson on this
30 CoDEUCC /Bachelor a Degree in Basic Education
THE CONCEPT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING UNIT 1
SEESION 6

disease and will like my students to develop a natural appreciation of this existence.
Under this circumstance, what method of instruction should I use? Certainly, the
field trip or excursion is most appropriate. An excursion to the hospital ward where
AIDS/HIV patients are housed will enable me to achieve my instructional
objectives with ease.

b. The size of the class

We have already stated that a good instructional procedure should aim at getting
maximum participation of the students. The size of the class influences the
selection of teaching activities that will encourage and foster fuller participation in
the lesson by individual pupils in the class. For example, in a very large class, oral
questions and answers alone are not enough to ensure full participation. Under such
situations, methods that engage individuals’ students to work must be employed
whilst in a smaller class; questions can be sufficient instruments to get every
student to participate in the lesson.

c. The Nature of student:

Any method that you will select for teaching a topic in social studies should suit the
nature and characteristics of the learner’s capacity to learn, age and social
background. Very young students have short span of attention and therefore the
discussion and lecture methods may not be suitable for them. We can conveniently
use such methods when handling adults.

d. The Nature of the subject Matter:

The method you will choose should suit nature and purpose of the subject and even
the topic. For example, a lesson meant primarily to develop the affective domain of
a student should be treated differently from a history lesson which aims at
developing the cognitive domain. Further to this, a Social Studies or Economics
lesson should be approached differently from a history lesson.

e. The Working and Environmental conditions to the students/school:

The availability of textbooks, reading materials, equipment, space facilities in the
school or class will to a large extent determine the type of method to use. The
socioeconomic environment of the student should also guide you to choose an
appropriate method and suitable examples. It will certainly not be appropriate to
teach a lesson like division of labour relating to fishing in an environment where
fishing is rarely practised.

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 31

 UNIT 1
SESSION 6 METHODS OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

f. Teacher competence:
The personality of the teacher, his professional experience and academic
background will largely influence the method he can conveniently use. The use of
the available resources and improvisation of appropriate ad-hoc materials depend
mostly on the teacher’s professional background, his experience and personality.

g. Time Constraint:
In fact, any method that you will decide on using to teach will depend on the time
allocated to you for that lesson. There are some methods which consume a lot of
time. Examples of such methods are; problem – solving methods, case studies, field
trips and role playing. The implication here is that, to be able to use any of these
methods satisfactorily, then we must have sufficient time at our disposal. A good
teacher must apply methods that give maximum outcome within a given period.

h. Variety:
A method selected should not produce boredom. To minimise or avoid boredom,
the method should be varied, interesting, creative and flexible. Although a
dominant method may prevail in the lesson, every good teacher should employ
other methods that can support the chosen method to provide the expected effect
and understanding. Hello student, we have suddenly come to the end of this
interesting session. Try your hands on the exercises that follow this session.

Self –Assessment Questions

Exercise 1.6

1. What is meant by Methods of Teaching?

2. Explain one classification of the methods of teaching social studies
3. State and explain one factor you will consider when choosing any of the
methods to teach social studies.

32 CoDEUCC /Bachelor a Degree in Basic Education

THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS OF UNIT 2
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

UNIT 2: THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS OF

TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES
Unit Outline
Session 1: The Lecture Method
Session 2: Strengths and Limitations of the Lecture Method
Session 3: The Discussion Method
Session 3: Merits and Limitations of Discussion
Session 5: Team Teaching in Social Studies
Session 6: Illustrations and Story Telling Method

Dear student, you are most welcome to unit 2 of the methods of

teaching social studies. In this unit, we shall be looking at the lecture
and discussion methods of teaching social studies. We shall discuss
the nature of each of these methods. The strengths and limitations of these 2
methods shall equally be examined. We shall take a look at team teaching in social
studies, its procedures, advantages disavatages. Lastly, we shall discuss illustrations
and story telling as other techniques of social studies instruction.

Unit Objectives
By the end of studying this unity, you should e able to,
a) Explain the nature and various ramification of the lecture and
discussion methods of teaching social studies.
b) Describe the men’s and limitations of the lecture and discussion methods of
teaching the subject.
c) Explain the concept of team teaching as well as its advantage and disadvantages
and story telling and disadvantage.
d) Describe what illustrations and story telling are, state their mean’s and
limitations, the factors that should guide the use of any of them in a social
studies lesion.

CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 33

 UNIT 2 THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS OF
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

34 CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 1

SESSION 1: THE LECTURE METHOD

Hello student, in this unit we shall be looking at the lecture method
of teaching social studies. We shall discuss the nature of the
lecture method and the different forms of it. Under this session, we
shall also discuss the various steps that should be taken in order to achieve good
delivery of a lecture.

Objectives:
By the end of this session, you should be able to;
a) Explain the meaning of the “lecture method”.
b) Identity at least two forms of the lecture method.
c) State at least two ways by which we can achieve good delivery of a lecture.

Now read on …..

1.1: Meaning of the Lecture Method.
The lecture method refers to the teaching procedure involved in the clarification or
explanation to the student of major ideas. (Aggarwal, 1996). It is a teacher-centred
method. Most of the time, during the process, the teacher is talking or
demonstrating to the students. For this reason, it is often described as a teacher-
dominated or a teacher activity method. With this method, the social studies
teacher is expected to allow his audience or students to ask questions on issues
raised which have not gone down well with them.

The lecture method of instruction lays emphasis on the presentation of the content.
As we indicated earlier, using this method, the teacher is more active and students
are passive but he uses questions to keep them attentive in the class. This method is
used to clarify matters, to expand content and motivate the students. By changing
his voice, by impersonating characters, by shifting devices, a teacher can deliver
lesson effectively. While delivering his lecture, a teacher can indicate by his facial
expression gestures and tones the exact shade of meaning that he wishes to convey
(Aggarwal, 1996).

1.2: Forms of the Lecture Method

Now, let us have a close look at the different forms the lecture method can assume.
Lowman (1984) has isolated various forms of the lecture method such as the “
formal oral essay” “ provocation lecture” “lecture-demonstration” question-
lecture”, “lecture-discussion”, “lecture-recitation” and the “lecture-lecture-
laboratory”. In the provocation lecture, the teacher raises issues regarding
CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 35
 UNIT 2
SESSION 1 THE LECTURE METHOD

knowledge which students have already acquired, evaluates it and attempts to help
the students get a higher order cognitive process of that knowledge.

In the lecture-demonstration, the teacher makes an increasing use of materials such

as regalia, diagrams, and charts to illustrate issues in the delivery. In the main, the
issues the illustrations to demonstrate how the issue could be conceptualisd in a
variety frames (Tamakloe, Amedahe and Atta, 1996).

With the lecture-question, the teacher, usually at the instance of the students, allows
questions to help students satisfy their curiosity and also to clarify points which
may be confusing or air their views which may oppose what the teacher espouses.

The teacher may, on the ether hard, pause to invite discussions in which students
are encouraged to raise issues and to contribute. This is the lecture-discussion
method in which the discussion is brief and may be allowed only twice during the
delivery. This is to ensure a smooth flow of delivery and also to accomplish the
task.

The lecture-recitation variety is the one in which students are given the chance to
expatiate on what they have to been asked to read about and has been touched upon
in the lecture.

The last variation is the lecture-laboratory in which students are given the
opportunity to do independent work, experiment and observe after a short lecture
has been given by the teacher as an introduction.

Indeed, these are the different forms the lecture method can take. Generally, the
lecture method is described as the method in which the role, of the student is
comparatively less active and more passive in the teaching – learning interaction.

1.3 How to Achieve a Good Delivery of a Lecture

There are several things the teacher can do to ensure a good delivery for effective
learning. Let us now look at a few suggested strategies that will enable us to
achieve good delivery of a lecture.

36 CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 1

Preparation
As part of the measures to ensure a good delivery of a lecture, the teacher is
expected to write the lecture notes before hand. In the process of the write up,
teacher must use more than one source of information. The more the sources, the
better since view points from various sources help to enhance the quality of the
lecture. If the teacher does a thorough preparation, the lecture should raise issues
which the students should grapple with instead of “dishing” out facts which are
virtually taken verbatim from a book. A good preparation should enable the
teacher to manipulate with ease, situations which are difficult. The teacher’s ability
to answer problematic questions, to explain knotty points or issue, and to handle
controversial issues are some of the indications of good preparation. When a
teacher prepares his lecture thoroughly he has good mastery of the subject matter,
his delivery is of high standard and effective learning does take place.

Attention Getter: At the beginning, at the lecture, the teacher should try to arrest
the curiosity and interest of his students, he should also try to ensure rapt attention
from them. The teacher must, therefore, ensure that the beginning of the lecture is
made exciting and as stimulating as possible. These done, the students will be
eager to hear what the teacher has to tell them.

Effective Delivery
A good delivery is characterized by good reading audibility of what the teacher
says, judicious use of illustration, and the right gestures he makes. Again, not only
should the teacher endeavour to make the delivery coherent, he must also ensure
that it has sequence or it is orderly.

It is also important that the teacher must have a voice that carries. In addition, he
must be able to manipulate it in such a way that the lecture does not become
monotony. The teacher must have the ability to vary the tone of his speech in such
a way that undertones are used for less important issues while loud voiced tones are
made use to highlight the essential issues or points he raises in the lecture.

Good Speed
The appropriate speed in the delivery of a lecture is dictated by the teacher’s
intimate knowledge of the dispositions of his student. The teacher is able to assess
the requisite speed of his lecture in his class after he has been with his student for
some time.

If the teacher lectures too slowly it is likely that many of his students will either
CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 37
 UNIT 2
SESSION 1 THE LECTURE METHOD

become fidgety or feel drowsy and even sometimes go to sleep. The lecture must
make students active as it provokes thought. On the other hand, if the teacher is too
fast, his students cannot understand and write at the some time. Also, the students
will find it difficult to follow his argument. Added to that, after the lecture, there
will be too many “pot-holes” to fill and this will make your students unhappy.
Therefore, the teacher should neither go too slow nor too fast.

The Use of Appropriate Language

Your student’s language facility and level of understanding should be taken into
serious consideration in a lecture. This is particularly related to the language which
the teacher uses in his lecture. The language used should be familiar to your
students so that their understanding of what is delivered is facilitated. You should
use simple language, judiciously use planned repetition to emphasise the major
issues raised in the lecture.

Dictating
This is the most controversial issue in the use of the lecture method. Many
educationalist do not encourage it because they regard it as a bad strategy for
delivering. They feel that what you dictate to them is all that there is to the topic
and will not make any effort to read any further about the topic.

At the secondary school level, as the teacher decides to use the lecture method, he
may sometimes take to dictating only some aspects of his lecture. The teacher
should resort to dictating if he feels that a portion of the lecture can hardly be
located in any of the books which may be available to students. If you ever dictate
to you students, make sure that you make room for discussion, explanation,
comments and analysis to enable the students understand what they write down.

Conclusion
A good ending of a lecture is as good as a good beginning. In the conclusion, the
main points, issues and arguments raised in the lecture are summarized. The
summary helps the students to get an overview of what has gone on before.

The summary should be done in such a way that it provides riders for further
research rather than sealing the delivery. This is another area where there is
considerable controversy. It is thought that the conclusion should be made by the
students and not the teacher. This could be given by the teacher as an assignment.
It is believed that if the students are aware that conclusions will be made by the
38 CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education
THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 1

teacher they may not pay particular attention nor write down note during the
presentation.

I hope this session has been an interesting one. Let us try our hands on these
exercises.

Self – Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.1
1. What is meant by the lecture method?
2. Identify any one form of the lecture method.
3. State two ways by which we can achieve a good delivery of a lecture.

CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 39

 UNIT 2
SESSION 1 THE LECTURE METHOD

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

40 CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
OFTEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 2

SESSION 2: STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE

LECTURE METHOD.

My dear student you are most welcome to session 2: this session will
very brief and quite interesting. In this session, we shall be looking at
only two major issues. They are the strengths and limitation of
limitation of the lecture method of teaching social studies. In the words, w shall be
discussing the good and bad aspects of the lecture method of teaching social
studies.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to;
a) State two advantages associated with the lecture method of teaching social
studies.
b) Explain one limitation that beset the use of the lecture method in teaching
social studies.

Now read on …

2.1 Strengths of the Lecture Methods

Hello student, what exactly do we mean by; “strengths of the lecture method?”
Simply, we are looking at the good aspects, advantages, merits or positive impact
associated with the lecture method. By implication, this aspect of our discussion
shall focus on the good aspects or merits those result from the use of the lecture
method in teaching social studies.

The first important advantages that go with the lecture method is that, it is
economical in the sense that it does not need any apparatus nor laboratory. Again
large number of students can be taught by one teacher at the same time.

In most cases where, the number of students is too large, the teachers resort to the
use of public address systems. With the help of such electronic facilities, the
teacher is able to reach out to many students within a stipulated period of time.
This there fore makes the use of this method very economical in terms of time.

CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 41

 UNIT 2 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE
SESSION 2 LECTURE METHOD

The lecture method is also advantageous in the sense that it trains students to be
good listeners. As we indicated earlier on, this is the method in which the students
play a relatively dormant role by being passive listeners.

Closely associated with the point we have just discussed is the additional advantage
of training students in taking notes rapidly. Under the strict lecture method of
instruction, students are expected to prepare their own notes. The teacher under this
method, only gives out relevant information in respect of the lesson being taught.
It is the duty of the student to take note on the salient issue discussed.

Do you know something?, Certainly no. The lecturer method of teaching social
studies is very good because it provides information on themes which are not
available or easily accessible to the students. Let us look at this theme,
“Nationalism” it may be very difficult for the student to find useful information on
this theme from the books available to him. However, thorough the lecture the
teacher will furnish him with accurate information on every aspect of this theme.
In addition to all that we have discussed, another strong point in favour method of
teaching social studies is that, it is very effectince in providing factual information
to students. In the lecture, it is convenient to relate the life stories of some great
investigators, politicians, economist, thinkers and philosophers. The delivery of
lessons which are historical in nature, naturally call for the presentation of some
factual information. Under such circumstances, the lecture method is most ideal for
the delivery of the lesson.

A good lecture provides the student with an insight into the art of writing essays.
The student listens to the salient issues mentioned in the lecture. After this, the
student is expected to read additional information on the issues discussed and
compose his own ideas in the form of lecture notes. This practice builds in him the
art of essay writing.

Can you think of any other advantage that we can associate with the lecture
method? Yes, the lecture stimulates the student, lingers long in his though and
motivates him to become good water. Since the students listen with keen interest,
they pick up fine phrases, words and statements made by the teacher in the course
of the lecture. Some of the students may even attempt to using some of these
phrases or words in their own way. The point I want us to establish here is that, the
students under a lecture method of instruction are given the opportunity to listen to
42 CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education
THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
OFTEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 2

the proper and correct construction of sentences phrases and expressions. This
develops in them the skills of oratory. Let me ask you this simple question, what is
“oratory”. It is the process or activity of giving skillful and effective speeches in
public. Such speeches are often sugar—coated and heart warning. and heart
warning.

I think we have exhausted the advantages that are associated with lecture method in
teaching social studies. What I want you to do now is to read from other books and
come with other advantages that we have not been able to discuss in this session.
Let us now turn our attention to the disadvantages of using the lecture method in
teaching social studies.

2.2 Limitations/ Disadvantages.

As the saying goes, every good drug has its side effects. In much the same way,
the lecture method of teaching social studies has its limitations and disadvantages.
Let us look at these limitations one after the ether.

In the first place, the lecture method is net suitable for students who are low on the
academic ladder, more especially, for most students below the secondary school
level.

By implication, it is not suitable for student at the junior secondary schools and
primary schools. For these students, lectures will be boring and this may lead to
inattentiveness. The students may find it difficult to listen and take nets at the same
time.

The second limitation of this method of teaching social studies is that it dose not
take individual difference into consideration. It will be recalled that when we were
looking at the principle s of teaching we always consider the individual differences
of their students when teaching. For example, in a social studies class, there could
be slow learners, average learners or achievers and the sharp learners. The lecture
method is such that it does not take these individual differences into consideration.

In the lecture method since questions are rarely used, on- the – spot feedback is
usually very scanty and unreachable. A teacher may cover a wide content area
without realizing that little non learning takes place. Young students do not,
therefore, learn much from the lecture and even retain very little of what they
learn.
CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 43
 UNIT 2 STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE
SESSION 2 LECTURE METHOD

Another disadvantage of the lecture method is that, the interaction between the
teacher and his students is lopsided. Teacher activity overshadows that of students
with the result that the students play a comparatively passive role. It is against this
background that this method of instruction is often described as teacher – centred.

Again, the lecture method in most instances encourages rot learning. What them is
rote learning? It is the practice of “choosing” the content that has been taught by a
teacher and “pouring” it out in times of exams. The term “showing” refers to the
practice of commuting to memory, what has been taught by the teacher. Most
educationists from on this practices because it does not encourage independent
thinking and understanding.

In addition, since much of the talking is done by the teacher, the students are not
given ample opportunity to develop his oral communications skills. The students
only listen to the oral delivery of the teacher. With methods which give students
ample opportunity to talk or contribute to class discussions, it equally fives them an
opportunity to develop their oral communication skills. We lecture method does
not give them those opportunities.

In the lecture method, the teacher, to a great extent, spoon feeds the student and
dose not allows him to develop his method, powers of reasoning. By the nature of
this method the teacher does the thinking while the students plays the second fiddle
by learning the process of the thinking.

My dear student, having looked at the two sides of using the lecture method for
social studies instruction. It is hoped that you will be able to make a valid judgment
in respect of its usefulness. Now, try your hands on these few questions.

Self – Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.2
1. State two advantages of the lecture method of teaching social
studies.
2. Explain on disadvantage of this method.

44 CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
SESSION 3
OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

SESSION 3: THE DISCUSSION METHOD

Hello student, let us look at another method of teaching social
studies, that is, the discussion method. Discussion is the key
ingredient in cooperative learning. Its importance lies in the fact
that it represents a type of intellectual teamwork, resting on the principle that the
pooled knowledge, ideas and feelings of several persons have a greater merit than
those of a single individual. Without discussion a student may never grasp the fact,
for example, that there are multiple points of view and opinions on a problem, not
just his or her own. Furthermore, this student may never have the opportunity to
practice the most fundamental work at popular sovereignty, that is, talking with
other about common problems and reaching a decision about what to do.

In this session, we shall be looking at the nature of the discussion technique of

teaching social studies. Again, we shall discuss the purposes of the discussion
technique. In addition, we shall identify and discuss the essential parts of the
discussion. The last issue examines the role of the teacher under the discussion
method of instruction.

Objectives
By the end of this session, the student should be able to;
a) State one purpose of the discussion method
b) Identify any one essential part of class discussion.
c) Explain one way of organizing class discussion.
d) Describe at least one role of the social studies teacher in class discussion.

Now read on …

3.1 Nature of Discussion Method:

The discussion method of teaching social studies is a form of classroom interaction
in which the teacher raises a number of pertinent issues for the students to wrestles
with. This implies that the teacher has taken into consideration the fact that the
students will be able to cope with the issues. For an effective discussion to take
place, the assumption is that the students have assimilated date from experiences
gained on a field trip, through experience, from a film and from a reading
assignment.

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 UNIT 2
SESSION 3 THE DISCUSSION METHOD

Discussion may be formal or informal. Formal discussion is one which proceeds in

a predetermined manner and according to set procedures. An informal discussion
involves the free verbal interchange of the participants without being governed by
predetermined set rules. There are five essential parts or constituents of discussion.

They are;
1. The leader – teacher.
2. The group – the students.
3. The problem or the topic.
4. The content – body of knowledge.
5. Evaluation – change in ideas, attitudes, ect.
6.
3.2 Purposes of Discussion:
What do you think are the purposes of discussion? Let us look at a few of them.
Discussion may be used for the following purposes.
1. For planning new work in the classroom.
2. For making decision concerning future
3. For making decision concerning future classroom work.
4. for obtaining and gaining respect for various points of view.
5. For inspiring interest.
6. For classifying ideas.
7. For evaluating progress (Aggarwal,1996)

Discussion does not take place only between the class and the teacher; it takes place
between and among student. In class discussion there are students who are not
courageous enough to stand up and contribute to the discussion. This may be due
to stage fright, inability to articulate, shyness, generally low achievement and
particularly lack of knowledge on the issue under discussion. Teachers are
therefore expected to provide the needed encouragement and motivation for the
students so that they could participate in the discussion.

However, by and large in the class discussions, fever number of student benefit
than in group discussion.

3.3: Organization of Discussion

The following are the main techniques of organizing discussion in a social studies
class.

46 CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
SESSION 3
OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

1. Introducing a topic or a problem by the teacher by giving points or

explanation to serve as the basis of discussion.
2. The teacher when using this method, should call upon a student to give
facts, describe a scene or situation, explain an incident, event or happening
for getting the discussion started.
3. Prepare an outline of points co-operatively with a few of you students
which may become the starting point for discussion.
4. Ask your students to describe their own experiences connected with the
subject, topic or problem and making them points for discussion.
5. The teacher presents detailed papers for discussion. What exactly do we
mean by ‘papers’ they contain written ideas on a particular issue, prepared
by the teacher or obtained from the library.
6. In much the same way, the students can equally be tasked to prepare
detailed papers for classroom discussion.
7. The last way of organizing dissuasion and projects to the class and
discussing them simultaneously.

What we have discussed so for are the possible ways of organizing discussion in
the classroom. You are, therefore, expected to follow these principles and
procedures anytime you intend using the discussion method for social studies
lessons. If these procedures are followed, the discussion will enhance a cross
fertilization of ideas among the students. This will in turn satisfy the principle of
active student participation in the delivery of the lesson. Now, let us look at the
role teachers are expected to play when using the discussion method of instruction
in social studies.

3.4: The Role of the Teacher in a Discussion Class

On e of the most important roles which is very crucial and a discussion session is
that the teacher should be very skillful at using questions. The question must not
be of the leading types which are not be of the leading type which are not of any
use in effective learning but are rather suitable for propaganda. Instead he must use
extensively the probing question which is very effective in provoking thought. For
instance instead of asking, whey is drug addiction dangerous? It should be what are
the effects of drug abuse? In addition the teacher must be good at varying the
questions he uses in a discussion. He must know when to use fact and questions
which demand exposition.

CoDEUCC /Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 47

 UNIT 2
SESSION 3 THE DISCUSSION METHOD

The teacher must be alert in recognizing questions which are asked by students to
side track the discussion and those questions which are not relevant. After that
recognition, the teacher must be equal to the task of handling those questions. It
you make students to understand through anger that a particular student is in to
throw the discussion off courses, the anger may stifle the purpose of the discussion.
You must therefore use tact to make the student appreciate the fact that you have
not seen the question as either not relevant or deliberately used t derail the process
of the discussion.

In addition, if the discussion is between the class and the teacher he should not
attempt to answer all questions. He should redirect most of the questions students
ask to other students to answer. This has two advantages. It ensures an increased
participation of the students.
Again, if you don’t know an answer to a particular question, this practice can bail
you out. Your students might not be aware that you don’t know the answer if you
make it the practice of redirecting questions for them to answer. If the problem is
not reserved through this strategy, you can then give it out as an assignment for the
class.
Under these methods, you are also expected to cultivate the habit of generally first
accepting student’s responses whether he thinks they are wrong or whatever form
they may take. If there are errors or misconceptions you should allow the students
or ethers to correct them upon reflection. If the students are not able to contribute
to the discussion because they fail to resolve the problem, you can precede the
students with cues which will ensure a continuation of the discussion process.

Hello student, it hope this session has been an interesting one. We started this
session by looking at the nature of the discussion method. We went further to
discuss the purposes of discussion as well as techniques of organizing it. Finally,
we examined the role of the teacher in the discussion method of instruction. Stay
well and have a restful day.

Self – Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.3
1. State one propose of the discussion method.
2. Identify any of the essential parts of class discussion.
3. Explain any one way of organizing class discussion.
4. Describe one role of the social studies teacher in class discussion.

48 CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION UNIT 2
METHODS OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 4

SESSION 4: MERITS AND LIMITATIONS OF DISCUSSION

Hello students, it will be recalled that in session 2 the discussed the
strengths and limitations of the lecture method of teaching social
studies. Similarly, in this session we shall be looking at the merits
and limitations of discussion. It is only when you are able to look at the 2 sides of
a coin that you can make well informed conclusion about its worth. As a result, we
shall take our time and carefully examine the good and bad aspects of discussion as
a method of social studies instruction.

The concept, exposition is another technique of teaching social students. We shall

discuss its meaning and the guideline for using it to teach.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to;

1. Explain two merits of the discussion method.

2. State at least two limitations of the discussion method of social studies
instructions.
3. Explain the meaning of exposition.
4. Identify at least two guidelines for the use of exposition to teach social
studies.

Now read on …………………………..

4.1Merits Of Discussion Method

Let us look at the good aspects of the discussion method of teaching social studies.
In the first place, discussion tends to make the students more tolerant as they
become aware of different views which they may have to accommodate. In the
discussion, each student tries as much as possible to exercise patience in order to
listen to the views of his or her colleague. The discussion is regulated by the
teacher such that each student is given the chance to air his or her views at a time
and in turns. No matter how unpleasant the views of any student might be, the
other students are expected to accommodate them or offer alternative views.

The other good aspect of the discussion method is that it develops team spirit. It
helps to develop group feeling which welds students together. The group feeling
emanates from the mutual understanding the discussants have for each other.

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MERITS AND LIMITATIONS OF DISCUSSION SESSION 4

Another note-worthy advantage is that, discussion helps the teacher to discover

talented students who have the potential for becoming good leaders. As the
students exchange ideas, the teacher is able to identify those with “big brains” and
broader perspectives. An essential quality of a good leader is tolerance, and since
we have already established the point that discussion develops tolerance in
students, then it become easy o identity those who are capable of becoming good
leaders.

Can you think of any other advantage? Let us look at this one, too. Don’t you think
discussion involves the process essential to a democratic system? It is rightly so. A
well organized class discussion should look like that of parliamentary debates. In
this case the teacher plays the role of the speaker of parliament. In the process,
democratic culture and principles are developed in the students.

In addition to all that we have said, in view of the fact that group discussion gets a
high level of student participation and involvement, it tends to warm up the class.
In it, both the shy and low achievers feel very comfortable to contribute. Since the
teacher regulates the discussion, any student can be called upon to contribute to an
issue under discussion.

Have you ever heard of this popular saying, “two heads are better one” what does it
mean? The explanation is that when individuals in a group pool their ideas, they
are much more likely to correct deficiencies in evidence and reasoning than they
could on their own. The fact here is that, the evidence that might be held by an
individual on issue could be narrow or shallow, but when it involves a group, it
would be subjected to critical and objective analysis. The evidence and reasoning
would be refined several times by the group.

I don’t think we have exhausted all the advantages. Let us add one more before
proceeding to look at the limitations. That is, group discussion tends to make the
leader and participants progressively less dependent upon the teacher. The students
become confident in identifying issues, planning and discussing them and effecting
their own decision.

4.2Limitation/ Disadvantages of Discussion

Let us now look at the “urgly face’ of the discussion method of teaching social
studies. The first point is that, this method is not suitable for all topics. For
example topics that involve the delivery of factual or technical information which
students lack adequate knowledge. Under such conditions, the discussion method
50 CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education
THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION UNIT 2
METHODS OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 4

may net be suitable. It will be recalled at the beginning. Of this unit we did say
that for any discussion to be fruitful, the students should have some background
knowledge on the issue to be discussed either through reading experience, radio
news, T.V. and so on. By implication topics which are completely strange or new
to students will not be suitable for discussion. The lecture method will rather be
more useful.

Again, even though classroom discussion is supposed to involve all students, it is

likely to be dominated by a few of them. This often happens when these few
students are more informed on the issue being discussed than their colleagues. The
rest of the students become passive listeners or dormant participants of the
discussion.

Another common disadvantage associated with the discussion method is that, the
tendency to go off the track is very high. The apparent permissive nature of
discussion may make students exceed their bounds and become irresponsible in
their utterances.

In addition, classroom discussion should be consistent with the instructional

objectives of the lesson or topic. Put differently, discussion should aim at
achieving the set instructional objective of the lesson or topic. However, group
agreement or consensus does not necessarily ensure the accomplishment of such
objectives.

Furthermore, discussion may involve unnecessary arguments. It can be very

discursive lacking precise objectives. In other words, even when carefully
organised class discussion is unpredictable in its outcome.

The discussion method is extremely difficult to use well particularly when the
leader is not able to maintain an open mind. This may lead to unpleasant feelings
and create emotional tensions.

We have looked at six major disadvantages of the social studies. You are expected
to read from other books and come out with additional limitation we have not been
able to discuss in this session.

4.3Meaning of Exposition
Exposition is not only a method, but a technique of teaching social studies. To
expose means to open, to exhibit, to display, to disclose to uncover and to bring to
CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 51
 UNIT 2
MERITS AND LIMITATIONS OF DISCUSSION SESSION 4

light. Exposition means an act of explaining and making clear the subject matter.
The objective of exposition is to enable the students to grasp the meaning of the
subject matter (content) presented to them in an intelligible manner. Effective
teaching of social studies is based on clear exposition. Hurried exposition results in
faulty assimilation of knowledge.

The following guidelines may be kept in view when using this technique to teach
social studies:
1. Students way of looking at things should be considered in
exposition.
2. Subject matter to be exposed should be arranged logically
as well as psychologically.
3. The teacher should have proper pauses in his exposition.
4. The rate of exposition should be slow when the class is
backward.
5. Repetition should be judiciously done so that the class may
not Feel boredom.
6. Proper use of the blackboard should be made.
7. Actual object, models, diagrams, sketches, etc, should be
used in exposition.
8. Students should be encourage to ask question.
9. Verbal illustration such as comparison, examples, etc
should be used.
10. The aim of the lesson should be kept in vies.

Hello, student, as usual we have come to the end of this hectic

session. In this session, we have looked at the men’ts and
demerits of the discussion method of teaching social studies.
We have also discussed the meaning of the concept; “exposition” as well as the
guidelines pertaining to its use. Indeed, you deserve congratulations on coming
this far. You have done extremely well. Now, try your hands on these
exercises and have a nice day.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.4
1. Explain two advantages of the discussion method.
2. State two disadvantages of the discussion method.
3. Explain the concept; exposition”.
4. Identify two guidelines for the use of the exposition technique.
52 CoDEUCC/Bachelor Degree in Basic Education
THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS OF UNIT 2
SESSION 5
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

SESSION 5: TEAM TEACHING IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Hello, student, we are going to look at yet another interesting
method of teaching social studies, that is, the team teaching method.
It be recalled in module 1, we did say that the content of social
studies is made up of elements from geography, history, economics, sociology,
anthropology and so on. It is most likely that one teacher may not be well
grounded in all these elements, yet he is expected to teach them. What then must
we do under the circumstance? The only way out is through team teaching.

Consequently in this session, we shall define the concept, team teaching. We shall
discuss the objective and principles of team teaching. Just as we did in the case of
the lecture and discussion methods of teaching, we shall equally examine the
advantages and limitations of teaching the subject. You are gradually becoming a
graduate professional teacher in social studies because of the exposure given you
on the broad array of teaching methods for the subject. Congratulations in advance.
Now, let us go back to the main business of the day.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to;
a) Explain the meaning of team teaching.
b) State at least objective of team teaching.
c) Identify at least two principles of team teaching.
d) state at least teaching
e) Explain at least one limitation of team teaching.

Now read on …………………………..

1.1Definition and Meaning of Team Teaching

Team teaching is an organizational structure to improve teaching process in the
classroom. It is a strategy in school organinsation in which two or more teachers
teach a group of students. The group benefits from the expertise of different
teachers, each specialized in one or the other aspect.

Let us look at some other important definitions of team teaching. These definitions
will help throw more light on its various aspects.

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 UNIT 2
SESSION 5
TEAM TEACHING IN SOCIAL STUDIES
Team teaching involves bringing together a number of the joint responsibility of
the teachers of these classes who now constitute a team. It is an instructional
situation where two or more teachers possessing complimentary teaching skill,
cooperatively plan and implement the instruction for a single group of students
using flexible scheduling and grouping techniques to meet the particular
instructions.

Another school of thought defines team teaching as a type of instructional

organization involving teaching personnel and the students assigned to them, in
which two or more teachers are given responsibilities working together for all or a
significant part of the instruction of the same group of students.

From these definitions given, what are the common issues you have identified in
them? The must necessarily involve two or more teachers. The second issue is that
it involves the same group or class. Again, it is a sort of pealing of expertise and
resources such as experience, interest, knowledge and skills. Lastly, it calls for
team spirit in teaching. We can therefore describe these common issues which run
through the various definition as the characteristics of team teaching.

1.2 Objectives
Team Teaching in Social Studies.
Team teaching in social studies aims at the realisetion of the following objectives.
1. To bring about in instruction. This suggest that team teaching is an
innovation and a slight shift from the other traditional methods of teaching
aimed at improving instruction in specific topics or coursed.
2. To make the best use of expertise and talents of teachers. Most teachers
have their specific areas of specialsiation or topics, subjects or courses in
which they are gifted. If a portion of a unit of instruction falls within the
special area of a particular teacher, it will be better to allow that teacher
handle only that aspect of the unit.
3. To develop the feeling of cooperation and group work among teachers. As
already discussed, this method involves team spirit in teaching. This in turn
enhance cohesion and a unified sense of purpose among the social studies
teachers.
4. To make the best use of the resource of the school. Different topics, lessons
or subjects call for different sets of teaching learning resources. Since team
teaching implies assigning different aspect of a unit to other teachers, the
resources of the school are often fully utilized.
5. To expand the scope of teaching important topics to students in the most
effective manner. Since members of the team are experts in their respective
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THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS OF UNIT 2
SESSION 5
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

areas, they will have a proper and effective way of communicating salient
issues of the topics to the students.

My dear student, these are the main objectives for organizing team teaching in
social studies. Let us now look at the principles of team teaching.

5.3 Principles of Team Teaching.

The following are the important principles of team teaching.
1. Allocation of duties to teachers on the basis of their interests, qualifications,
and personality characteristics.
2. Having varying size of the group according to the purpose of the team
teaching.
3. Allotment of time according to the importance of the subject.
4. Providing appropriate learning environment by making arrangement of
laboratory, library, workshops and so on.
5. Providing appropriate behaviour to each learner within the group.
6. Exercising constructive supervision on the activities of the group.
7. Keeping the level of team teaching appropriate to the level of the learners.

5.4: Advantages of Team Teaching:

Let us now look at the good aspect of team teaching.
1. Team teaching stimulates thought and discussion among teachers who are
jointly responsible for a group of students.
2. A strong sense of involvement and responsibility develops among the
students.
3. Team teaching gives adequate opportunities to the students for free
expression. This can be likened to that of the discussion technique where,
in principle, every student is expected to talk.
4. Team teaching affords opportunities to the students to develop human
relations essential for social adjustment.
5. Teachers are motivated to work hard for the development of their
professional proficiency.
6. Students get the opportunity to be benefited by the special knowledge of
teachers constituting the team.
7. Team teaching makes proper use of the staff, equipment and the school
building.
8. Lessons can be ‘tailored’ to fit the needs of the students.

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SESSION 5
TEAM TEACHING IN SOCIAL STUDIES
9. Team teaching helps in the maintenance of discipline as it makes the best
use of the energy and time of students.

10. Team teaching helps to evaluate the work of one another and provides
opportunities for improving their own teaching.

It appears be have exhausted the advantages associated with the team

teaching method of instruction in social studies. Let us now turn our
attention to the disadvantages or limitations of this method.

5.5. Disadvantages and Limitations of Team Teaching:

1. Traditional conservative attitude of the teachers: Some teachers will always
want to claim full ownership of their subject areas and may not feel
comfortable sharing the teaching of it with anybody.
2. Lack of instructional facilities: As we indicated earlier on, team teaching
requires a lot of most public schools in Ghana suffer from an acute shortage
there facilities. Can you identify some of these facilities?
3. Lack of Accommodation: Closely related to the issue of instructional
facilities is the problem of accommodation for both students and teachers.
In some cases, team teaching will require putting the students into groups
which are in turn assigned classrooms. Again, where practical work is
involved, we still need spacious accommodation for that purpose.
4. High Cost: the cost of organizing team teaching is not so easy to manage or
even afford. By cost we are simply referring to the expenditure associated
with securing the human and material resources for team teaching. Term
teaching does not necessarily involve only those within the confines of a
particular school, but inviting subject specialist from far away involves
some form of coast to the school. The needed teaching or material resource
could also be very costly.
5. Lack of tea spirit: even though team teaching is supposed to promote team
spirit among teachers, in some cases the direct opposite happens. There are
instances where teachers chastise each other before the very students they
are supposed to be teaching. This defeats the team spirit purpose of the
scheme.

Hello, student, so soon we have come to the end of this session.

We have explained the meaning of team teaching as well as its
objectives. In this session, we have also discussed the
principles of team teaching. Lastly, we looked at the advantages and limitations of
this method of teaching social studies. As usual, you deserve my hearty
56 CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education
THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS OF UNIT 2
SESSION 5
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

congratulation on your determination to become a graduate professional teacher in

social studies. Please, remain focused and have a restful day. You are the source
of our pride. Bye for now.
Self – Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.5
1. What is meant by the concept, “team teaching”
2. State two objectives of team teaching.
3. Identify two principles of team teaching.
4. State one advantage of team teaching.
5. Explain one disadvantage of team teaching.

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 UNIT 2
SESSION 5
TEAM TEACHING IN SOCIAL STUDIES

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

58 CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 6

SESSION 6: ILLUSTRATION AND STORY TELLING

METHOD.
Dear student, you are welcome to the last session of this unit. In
this session, we shall be looking at two other techniques of
teaching social studies. They are: illustrations and the art of story
telling. We shall discuss the meaning, significance and types of
illustrations. As usual, we shall take a look at the merits or good aspects of
illustrations as a technique for teaching social studies. We shall also enumerate
certain factors that should guide our use of illustrations.

Story telling is another useful technique of delivering social studies lessons. We

shall be discussing the art of story telling and the various ways through which we
can develop the tills and techniques of using it. Probably you have been using this
technique already, however, this session will polish you up.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able t;
1) State at least one type of illustration
2) Explain at lest two merits of illustrations
3) State one guideline for the use of illustrations.
4) Explain at least two ways of developing the art of story telling.

Now read on …

6.1 Meaning and Significance of Illustrations:

I hope this is not your first time of coming into contact with this term, illustration.
How will you explain it? The term illustration implies the use of those aids which
make ideas clear to students and help them to acquire correct knowledge and
understanding. They throw more light on what has been taught in class. They help
in the clarifications of concepts, ideas, facts, principles and generalizations.

6.2 Types of Illustration

Illustrations are usually put under two main categories.
1. Concrete, Non- Verbal natural Or Objective Illustration:
Under this category, we include charts, demonstrations, diagrams, films,
garden, graphs, models, pictures, radio and television.

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 ILLUSTRATION AND STORY TELLING
UNIT 2
SESSION 6 METHOD

2. Verbal Illustrations
These include analogies, anecdotes, comparison, dramatization, similes and stories.
For example if l say elder Saaka Karim’s teeth are as whit as snow, and his shoe as
black as charcoal, such illustrations are termed similes. For your take home
assignment, find out and give examples of analogies and anecdotes. The relative
importance of the two types of illustrations depend upon (a) The nature of the topic.
(b) The stage of education. (c) The level of student’s development.

Now - verbal illustrations are more useful at the lower stages. Objects or their solid
models are also very valuable in the lower classes. Similar is the graphs and
sketches should be used freely in the higher classes. A higher level of intelligence
is required to understand verbal illustrations, such as analogies and similes.
Therefore, these should be used at higher stages of education. It may not always be
possible to bring actual objects or their representation in the class. Under such
situations, educational excursions may be planned. Verbal illustrations must
remain the most important means of arousing appropriate mental imaginary for
learning.

6.3 Merits of Illustrations.

The merits, good aspects or advantages associated with illustrations include the
following:
1. They help to provide clarity to the subject matter being taught.
2. They help to simplify explanation.
3. They make the teaching of social studies concrete and practical.
4. They create curiosity and interest among the students.
5. They help to strengthen the retaining and recollecting power of the
students.
6. Illustrations are helpful in developing the power of observation of the
students.
7. Illustration helps in the formation of good learning habits.
8. They are a ready means of capturing the attention of the students.

For now, let us make do with these illustrations in our social studies lessons.
Another point worth noting is that, illustrations of any sort must be consistent with
the objectives of the lesson.

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THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 6

Illustrations are good servants but bad masters. Their misuse or overuse is likely to
spoil the lesson in hand. They should not be regarded merely as a means of making
a lesson interesting. Their educative value should be the primary factor in their
use. It must be remembered that it is a wrong belief that a lesson cannot be made
effective without concrete illustrations. Gradually the students must be trained to
think in abstract terms.

6.4 Guidelines for the Use of Illustrations:

The following guidelines should be noted when using illustrations.
1. Interesting illustrations; illustrations should appeal to the students. It is
well- know that bright colour and simple design appeal to students.
2. Simple but comprehensive illustrations: Illustration should be so simple
that they can be easily comprehended by the students and should need little
comments and explanations as for as possible.
Illustrations like diagrams and tables can be worked out in the
presence of the students in the classroom itself while teaching.
3. Exact illustrations: They should be very accurate and exact. Defective
illustrations are likely to distort learning.
4. Relevant to the topic: illustration should be related to subject-matter in
hand. Illustrations should not be used for the sake of using illustrations as
essential instruments of teaching.
5. Subordinate to the topic: Illustrations should not be used in such a way as
the students remember only the illustrative material and not the subject-
matter.
6. Proper display of illustrations: Non-verbal illustrations should be
properly displayed so that entire class is able to see them clearly and easily.
They should be kept for a reasonable period before the students so that they
may observe them carefully.
7. Not too many illustration:
Too many illustration are likely to distract the attention of the
students from the real subject –matter. They should be used
rationally.
8. Collection of illustrative material:
Every skillful teacher should try to have his own collection of
illustrative material from different sources, ie, journals, magazines,
picture – post cards etc (Aggarval, 1996).

These are the principles which should guide your use of illustrations in social
studies lesson. It should be stressed that a wise selection, timely presentation and an
CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education 61
 ILLUSTRATION AND STORY TELLING
UNIT 2
SESSION 6 METHOD

intelligent use of illustrative material will be a very valuable asset of every social
studies teacher.

6.5 Story Telling

Story telling is one of the most important methods of teaching social studies. It is
an art which enables the teacher to come very close to the heart of the students and
thereby he attracts their attention. Some teachers are born story
tellers and they are very fortunate in this respect. This art of story telling aims at
presenting to the students, through the medium of speech, clear vivid, interesting,
ordered sequences of events, in such a way that their minds reconstruct these
happenings and they live in imagination through the experiences recounted either
as spectators or possibly as participants. Story telling enables the teacher to make
lessons lively and interesting to the students. Stories of great personalities,
reformers, writers saints, discovers and scientist must be told to the students. Story
telling helps in enhancing the interests of the students in the subject. It goes a long
way in stimulating the imagination of the students. Story telling can be relied upon
by the teacher as the best companions for helping in developing in his students
traits of character such as charity, piety and faithfulness.

The art of story telling can be cultivated or developed through the following ways:
1. Observing skilful narrators.
2. Studying the work of successful story writers.
3. Practicing story telling
4. Critically evaluating one’s own performance and bringing about necessary
changes.

In telling a story the teacher should be guided by the following factors.

1. Suitable stories for the age of the students should be selected. A story that
appeals and interests the seven-year pupils will not suit the pupils of four
years of age. Small pupils of 4 or 5 years are interested in stories of boys
and girls. The pupil of 7 or 8 years takes interest in hearing stories of magic
and wonder, stories of giants, adventure and romance. Students at the
secondary school stage take interest in stories of scientific discoveries.
2. The stories should be short and the plot easy.
3. The teacher must know the story well that he wants to narrate. If he stops in
the middle, it will detract charm from the story.
4. The language employed in telling a story should be very simple and easy.
62 CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education
THE LECTURE AND DISCUSSION METHODS UNIT 2
OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 6

5. A story should be told and not read. The story loses a great deal of its
interest for the children if it is read.
6. The teacher himself should like the story and take interest in story telling.
7. There should be plenty of action in the stories. Key sentences and phrases
should be repeated as the students enjoy the repetition. The sorties should
be loaded with activities and experiences familiar to the students.
8. Conversation, if any, in the story should be given indirect speech not direct.
9. The method of introducing and developing the story should be thought out
before hand.
10. The story should be told in a natural way and very clearly.
11. Humours make the story more interesting and should not be neglected.
12. To make the story more realistic, you may use pictures and draw diagrams
on the chalkbord.
13. The story should suggest and inspire the students to action.
14. The story must have some aim besides mere enjoyment.

You must keep in mind the aim while narrating a story. It will be equally nice if
the students know the aim of the story.

Dear student, we have again come to the end of this session. In it, we discussed the
concept, “illustration”. We discussed its their meaning and significance. Again, we
looked at the type of illustrations, its merits and the guidelines for their use. We
finally looked at story telling as a method of teaching social studies. We
enumerated the various ways through which a teacher can cultivate the art of story
telling and factors to consider when narrating a story to students. You must be
tired now. Please take a rest so that we could continue later. After your brief rest,
just try your hands on these exercises.

Self – Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.6

1. State one type of illustration you know.

2. Explain two advantages associated with the use of illustrations
in social studies lessons.
3. State one factor or point that will guide you when using
illustrations in a social studies class.
4. State two` ways by which you can develop the art of story telling.

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 ILLUSTRATION AND STORY TELLING
UNIT 2
SESSION 6 METHOD

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

64 CoDEUCC/ Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

 UNIT 3
QUESTIONING AND QUESTIONING SKILLS IN
SOCIAL STUDIES

UNIT 3: QUESTIONING AND QUESTIONING SKILLS

INSOCIAL STUDIES

Unit Outline
Session 1: Questioning of Concept of Questioning
Session 2: Techniques of Questioning
Session 3: Classification of Questioning
Session 4: The important of Questions in a social studies class
Session 5: When to Ask Questions in a Social studies class
Session 6: Students’ Assignment in social studies.

Hello Students, you are welcome to unit 3 of this programme.

Question plays an important role in the teaching and learning
process of social studies. In this unit therefore, we shall be looking
at various techniques of questioning. This unit shall also take us through the
classifications of questions. Further to this, we shall identify and discuss the
important roles questions plays in a social studies class. The last aspect of this unit
will focus on students
assignment in the social Studies class.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to;
a) explain the concept of Questioning
b) state and explain the various techniques of questioning
c) classify questions
d) identify and explain the important role questions play in social studies class.
e) state and explain the various stages at which questions may be asked in
class.
e) explain the nature and techniques of giving assignments to students

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 UNIT 3 QUESTIONING AND QUESTIONING SKILLS
IN SOCIAL STUDIES

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• difficult topics if any.
• issues that are not clear;

66 CoDEUCC /Bachelor Degree in Basic Education

QUESTIONING AND QUESTIONING SKILLS UNIT 3
IN SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 1

SESSION 1: THE CONCEPT OF QUESTIONING

You are welcome to session 1 of unit 3; we shall be discussing the

concept of questioning. That is, we shall attempt defining what a
question is. Again, we shall be looking at the types of questions that
are supposed to be used in a social studies lesson. Examples and illustrations of
each category will be given as we progress.

Objectives:
By the end of this session, you should be able to;
(a) define the concept;” questioning”
(b) state 2 classifications of questions
(c) explain 1 classification of questions

Now read on…

1.1Concept of Questioning:
My dear student, how will you define the concept ‘question’? At least in every
lesson, you pose questions to your students either at the beginning, during or after
the lession. How will describe or define that process?
Do you know that I am also a teacher? Certainly yes. On my part, I will simply
define a question as any statement that requires an answer. As rightly stated by
Tamakole et al (1996), people from all walks of life ask questions. Both adults and
young children ask questions. Teachers as well as students ask questions. Judges as
well as Lawyers scientists as well as researchers, all ask questions. Such questions
may be simple or difficult. Some of these questions are answered quite easily,
while others require an investigation to be able to respond to the question.
However, there are certain questions which can never be answered.Can you give
examples of such questions? Having looked at the nature of questions, let us now
discuss the categories into which questions may be put.

1.2Classifications of Questions:
The questions you pose in class can be classified into several ways. For the purpose
of this course, we shall consider only seven of such classifications. They are; low
order questions, higher order questions, convergent questions, probing questions,
divergent questions and evaluative or judgmental questions. Let us now take a close
look at what each of them stands for.
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 UNIT 3
SESSION 1 THE CONCEPT OF QUESTIONING

Low Order questions:

These are questions which demand simple recall or description. For example if we
pose this simple question; ‘In which year did Ghana attain her political
independence”? To answer this question, you just need to recall the correct year
(1957). What we want to say here is that low order questions often star with words
like’ what,’ ‘which,’ where ‘and ‘when. Let us give more examples of low order
question.
1. What is the GDP of Ghana?
2. Which part of the world do we have the richest gold mine?
3. When did the industrial revolution begin?
4. When were you when the minister of education came to campus?
These questions can be used in the same way to revise or summarize the main
points of a lesson during the evaluation or conclusion stage.

Higher Order Questions:

These are questions which demand some form of critical thinking before an answer
could be provided. They demand logical thinking and mostly used to enable
students to:

(a) make inferences,

(b) draw sound conclusions,
(c) evaluation an argument,
(d) assign reasons,
(e) give explanations; and,
(f) foster imagination and creativity,

Higher order question order questions often questions often begin with words such
as how and why.
They are judgmental. Now, just look at these examples
1. How is the national income of the capitalist country computed?
2. Why did Ghana opt for the HIPC initiative?
3. How can a country break from the vicious circles of poverty?
Having known what low order and high order questions are, I will expect you to
give additional examples of each of them.

Convergent Questions:
These are questions whose answers result in conensus.convergent questions are so
named because the level of thinking involves synthesizing ideas acquire from all

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the other levels of thinking. These ideas eventually converge to project an identical
messages, idea, meaning or interruption.

Probing Questions:
These are designed to obtained more information about a particular issue, even or
person. They are also meant for getting a student to state a point clearly. Again,
they are meant to make a student realize the inadequacy of his answer or stand.
Additionally, probing questions help to recognize his or her facts.
Usually such questions are asked in series and are directed to either a particular
student or even the whole class depending on the situation.
Let us look at these few examples.
1. Do you know that some communities still practice female genital circumcision?
2. What do think are the motives behind those practices
3. Are these motives reasonable and genuine?
4.What do you think could be the side effects of such practices?
These are the examples of probing questions. The response or answer provided to
any of these questions should form the basis for the next question. That is, the next
question is curved out of the answer given to the first question. I hope you will be
able to pose similar probing questions to your students.

Divergent Question:
As the name suggest, these are questions which lead to the expression of divergent
opinions. Such questions have no definite or clear- cut answers. They are used to
tap the views of students on issues, problems events. Again, it could be noted that
application, analysis and synthesis levels are demonstrated through divergent
thinking.

Evaluative or Judgmental Questions:

As rightly stated by Tamakloe et al (1996), this category of questions call upon
students to appraise discriminate between alternatives. It requires the students to
examine or make assessments in order to arrive at a conclusion. Evaluative
questions may also lead to generalizations. For example; “Assess the view that the

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HIPEC initiative will create more economic problems than solutions” Give us your
example of an evaluative question.
Creative Questions:
These are questions which demand imagination or original ideas. Just like
evaluative questions, creative questions are categorized under higher order level of
thinking. An example is “What would you do if you got lost is a dense forest?”
Dear, student, we have virtually come to the end of this session. At least, under this
session, we have discussed the concept of questioning as well as the various
classifications of questioning. We have looked at 7 classifications of questioning.
They are low order questions, high order questions, convergent questions, probing
questions divergent questions, evaluative questions and creative questions.
The issue that I will like to stress here is that, in your social studies lessons, we
shall expect you to vary these questions, don’t give undue emphasis on only one or
just a few of them. Most teachers over use the low order questions. This is
unacceptable; the others should equally be used. Thank you for actively
participating in this secessions, have a restful day.

Self – Assessment Questions

Exercise 3.1
1. How will you define the concept of,” questioning”?
2. State 2 classifications of questions
3. Explain one classification of question

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SESSION 2: TECHNIQUES OF QUESTIONING

The art of questioning is the most potent weapon in the educational

armoury of the teacher (Aggarwal, 1996). Although they are
required in classroom teaching and learning, they could be misused or overused
(Tamakloe el al, 1996). There is therefore the need for us to learn the techniques of
questioning so that we don’t overused or misused them in our social studies
lessons. In this session therefore, we shall focus on the skills of questioning in a
typical social studies class. Again, in this session we shall have a look at the
characteristics of good questions.

Objectives:
By the end of this session, you should be able to;
(a) state two techniques of questioning.
(b) explain one technique of questioning
(c) state any two characteristics of a good question.

Now read on…

2.1 Techniques of Questioning

Educational researchers have identified 5 major techniques of questioning during
instructional sessions.
They are;
1. question first
2. pause for a moment to allow time for students to think about the answer
3. call a student by name to answer the question
4. listen to the answers
5. comment on or evaluate the answers.

Let us now have a detailed discussion on each of these techniques of questioning.

Question First: Good questioning procedure requires that the questioning is posed
first by directing it to the whole class before anything else is done in the process.
This first step will direct every student’s attention to the question. In addition,
questions may be adjusted to suit particular students in the classroom. For example,
easy questions may be pose to slow learning or nervous students in mind. Again
more difficult questions can be framed with highly able students in mind. Avoid
learning questions since answers to such questions are quite obvious. Those
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questions do not help students to reason. Furthermore, questions should be repeated

except for purpose of emphasis. The fact is that your students may not pay attention
to the question at the first instance if you are in the habit of repeating your
questions. Also questions should be asked in friendly natural manner instead of
creating an atmosphere of treat, aggression and punishment. In this sense, your tone
and gestures should be friendly.

Pausing for a while: You need to pause briefly after posing your question to the
students. This will allow your students some moments to ponder over the question
for an answer. This technique has an added psychological advantage in the sense
that it builds a sense confidence in the students and helps them to answer the
question within a specific time limit. Pausing for an answer however depends on
difficulty level of the question. It may also depend on the individual students since
some of them may require more to than others.

Calling students to Answer Questions: Please take this instruction quite seriously.
Shows a sign of recognition given to individual students. This further implies
respect for individual differences. Again, it has an indirect advantage of instilling
Discipline in the students. Also make sure that your questions are randomly and
evenly distributed such that everybody is given a faire chance of being called to
answer a question. Don’t ever force and your students to answer a question. Pass a
question on if you realize that a particular student cannot answer it. Answering
your should not be regarded as a punishment. It should rather be seen as a lively
class discussion in which your students contribute answers to the best of their
abilities. It is against our professional ethics to rebuke any student for his or her
inability to respond correctly to your questions. It becomes inhuman, callous and
unprofessional to give a knock on the head of any of your students for not giving
you the correct answer to your question.

Instead, you are encouraged to use praise code to motivate any students who
attempts answering your question. All that we are saying is that, the questioning or
instructional session should be devoid of undue tension, treats and intimidations.

Listening to answers
Be alert to the answers given by students to your questions. Where students speak
softly, they should be encouraged to speak aloud. As much as possible discourage
chorus answers except in very rare situations where you have good reasons for
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following such answers. Chorus answers give a false impression that students have
a good knowledge of answers provided.

Furthermore, student’s answers to questions may take other dimensions. They may
be correct, partly correct or incorrect. Some students may not even respond at all.
Again, one in while situation may arise in which not a single students will show
willingness to answer a question put to the class. Can you guess what this means?
The most reasonable implication could be that your question was not properly
framed, or that it was not clear, or more still, difficult. Under this circumstance, all
that you need to do is to reward or reduce the difficulty of level of the question.
When we eventually come round to supervise your teaching we except to see a
demonstration of all this skills. Listening to students means understanding the ideas
and feelings being expressed by particular students. Listening can be done through
eye to eye contact with students or the teacher assuming a body posture and a
facial expression that are suggestive of alertness(Tamakole et al1996)

Commenting on the answers:

Any form of assessment, it or oral or written, requires some form of feedback to the
students. What we are saying is that, as a teacher you are expected to react to
responses given to your questions. You are expected to indicate whether the answer
given is right or wrong. As we discussed earlier, be frank and diplomatic in your
reactions to wrong answers. Another way by which you can react to students
answer is by using verbal or non verbal gestures. Point out the error in an answer
given by students without offending him or her. You could also encourage the
student to try another time. The point we are stressing here is that, never make any
insulting remarks to student’s responses to oral or written questions. Such remarks
discourage students from learning and this eventually weakens the effectiveness of
your teaching. As a matter of necessity, you should adopt a positive attitude in
reacting to the answers given by your students.
Another important issue worthy of consideration is that, you must always
encourage your students to provide complete answers to questions. Most of the
time, students give incomplete answers to questions. In your reaction to such
answers, try encouraging them to complete the answers.

My dear student, try as much as possible to practice these five questioning skills
during any of your instructional sessions in social studies. The competent practice
and application of these skills make you an effective professional teacher in social
studies. At this juncture, let us have a look at the essential characteristics of
good question.
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2.2Characteristics of a Good Question

Any question you pose during your instructional sessions, should be consistent with
the following characteristics or guidelines proposed by (Aggarwal, 2001)

1. The language of the question should be very simple.

2. Questions should not be ambiguous, lengthy and vague. They should
be clear, brief and to the point.
3. As we discussed earlier, questions should be suited to the ability of the
Students to whom the question is put. By implication, if you pose
question.
4. All questions pose to a students, should be relevant the topic under
discussion.
5. Questions should be graded. They should be neither be too easy nor too
difficult. If the question is too easy, the students will take any interest in it.
If it is too difficult, he will get discouraged.
6. Questions once asked should not be repeated unless you are sure that the
entire class has not followed. It will recall we have already discussed this
particular point.
7. Try to vary the form of your questions.
8. Avoid double- barrel questions. For example two questions should not be
asked in one
9. All your questions should be interesting as far as possible.
10. Questions should be framed in such a way that they do not encourage guess
work. Don’t immediately admit answers like’yes’’no’or other single words.
11. Questions should be of developing nature. Every question should grow out
of the response of the previous one. The implication here is that questions
should be in sequence so that the lesson could develop properly.
12. Leading questions such as “Do you know that Dr. Kwame Nkrumah led
Ghana to political independence?” Should be avoided.
13. Phrases like “can any one answer this question”? ““who can tell me why
……………. ? Should be avoid
14. Questions should be directed to the entire class
15. Questions should be put in such way that every student thinks that he or she
will be called upon to answer.

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Dear Student, these are the essential characteristics of any good question. I hope
this session has been an interesting one. At least in this session, we have discussed
the techniques of questioning in class. Again we have looked at the essential
qualities of good question. Most of the issues discussed in this session overlap and
reinforce each other. They are aimed at equipping you with the necessary skills in
respect of questioning.

Self – Assessment Questions

Exercise 3.2

1. State 2 techniques Of Questioning

2. Explain any One Technique Of Questioning
3. State Any 2 characteristics Of Any Good Question.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• difficult topics if any.
• issues that are not clear;

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SESSION 3: CLASSIFICATION OF QUESTIONS

Dear student, you are welcome to session 3. In this session, we shall
discuss other ways of classifying questions. Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives (1956) with special reference to the
cognitive levels, will guide our classification of these questions. Bloom (1956) has
identified 6 levels of cognitive domain. They are;
1. Knowledge
2. comprehension
3. application
4. analysis
5. synthesis
6. evaluation

Objectives:
By the end of this session, you should be able to;
(a) state two classifications of questions according to blooms levels of
cognitive domain.
(b) Explain at least any one of the levels of cognitive domain questions.
(c) State at least any 2 words that are found in cognitive domain questions

Now read on…

3.1 Knowledge Level of Questions

Let me begin this aspect of our discussion by asking you this question; what is
knowledge. In my opinion knowledge is truth that can be tested. It entails knowing
facts such as ideas, principles of law. For example,” Adam knows that the
anopheles mosquito is the vector of the malaria parasite”.
Knowledge also involves knowing the procedures of doing things for example
Salifu knows how to drive a car.” I hope my definition and illustration of the
concept “knowledge “is quite clear. Now let us go back to our main issue,
knowledge level questions. What are they? Knowledge level questions are those
which require students to recall from memory specific facts, concepts,
generalization, theories and terminologies that have been taught previously. As
shown in Table 1, knowledge level questions are low order questions. They do not
require the exercise of higher faculties of mind. Words that are found in

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knowledge level questions include what, who, when, where, which, how much,
how many, name, recall, define, list, tell, identify etc.

Classification of questions

Table1; classification of questions

Order Level Types of thinking Ability

(Other Demonstrated
classifications)
Low – order 1. knowledge Fluency, factual or Repeating
memory Questions information

Higher 2. Comprehension Convergent Understanding

Order 3. Application

4. Analysis User information

Divergent or
creative questions
5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation Judgment questions

Forming
judgment

Adapted from Tamakole et al (1996)

3.2 Comprehension level Questions:

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Questions that are asked under comprehension require students to change the form
of information and make comparisons. One way by which your students can
demonstrate their comprehension of what you have taught them is to compose their
own ideas to express what they leant or read. The two aspects of comprehension are
translation and interpretation.

Translation requires that a student re- states, paraphrases ideas or statements

without changing their meanings. Questions on interpretation expect students to
relate and compare things or ideas and also explain or summarized a statement
(Tamakole et al, 1996). The following words are mostly used in comprehension
questions: explain, describe, contrast, rephrase, interpret, paraphrase, compare,
relate, predict translate, rearrange, distinguish, translate, differentiate and
summarize.

3.3 Application Questions:

Application questions require students to use the knowledge acquired to solve
problems. These are questions require from students to go beyond knowledge of
facts and ideas on one hand and comprehension or understanding on other. As the
name suggest, the students is expected to apply the principle, facts, and knowledge
he has learnt to solve problems. The problems can be solved in few moments while
complex problems can take a long time to complete. As teachers, we must
encourage learners to acquire the relevant knowledge that will enable them solve
problems.
Words that are associated with application questions are: design, build,
demonstrate, calculate, solve, apply, choose, classify, give an example, modify,
compute, prepare etc.

3.4 Questions on Analysis:

To analyze something demands the recall of facts that have been previously learnt,
organizing information, or breaking up something on the basis of cause and effect.
Your students could be called upon to analyses conclusions inference or
generalizations based on evidence. Questions on analysis call for critical thinking.
Example of words associated with analysis questions are: why, contrast, determine
evidence, analyses analyses identify, support, compare, breakdown, differentiate,
distinguish, illustrate, infer, outline, point out, select, separate and subdivided.

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3.5Questions on synthesis:
Synthesis means putting together of parts and elements to form a whole, a pattern
or structure not clearly seen before: the process calls for creative behavior in the
students. It involves production or development of something in the work of an
artiste, a novelist, a carpenter etc, Synthetic questions test through understanding of
a subject and may require students to make predictions or solve problems.
Synthesis questions require a variety of creative answers or solutions to problems.
This suggests that there are many different solutions and not right answers.
Synthetic questions require a special classrooms atmosphere in which students may
feel free to think for themselves, experiment, try new ideas or put ideas together.
Mistakes and learn from their mistakes. Words associated with synthesis questions
are: develop, produce, put together, write, illustrate, consult, create, formulate,
suggest, tell, design, draw up, plan, category, combine, compile, compose,
organize etc, Now, let us look at the last aspect of bloom’s levels of the cognitive
domain, thus evaluation.

3.6 Evaluation Questions

One major purpose of education is clearly to broaden and deepen the foundation
upon which judgment are made, to provide criteria and experience of applying
them. Evaluation questions requires students to choose among alternatives by
judging which best fits some stated value. There is no single correct answer.
However, students are expected to judge the merit of an idea, a solution to a
problem or any artistic work.

Classification of questions
Since evaluation questions related to judgment, valuing and making choices,
students are require to organize their thoughts and knowledge in order to take a
stand over an issue and defend that position. Words associated with evaluation
questions are: appraise, evaluate, assess, why, judge, do you agree, on what basis,
select, choose, decide, conclude, examine, justify and compare.

As usual, we have come to the end of other session. In this session, we looked at
the classification of questions with reference to the cognitive levels of Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Educational objectives. These levels are: knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

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It will be recalled that in our discussion, we did establish the point that knowledge
level questions require students to retrieve from memory facts and concepts they
have learnt. On the hand comprehension questions require students to be able to
translate or interpret what they might claim to understand. With application
questions, students are expected to use the knowledge acquired to solve problems.
We have also learnt that questions on analysis call for critical thinking on the part
of students. Further to this , we have also established the point that questions on
synthesis call for creative behavior or response from the students. The last level,
that is evaluation questions, are designed to enable students choose among
alternatives by looking at certain factors or issues and coming out with those which
best fit some stated value or standard.
Thank you for the keen interest shown in this session. Have a nice and restful day.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.3

Q1. State any 2 classification of questions according to

Bloom’s level of cognitive domain.
Q2. Explain at least any one of the levels of cognitive domain
questions.
Q3. state any two words that are associated with any of the
cognitive domain questions

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• difficult topics if any.
• issues that are not clear;

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SESSION 4: WHEN TO ASK QUESTIONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

CLASS.
You are welcome to session 4. In this session, we shall be looking at
the various stages of an instructional process where questions are to
be posed. Ideally, in any well planned instructional session, there are three
important stages during which it becomes necessary to pose questions.
The stages are:
1. At the Beginning of a lesson
2. In the Course of a lesson
3. At the end of a lesson

We shall discuss each of these stages and also point out why it is necessary to pose
questions during those stages. Again, in this session, we shall discuss the various
ways by which teachers can completely handle students’ questions.

Objectives:
By the end of this session, you should be able to;
a) identify one of the various stages in which questions are posed.
b) Explain one reason why it is necessary to pose question at the beginning
of a lesson.
c) State one way by which a social studies teacher can properly handle
students questions in a social studies class.

Now read…

4.1 Questions at the Beginning of a Lesson (Introduction)

A teacher must pose questions at the beginning of a lesson in order to assess the
current and previous knowledge of the students in respect of what he intends
teaching. Under normal circumstances, we expect that such questions at the
beginning of the lesson should be stimulating in order to usher students into lesson.
Another term for this process is known as set induction.It is meant to arouse
students‘s interest in the lesson. The set induction can be done in several ways. A
short story or scenario could be told the students at the beginning and later
questions asked about the story. Alternatively, a teaching aid could be presented at
the very beginning and questions posed about it. We have already made a point that
the main purpose of questioning at this stage is to review student’s previous
knowledge on that topic. Again, questioning at this stage is to over work previously
done.
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STUDIES CLASS.

4.2 Questions in the Course of a Lesson (Presentation)

Asking questions at this stage has numerous advantages. In this place, it helps to
direct students thinking on the lesson to stress what is important. Again, such
questions are meant to keep up students. The other advantage is that questions at
stage are designed to appraise systematically what is being taught, in addition, as
we move from one step to the other during the presentation we either pose a
question to summarise the previous step or begin the new step with a question to
direct attention to new problems to be tackled. I hope you have seen quite clearly,
why questions are posed during the presentation stage. I also know that, you have
not forgotten that the presentation stage is put into steps, fine, that is good of you.
Always keep these things in mind and practice them as well.

4.3Questions at the End of a Lesson (Closure)

As a mater of principle lessons are supposed to end with evaluation. It is at this
stage we ask questions to assess the extent to which actual learning has taken place.
Such questions are also meant to find you whether terminal performance objective
stated at the beginning of the lesson have been achieved or not. Again, questions at
this stage could be meant to revise the main idea raised in the lesson. In addition
questions at this stage are designed to make the students analyses situations and
draw conclusion.

These are three important stages during which questions are very necessary. Now
let us try to give a graphic presentation of what we have discussed so far.

Stages of Lesson Purpose of Questioning

WHEN TO ASK QUESTIONS IN ASOCIAL STUDIES CLASS.

Adapted from (shepherd and David, 1963).

Handling Students Question

WHEN TO ASK QUESTIONS IN ASOCIAL STUDIES CLASS.

Adapted from (shepherd and David, 1963).

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4.4 Handling Students Question

Since we have already discussed the techniques a teacher needs to employ when
posing questions in class, we need to equally study how to handle questions posed
by students in class.
Some students deliberately posed questions in class just to make their presence in
class felt. As the teacher, you are advised to know your students as individuals with
peculiar needs. Now with such questions how will handle them. All that you need
to do is to politely suggest to the students to ask those questions next time.

Again, as teachers we need to train our students in good manners to that they would
learn to speak one at a time and to keep quiet when a question is being asked by a
colleague. Most of the time students ask questions just to create noise in order to
break monotony or boredom in class in the class. A competent teacher like you
should be able to prevent or minimize this.
Under normal circumstance students question should first be received by the
teacher, who in turn throws it back to the class for an answer. To do this you need
to first of all listen attentively to the question. When the question is not clear,
reword it before redirecting it to the class. This practice is important because it
trains students to rely on themselves and also to contribute to class discussions. In
addition, it disabuses the students’ minds in regarding you as walking”
encyclopedia”. It is risky to create an impression that you know answers to all
questions. Further to this, it saves an embarrassing situation in which you may
provide an answer only to find out that student in the class has a correct or better
answers to the question.
Sometimes, students may pose questions which may be very difficult to answer.
Please, under such circumstance be very sincere to your self by telling the students
that you don’t have an answer to the question and that would be searching for the
answer. Encourage your students to do same by searching for the answer.
Some questions call for opinions answers. Others are controversial and demand
controversial answers. You should be alert in identifying such questions and also
draw the attention of your students to those issues.

The kind of relationship that exists between you and the students could reflect in
the question their ask in class. Students may ask questions that meant to annoy or
test your knowledge. Under no circumstance should you loose your temper before
the students else you will simply be disgracing yourself as an immature person. We
shall advise that in order to maintain your dignity, create a social distance between
yourself and the students.

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STUDIES CLASS.
My dear student, once again, we have come to the end of this session. In this
session, we have discussed the different stages at which the teacher can pose
questions. We have also looked at the several ways by which the teacher can
completely handle student’s questions. Thank you very much for the keen interest
you have shown in this lesson. Have a nice day.

Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 3.4
1. Identify one of the various stages during which questions are posed.
2. Given one reason why it is necessary to pose questions at the beginning of a
lesson.
3. State one way through which a social studies teacher can effectively handle
students’ questions.

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SESSION 5
IN SOCIAL STUDIES

SESSION 5: THE IMPORTANCE OF QUESTIONS IN SOCIAL

STUDIES CLASS
Hello students, you are welcome to session 5. In this session, we
shall be looking at the various useful purpose s questions play in a
social studies lesson. We shall identify each purpose and thoroughly discuss it. We
expect this session to interesting as the previous one, session4.

Objectives:
By the end of this session, the student should be able to:
(a) State at least, two important roles questions play in a social studies class.
(b) Explain one important purpose of questions in a social studies.

Now Read…

5.1 Important Roles Of Questions In Social Studies Lesson

Social Studies teachers ask a variety of questions during their interactions with
students in the classroom. Put in another way, social studies teachers consider
classroom question as serving useful purposes in the teaching and learning process.
Let us look at the various roles or reasons why the social studies teacher poses a lot
of questions in class.

1. To ascertain what students know about a subject or topics:

Social studies teachers may ask questions in class as a way of viewing the previous
knowledge of students so that they could build on it. In this process, the teacher
makes the students aware of what they already know so as to move on to a more
related but difficult content to be learnt. Most of the time, teachers begin the
development of their lessons to be taught. Again, the knowledge already possessed
on a topic could be tapped at any stage in the development of a lesson through
questioning. From that point, the teacher will then move from the known, that is,
from the familiar ground to the unfamiliar or difficult level of knowledge. As
discussed earlier, the know or the familiar ground is often refer to as the as the
assumed knowledge (AK) or the previous Knowledge about (PK). In principle,
learners are supposed to have related knowledge about any topic that is being
handled in class. This strategy of teaching is good because it builds confidence in
learners and assures them that what is to be taught has relevance in their lives.

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UNIT 3
SESSION 5
SOCIAL STUDIES CLASS

2. To revise previous work done: The social studies teacher may pose
questions about the previous topic that was taught so as to help students to
review and restore the previous information. Moreover, the revision of the
previous lesson may also serve as a foundation upon which a new lesson be
built. In this sense, the previous lesson serves as a familiar ground from
which the class takes a step further to new knowledge.

3. To pose problems that lead to the subject of the new lesson:

Social studies teachers may start new topic by posing a major problem in
the form of question to be solved during the lesson. The question or
problem serves as a challenge to the students. Depending upon how the
teacher approaches the issue, students may be motivated to attack or fight
the problem by reasoning and finding answers to the questions. Learning
becomes meaningful if what is to learned is stated as major question or
problem to which solution is demanded. For this to be meaningful and
realistic the problem posed should be realistic, the problem posed should be
related to the needs of the students (Tamakloe el al, 1996).

4. To motivate students: As a social studies teacher, you need to appreciate

the fact that, the motivation of students is vital for effective learning.
Though provoking questions could be used to initiate, direct, control sustain
interest in the lesson.

5. To maintain interest and alertness:

Arousal like motivation is very vital for effective learning. Arousal means
excitement, attention, alertness or vigilance. It is state of being awake. One
other thing which is worth noting is that arousal is very related to
motivation. It should also be stressed that effective learning depend on
optimal arousal. One way of stimulating or arousal students is through
thought provoking questions that is, questions that are challenging.

6. To develop a line of thought: Question is also used to develop a line of

thought. A number of related but graded questions could be used to develop a
thought by leading the students step by step to facts or knowledge. Moreover,
using questions to develop a line in learning make them very active participants

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IN SOCIAL STUDIES
rather than passive recipients of knowledge. It is a way of teaching through
discussions or through questions and answers.

7. To discover if students understand:

From time to time, a teacher can use questions to find out whether his students are
with him. That is whether they understands what they are being taught Instead of
asking students is that clear?” Do you understand? Etc, Effective teachers pose
relevant questions to test the understanding of their students before they move on to
succeeding steps in their lesson presentation. Again, questions should be asked
towards the end of the lesson by way of evaluation of learning outcomes

8. To get students involved in the lesson:

Students have fleeting interest and limited attention span. Again, some of them,
especially at the adolescent stage, may daydream or go to sleep when a lesson is in
progress. You could involve such students in the on – going lesson through
questions. Moreover, effective teaching demands that the teacher ideally includes
every students in his class in the lesson. There are many ways of doing this. One
approach is through random distribution of questions over the class so that students
are put in a state of alertness.

9. To revise the main points of a lesson: you can equally use well formulated
questions for the revision for the revision of a lesson. It is assumed you might have
planned your lesson so well as to have touched on the different cognitive domains
of your students. To finally revise the main ideas of the lesson, you can use a
variety of questions that call for the application of utilization of what is taught. In
this regard the different questions specifications related to the various cognitive
domains would have to be posed.

10. To test the results of a lesson:

Students understanding of a lesson would have to be appraised towards the end of
the lesson. Evaluation not need be done only at the end of a lesson, but also from
step to step during the actual teaching. It is very important to assess for the
achievement of the Terminal Performance Objectives (TPO) that were stated at the
very beginning of the lesson. This show whether your objectives have been
achieved or not.

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UNIT 3
SESSION 5
SOCIAL STUDIES CLASS

11. To pose further problems:

Further problems could be formulated and relevant questions posed. For example
the students could be taken a step higher at another period. This means that you can
increase the level of difficulty of a lesson by asking more difficult questions in a
contamination lesson.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.5
1. State two important roles questions play in social studies
lesson.
2. Explain one important purpose for posing questions in a social studies class.

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IN SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 6

SESSION 6: STUDENTS’ ASSESSMENTS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

In principle, we expect that after every social studies lesson, your

students are given an assignment. This forms part of the
assessment processes. Most teachers have complained that their
students dislike assignments, which is a reflection of negative attitude towards
extra work.
In other words, it amounts to laziness on the part of such students. However the
attitude of students towards assessments depends on the kinds of assignment we
give and how we give them.

In this secession, we shall be looking at the nature and functions of assignments.

We shall also discuss the techniques of given assignments. Let me pause here and
ask this interesting question. Why we have decided to treat students assignment s
under a unit which is suppose to address issues that are related to question and
questioning skills. The answer to this question is quite simple. An assignment,
irrespective of its form, is a question of a sort. Can you remember our definition of
a question?

Objective.
By the end of this session, you should be able to;
(a) state at least 3 forms in which classroom assignments may
take .
(b) state at least 2 functions of assignments.
(c) State at least 2 techniques of giving assignments.

Now read…

6.1Nature and Functions of Assignments:

The assignment is that part of the lesson that tells students what to do after school
hours and is related to what they have already done or what they still have to do in
class. It is a set to task a specific task which students are expected to complete in a
given time. It may be a project, series of problems to be solved, some questions to
be answered, a chapter to be read and summarized, a story to be outlined, or a
review of past lessons (Nacino- Brown et al, 1990).
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Assignment could be given to individual students or to groups, depending on the

typed and time available to complete the tasks. Simple and smaller units of work
may be given to individuals and larger units to groups.

Individual assignments may be the ideal, but not only are they time consuming, but
also require an experienced teacher to be able to cater for individual needs,
interests, abilities and experiential background when giving assignments.

According to Brown – Nacino et al (1996), ground assignment may be for smaller

grounds or for the entire class. The assignment given to a smaller groups are tailor-
made to suit the needs, capabilities and interests of each member of the group. As
such, once the problem of grouping is settled, planning assignments for each group
would be that difficult. The class assignment involves giving the same piece of
work to everyone in the whole class. This typed has been critised since it dose not
provide for individual diffeneces. However, it is the most widely used in our
classrooms.

Assignments may be given daily either as follow – up activity after the

development of a lesson, or as a preparatory exercise to the delivery of a new
lesson. They can also be given on a long term basis, larger units of work can be
assigned to be completed over a long period. Let us now look at the functions
assignment play in the teaching – learning and process of social studies.

6.2 Functions of Assignments

When carefully planned and carefully given, assignments can perform the
following functions.
1. To serve as a follow up- activity to what has already been learned in
the classroom; the social studies studies periods is often too short for
students to apply to apply or to practice what they have learned. Under
such circumstances, the assignment provides an excellent opportunity
for reinforcing previously learned skills or knowledge.

2. To Prepare students for the Next Day s’ lesson. You are expected
to design your assignment such that it gives students background
information and knowledge about the lesson yet to come. This can help

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establish good preparatory work for new learning experiences, as well

as develop the proper attitude among the students,

3. To provide direction and guidance for Independent Study; some

students are able to develop the skills of studying on their own. When
such students are given an assignment without specific instructions as to
what they are expected to do. They become lost and bewailed.
Assignments can provide a direct and deliberate means of teaching
students the skills of independent study. This include being able to pick
out important points in whatever they are reading or listening to the
summary of a chapter, section; story or a unit ; outline important
concept , facts or invent use various sources of knowledge and
information and many others. Given enough practice your students will
be able to learn effectively on their own, without having to rely on their
teachers. Direction all the time a skill which be of tremendous help long
after they have left school (Nacino – Brown et al, 1990)

a. To develop a positive attitude Towards Extra work and Good Study

Habits. Stimulating and challenging assignment help create a
favorable attitude towards learning activities inside and outside the
classrooms. Students usually take pride in their work and each task
successfully completed is regarded by them as an accomplishments.
Consequently they are motivated to do better in each succeeding
assignment.

b. To provide an Excellent Means for the Developing the other

Higher Order Mental Process; One of the critisms of our
educational systems today is that most of the normal classroom
activities are directed towards the mere acquisition of facts and
information. There is no provision for the development of thinking
and reasoning abilities. In this regard, the assignment can be offer an
excellent opportunity for teachers to give students assignment that
call for the use of judgment and reasoning. It can become an
important instrument for challenging students to think creatively,
`logically and critically.

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6.3Techniques for Given Assignments

Much of the failure or reluctance of students to complete assigned tasks may be
attributed to badly conceived assignments. The following are some useful
techniques that should help you improve the assignments to you give to students.

1. Assignments should be clear and definite.

Let your students be informed on what exactly you expect them to

do. Given enough practice, your students will be able to learn
effectively on their own, without having to rely on their teacher’s
direction at the time. A skill which will be of tremendous help long
after they have left school (Naciro- Brown et al, (1990

(a) To develop a positive attitude towards extra work, and good

study habits.
Stimulating and challenging assignments help create a favourable
attitude towards learning actives inside and outside the classroom.
Students usually take pride in their work and each task successfully
completed is regard by them as an accomplishment. Consequently,
they are motivated to do better in each succeeding assignment.
(b)
TO provide an excellent means for developing the other higher
order mental processes,
One of the critisms of our educational system today is that most of
the normal classroom activities are directed towards the mere
acquision of facts and information. There is no provision for the
development of thinking and reasoning abilities.
In this regard, the assignment can offer an excellent opportunity for
and reasoning. It can become an important instrument for
challenging students to think creatively logically and critically.
Techniques of giving Assignments much of the failure or Reluctance of students to
complete assign tasks may be attributed to badly conceived assignments. The
following are some useful techniques that should help you improve the assignments
you give out to students.

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1. Assignment should be clear and Definite

Let your students be clear in respect of there are expected to
do. What we are saying is that, assignments should be fully
explained. The language should be simple and easy to
understand. Instructions on how to go about the assignments
should be clearly stated. Again, you may advise your students
on where to get information for the assignments.

2. Assignments should be closely related to the Lessons

Under Study. Assignments that may be given to students
should be carved out of past or present lessons. Assignments
that have no connection with what the students are doing in
class may be considered by them as irrelevant and therefore a
waste of time. In view of this, your students should be made
to appreciate the values as well as the purpose of the
assignment they are being asked to do.
3. Assignment a should be Adapted to Students Capabilities.
Make sure that assignments given out to the students should
neither to be too easy nor difficult to do. If the assignment is
too simple and easy, they will not be encouraged to do it. If it
is too difficult, They will either get bored or frustrated, or may
get somebody else to do it for them.

4. Whenever possible, Differentiate Assignments to suite

individual Differences in your class; always bear in mind
that you have in class different individual with varying
interest, abilities, needs and background . We know it might
not be so easy to differentiate assignments to suite individual
differences, but it is worth considering.

5. Assignments should be Interesting and Stimulating. Your

assignments should not be so easy or so difficult as to bore or
frustrate the students. Interesting and stimulating assignments
are those which are challenge students to engage in creation
and reflective thinking. Thus activities that call for judgment,
reasoning or evaluating should be used in assignments.
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6. Enough time should be allotted for the given of the

assignments: Nacino – Brown et al (1990) are of the view
that there is no best time for giving assignments. That they
can be given at any time during the class period at the
beginning. While the lesson is in progress or at the end. It is
very common for teachers to give assignments hurriedly
before the bell rings. Most of the time you will hear teachers
saying read chapter two of your text book for tomorrow or
write an essay on democracy for Monday Assignments such
as these which are given carelessly and haphazardly, will
stand a greater chance of not being completed because they
are easily forgotten, you are here by reminded to devote
sufficient time for a thorough explanation of the assignments
as well as students questions regarding the task.

7. Consider the time available to Students to Complete

Assigned Tasks. Are you aware that students live in different
circumstances? For example in a day secondary school,
students will have to go back to their homes after classes’
everyday. Students of the affluent families are not bothered by
household chores which the fortunate ones have to contend
with. And may have all the time they need for their
assignments. Again, brighter students may need less time than
the average or dull ones to complete their work. You should
not also forget that it is not only your assignment that has
been given to your students. Indeed, we have all done well for
actively participating in the discussion of this session. Have a
nice day and restful day.

Self-Assessments Questions
Exercise 3.6
1. Explain two different forms classrooms assignments in social
studies may take.
2. state two functions of classroom assignments.
3. state two techniques of giving classrooms assignment

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THE USE OF FIELDWORK AND RESOURCE UNIT 4
PERSONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

UNIT 5: THE USE OF FIELDWORK AND RESOURCE

PERSONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Unit Outline
Session 1: Meaning of Fieldwork.
Session 2: Rationale for Fieldwork.
Session 3: The Planning and Organisations of Fieldwork.
Session 4: Meaning of Resource Person.
Session 5: Procedure for inviting a Resource Person.
Session 6: Importance of Using Resource Person.

You are warmly welcome to this unit. I am sure, you had a

good time studying the third unit. If you did enjoy reading
through it, I hope you will equally to do so for this unit.

In this unit, you will be introduced to the use of fieldwork and resource person in
the teaching and learning of social studies. For us to develop a firm understanding
of these issues, we need to look at the meaning of field work, rationale for
fieldwork and the planning and organisations of fieldwork. Other issues will be the
meaning and of resource person, procedure for inviting a resource person as well as
the importance of using resource person.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a) Explain what fieldwork is
b) State at least three rationale for organizing field work
c) Outline the procedures to be followed in organizing fieldwork
d) Explain the meaning of a resource person
e) State at least four procedure to follow in inviting a resource person
f) Discuss the importance of inviting a resource person in social studies
class

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PERSONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

This is a blank sheet for your short notes no:

• Difficult topics if any.
• Issues that are not clear;

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PERSONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 1

SESSION 1: MEANING OF FIELDWORK

Dear students, you are welcome to the first session of this unit four.
The session will give you the explanation of fieldwork.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a) Explain what fieldwork is
b) State the types of fieldwork
c) Locate areas in the community where fieldwork can be undertaken.

Now read on…

1.1 Explanation of Fieldwork

Dear students, there are many terms which have been used to explain the teaching
and learning process which takes place outside the classroom or laboratories. Such
terms include fieldwork, fieldtrip, field study and out-of-door study. In whatever
way one views the term, it can be explained as planned excursion to sites beyond
the classroom for the purpose of illustrating concepts and principles and gathering
other vital information. It should be noted that fieldwork provides an opportunity
for firsthand observations of phenomena that may be on the school grounds, in the
neighborhood or beyond.

It must also be explained that whiles such trips may accomplish other educational
objectives such as developing students ability to cope with new setting and
enhancing students’ interest in the environment, the main focus so far as social
studies is concerned is the demonstration of experiences that cannot be
duplicated in the classroom.

Now, try and explain what fieldwork is

1.2 Types of Fieldwork

It is essential at his point to look at types of field work that educators of social
studies may engage in. let us attempt to look at the different types of fieldwork

Fieldwork can take place within the school, the environs of the school or in the
community in which the school is located. This type of fieldwork is known as

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Local fieldwork. In other words, Local field study is where the learners are taken
off the classroom but engaged in their studies in and around the area where the
school is sited. It does not necessarily call for any transport arrangement, since it
can be a walking distance in the community. Can you think of any type of
experience that falls under this type of study? Well let me quickly cite this
example. When the teach sends the learners to the chiefs palace in the same
community to experience thin their natural setting, it is a local field study.

Dear learners, when the fieldwork takes place out the community where the school
is located, it is called distance fieldwork. Where the learners move from say
Offinso to Takoradi harbor to study, it is a distance fieldwork. We may also
classify other fieldwork as being structured and unstructured. The structured
fieldwork comes into focus when learners have a specific target to look for during
the process of fieldwork.

The learners and teacher plan everything that they are supposed to do in the field
form the beginning to the end. For instance, they have to plan the type of questions
to ask and specific people to contact.

In the unstructured fieldwork, there is no definite phenomenon to be studied but the

teacher invites from the learners what they want to study in the course of the study.
The learners select the phenomenon they want to study and how they intend to
achieve the objective. It is always necessary for the teacher to supervise them to
work within the set time and also to comport themselves in the course of executing
their task.

1.3 Areas Where Fieldwork can be conducted

At this juncture, you need to know areas in your communities where fieldwork can
be conducted.

Where do you think learners conduct fieldwork in the communities? In the

communities, teachers can take learners to the following places on a trip.
1. Places of civic interest, such as District Assembly Offices, Municipal
Assembly Offices, the House of Chiefs and Social Welfare Offices to study
the official life and affairs of a town or a citizen.
2. Places of economic interest. Learners can study phenomena which include
market centres, factories, experimental farms and financial institutions. This
will aid learners to get real feeling of the economic situation on the ground

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3. Places of cultural interest. The phenomena selected to be studied may

include radio stations, castles, and art galleries among others. It is these
areas that learners will enrich their knowledge on the way of life of a
people.
4. Places of geographical interest. In this area, fieldwork can be held at market
centres, waterfalls, lakes, rivers, mountains, etc. to help learners to get
firsthand geographical concepts.
5. Places of historical interest, learners can be taken off the school’s site to
areas such as churches, mosques, a palace, forts, castles etc. to study the
past events which are of significance to humankind.
6. Places of scientific interest, learners can also go to hospitals, research
centres, laboratories, broadcasting stations etc. to obtain firsthand
experience about activities that are guided by the rules of science.

In this session, we have looked at the explanation of fieldwork. We

have also considered the types and areas where fieldwork can be
conducted. Now assess your understanding of this session by
answering the following self-assessment questions. Good Luck.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.1
1. What is fieldwork?
2. The fieldwork that is conducted in the community where the school is sited
is called……
3. State two types of fieldwork that social studies educators can undertake
4. Locate any place of interest in the community where fieldwork can be
conducted

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SESSION 1

This is a blank sheet for you short notes on:

• issues that are not clear, and;
• difficult topics if any.

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MEANING OF FIELDWORK AND RESOURCE UNIT 4
PERSONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 2

SESSION 2: RATIONALE FOR ORGANISING FIELDWORK

Welcome to the second session of unit 4. I hope you have

understood and appreciated the explanation of fieldwork as well
places where fieldwork can be conducted. Good!

In this session, you will be taken through the rationales that underpin the
organization of field work in social studies.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a) explain the rationale for organizing fieldwork
b) state positive habits that learners can during the fieldwork
c) mention problems of organizing fieldwork.

Now read on . . .

2.1 Rationale for Organising Fieldwork

Have you thought of the rationales that move social studies educators to organize
fieldwork? If you have not done that, begin to consider that. Okey, now let us
consider some of the rationales.

Dear learner, be informed that the field is the laboratory for social studies educators
which can contribute to the enrichment of history, geography and all other aspects
of social studies. In fact, the field is the source of facts and observation of
phenomena which can determine the validity and liability of ones ideas. In this
respect, fieldwork needs to be organized for learners to get to the source of
information.

Another rationale (reason) for organizing fieldwork is the fact that the field is the
only place where students can be shown what could be talked about in the
classroom thus, providing a unique opportunity to dramatize and reinforce learning.

Additionally, there are certain questions which can only be raised when learners are
on the field experiencing things in their natural settings. For such questions to be
elicited from students therefore it is essential to engage students on the field for
such questions.

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Again, fieldwork can breed ideas and stimulate imaginations as a result of the
encounter learners have on the ground. In some cases textbooks may record out-of-
date information which may not be useful. However, when learners experience the
environment they may be able to generate new ideas which become their
brainchild.

Dear learner, fieldwork is also conducted to enable learners to develop the skill of
translating scenes into prose, graphics or any other form to demonstrate
understanding (Tamakloe, Atta and Amedahe, 1996).

Fieldwork is also intended to exposes the students to the real world situations
which may be different from other classroom teaching and learning situations.

Another unique rationale is that fieldwork is organized to enable students acquire

the competence of locating and gathering information through instruments such as
interviews, questionnaire, opinionaire as well as observation.

Can you give other rationale for embarking on fieldwork? Try it in your jotter for
FTF discussion.

2.2 Problems of Embarking on Fieldwork

As a matter of fact, resources are all over the community where fieldwork can be
conducted. However, in conducting the fieldwork a number of problems are
encountered. Can you guess of some of the likely problems to be met? Good!
Okey, now let us consider some of the possible problems.

The first problem is that most authorities of places to be visited do not give replies
to welcome the trip. There is very little to do when authorities are unwilling to co-
operate.

Most crucial is the problem of finance. If learners are to be taken out into the field,
money has to go into the buying of fuel for the vehicle and perhaps refreshment for
children. The school may not have sufficient funds to give the necessary financial
support. The problem is even compounded when the school does not have its own
vehicle. In this case, transportation becomes a serious problem.

Again, the organization of fieldwork consumes a lot of precious time. The

organizer needs to take a visit or two to the phenomenon to be studied so that he

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becomes aware of the existence of the phenomenon to be studied. He/she has to

obtain administrative permission for the trip and make arrangements for
transportation to but just a few. All this, consumes both learners and organisers
time.

The fieldwork can throw the entire school programme out of course. For the period
when the trip will be undertaken the learners cannot attend other classes and routine
work such as tiding the compound, attending assemblies will come to a halt.

Teachers may lack the requisite skills to organize fieldwork. Fieldwork entails pre-
fieldwork activities, actual fieldwork activities as well as post fieldwork activities
which teachers have to acquaint themselves with. In a situation where these skills
are lacking the desired objectives of the trip may not be achieved. Taking children
out with improper leadership may lead to misbehaviour.

Another serious problem we cannot overlook is learners exposure to risks and

accidents more especially when they are taken on a trip. We often hear that people
going trip involve in car accidents, drowned in a sea which might have not
happened if they were in their classrooms.

Dear student, because such problems it is the duty of the teacher to put appropriate
measures in place to ensure successful fieldwork.

In this session, we have been able to look at the rationale for

organizing fieldwork and the problems associated with organization
of fieldwork. I hope you have appreciated this session. Keep it up!

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.2
(i) State two rationales for orgainising fieldwork
(ii) In what way does finance pose a problem to fieldwork
(iii)How does fieldwork negatively affect the regular school problem.
(iv) Mention two problems associated with fieldwork

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 UNIT 4 RATIONALE FOR ORGANISING FIELDWORK
SESSION 2

This is a blank sheet for your short notes no:

• Difficult topics if any.
• Issues that are not clear;

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SESSION 3: THE PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION OF

FIELDWORK.
Welcome to the third session of this unit. I am sure that by now
you know what fieldwork is as well as the rationale for organizing
fieldwork. In this session we shall look at the planning and
organization of fieldwork. I hope you will appreciate this session. Good!

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a) Explain phases of fieldwork
b) state at least three pro-fieldwork planning stages
c) explain actual fieldwork planning stages
d) describe post-fieldwork planning stages.

Now read on . . .

3.1 Phases of Fieldwork

Basically, there are phases of fieldwork. These are pre-fieldwork phase the actual
fieldwork phase and the post-fieldwork phase.

The pre-fieldwork phase deals with all the preparations that both students and
teachers have to put in place the fieldwork takes off. In other words, it is the
planning stage.

The actual fieldwork phase is associated with what needs to be done by both
teachers and students during the actual day when activities are taking place. It is
the conduction of the trip stage.

The last phase is the post-field. In particular, this phase deals with the activities
that take after the learners and teachers have returned from the trip. It concerns
with evaluating the fieldwork and that is the last phase or stage.

What other phase(s) can you think of? Do that for FTF meeting.

3.2 Preparing for the Pre-Fieldwork

Be informed that it is essential that through planning is made before the learners set
off for the trip. This planning will facilitate the achievement of the desired

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objectives. Now, let us consider some of the planning activities before the trip
takes off.
1. Establish a worthwhile purpose of the trip and make sure that the learners
understand the purpose, as well. The trip must provide avenues for
learnings that are not possible in the classroom.
2. The teacher should be familiar with site where the trip will be conducted
making visits to the place before even considering taking the learners. This
will alert the teacher to circumstances and situations that should be
discussed with the children before leaving the classroom.
3. Obtain administrative permission for the fieldwork. In particular, the head
of the institution must be informed as well as other colleague teachers
especially those whose time be affected.
4. Make transportation arrangements. It is better to use a public transport or
school bust than private cars. The reason is that with public transport, there
can be security in terms of insurance and competence of the driver.
5. Obtain written permission from parents and guardians for the children to go
the trip. Most schools have forms for this purpose that are filled out by the
teacher and sent home with each child for the parents/guardians signature.
6. Prepare the class for the trip by introducing the phenomena to be studied
through a lead lesson which will be exposing the students to the nature of
the fieldwork. The class should set up standards of conduct for the trip
before leaving the school.
7. Divide the students into appropriate groups and group leaders appointed
such that each group works on a specific task.
8. Logistical arrangement in the form of pencils, camera, writing pad as well
as questionnaire interview and observation guides.
9. If the trip is to be long, make arrangements for lunchroom and restroom
facilities. Take along a first-aid lit.

What other effects can you add to the above preparations? Write them down for
FTF meetings.

3.3 Actual Fieldwork Activities

As mentioned earlier on, during the day when the fieldwork takes off, there are
certain activities which must be put in place to ensure worthwhile fieldwork. These
activities can be considered under the following activities:
1. Take roll before leaving the school grounds and “count heads” regularly
during the trip to make sure none of them gets lost. With children, it is a
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good idea to put them in pairs so that they become others’ keeper. It is also
proper to arrange for other adults to accompany the group to ensure
effective supervision.
2. The teacher in consultation with the students will have to make sure that
nothing is left behind for the work. Try to insist on appropriate uniforms to
ensure easy identification if something should happen,
3. Arrive at the site on time, and have children and have learners ready for
work after a brief talk or presentation by the local authorities on the ‘dos”
and “don’ts” on the study area.
4. The teacher selects a place the students will meet after work (Assembly
spot). Make a head count at the assembly spot before actual work starts.
Before leaving check again to make sure all children are with the group.
5. The learners could break up into various groups in order to deserve
phenomena, record interactions with pre-arranged respondents or
interviewees.
6. In the course of the work, the teacher goes round to counsel, help, and offer
suggestion, supervise the learners closely to prevent accidents or injury.
7. After the students have finished their work they go to the assembly spot for
their questions to be answered and summary given on the entire experience.
The exercise must be concluded with a head count.

Guess other activities that can be considered under actual fieldwork. Write them
down for FTF meeting

3.4 Post-Fieldwork Activities

Dear student, this phase is mainly for organizing all information into a
comprehensive whole. When they have returned from the trip it is necessary that
the class reflects on the experience of the trip. In the course of the reflection the
following activities can be looked at:
1. The teacher engages the class in appropriate follow-up activities such as
writing a thank-you letter to place where the fieldwork was conducted and
to the adults who accompanied them to the site.
2. Re-examination of questions and problems which occurred during the trip.
It is necessary carefully the extent to which the purposes of the trip have
been achieved. Such questions can be asked:
- Did we accomplish what we set to achieve?
- Did we get answers to our questions?
- What did we learn that we did not learn before?
- Did the class conduct them based on the standard set before the trip?

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3. The various group and their respective leaders will organize report writing.
4. Presentation of group report accompanied by mini exhibition where
necessary. The audience for this activity could be class other classes and
parents/guardians.
5. Exchange of field notes and answers between and among the students.
6. Use opportunities to draw on information and experiences from the trip in
other subjects taught in the class.

What other activities can you consider under the post- fieldwork
activity?

We have been able to come out with the phases of fieldwork. We

have been able to consider the activities that take place under each of
the three phases of the fieldwork.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.3

(i) State the three phases of fieldwork

(ii) List three activities under the pre-fieldwork
(iii) Mention three activities that need to be performed under actual
fieldwork
(iv) Write two activities under post fieldwork activities.

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SESSION 4
PERSONS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

SESSION 4: MEANING OF RESOURCE PERSON

In this session we will continue our discussion on the meaning of
resource person, an example of resource persons and the reasons for
inviting a resource person.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(i) Explain who a resource person is
(ii) Give examples of resource person
(iii) State the reasons for inviting a resource person

Now read on . . .

4.1 Explanation of a Resource Person

I am sure you are aware that other peoples other than the teacher can be called upon
to facilitate learning. Good! The reason is that the social studies teacher cannot
claim to know everything under the sun, hence other peoples apart from the
classroom should often be used to enrich and supplement classroom teaching. Can
you guess the name offered to such peoples who assist the classroom teachers?
Aright, such peoples are called resource persons. Who then is a resource person?

A resource person is someone who is well-versed or knowledgeable in a field of

learning or experience who is usually invited by the classroom teacher to assist in
teaching topics for which the classroom teacher may not be able to handle
creditably. A resource person is not professionally connected to a school but may
be invited to usually without pay to share knowledge or skill with the class.

Think of who a resource person is. Present your view during year FTF discussions.

4.2 Examples of Resource Person

Dear student, be informed that there are a host of examples of resource persons.
Resource persons are not limited to top executives in offices but any
knowledgeable person inside and outside the learner’s home with ideas and
experiences that can help the learner to gain more insight into community issues.
These are some of the examples of resource persons:
- Farmer
- Bank manager
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- Queen mother
- Sanitary inspector
- Doctors
- Police officers
- Fire service officers
- Traders
- Watchmen
- Librarian
- Domestic bursars
- Musicians
- Politicians etc.

As a matter of fact, we have a tall list of such people. I hope you can add to such
list of people.

List any three of such people apart from what is stated here for FTF discussions.

4.3 Reasons for Inviting Resource Persons

It is essential to look at the reasons for inviting resource person in classrooms. Can
you guess why resource persons are invited? Now let us look at some of the
reasons:
(i) To assist the classroom teacher to teach topics he cannot handle
creditably
(ii) To break the boredom in which the same old fa ce of classroom teacher
is seen always.
(iii) To cement the relation that exists between the school and community.
(iv) To help students to have first hand information that are not found in
print.
(v) To provide role models for students to emulate their shining examples.
(vi) To bring variations in the teaching/learning process.
(vii) To provide students with a vivid and realistic contact with life outside
the school that could not other be achieved.

I hope you have appreciated the reasons under which resource persons
are invited to school. That is good!

Resource persons are crucial in the teaching and learning process of

social studies. Well, in this session, we have been able to explain who
a resource person is, give examples of resource persons and well as

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giving reasons why resource persons need to be invited.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.3
1. Who is a resource person?
2. Give two examples of resource persons.
3. State two reasons for inviting a resource person.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:
• difficult topics if any.
• issues that are not clear;

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SESSION 5: PROCEDURE FOR INVITING A RESOURCE

PERSON.
Welcome to this session 5 of our last but one session of this unit. In
this session we shall look at the invitation of a resource person. In
particular, we shall look at things to consider in inviting a resource
person as well as the approaches to the use of resource persons.

Objectives
By the end the session you should be able to:
(a) state things to consider before inviting a resource person
(b) explain the approaches to the use of resource person.

Now read on . . .

5.1 Things to Consider in Inviting a Resource Person

Dear student, we have already established that the teacher of social studies cannot
claim to know everything under the sun. In view of this we must consider, certain
things in inviting a resource person. Can you mention what you have when such an
important guess us to be invited. Alright, let us consider them.
(i) Inform the school authorities about the invitation.
(ii) Brief the resource persons on the topic, the purpose of the talk, the type
of class, the time and the place. The topic must be given earlier so that
thorough preparation can be made.
(iii) Discuss with him/her about the duration of talk, a question and answer
period, the use of teaching-learning resources etc.
(iv) Inform the students about the impending invitation and tell them about
the code of conduct. Let students put down questions they want to ask.
Send copies to speaker in advance.
(v) Teacher must also do research on the topic to be able to contribute to
discussions where necessary.
(vi) Introduce the resource person. Briefly note the plan for the classes in
your introduction. Tell the class something about the resource person.
(vii) Teacher must be in class for the following reasons:
(a) to make notes from the person
(b) to check possible insubordination
(c) to assess how effectively the resource person handled the topic
(d) to know where to assess the student
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(viii) Thank the person at the end of the period.

(ix) Thank him again by letter
(x) As something special for him/her if possible. There can be gift or invite
him to lunch.

5.2 Approaches to the Use of Resource Persons

The resources of the community make useful and indispensable contribution to the
social studies instruction. There are two basic ways in which the teacher may make
use of the resource person. These are
(i) bringing the resource person to the classroom and
(ii) taking the class out of the school to the person
Now let us consider them one after the other. Good!!

5.2.1 Bringing the resource person to the classroom

Dear student, bringing the resource person to the classroom become necessary
when the class size is too large to be taken out. Again, the resource person may
be invited when the visit to the natural setting may involve huge expenditure and
may be economical in bringing the expert to the school. The person can also be
brought to the school when you him to share his experience to the entire school and
also to have a feel of the school environment.

Think of other reasons for inviting for bringing the resource person to the school.

5.2.2 Visiting the Resource Person

Even though, it is expected that the resource person will come to the school, in
some instances, the school may have to visit the resource person. This happens
when the experience and knowledge of the person is real and valuable. Again,
when the resource person has a right schedule, such that may be difficult to move
out of place of work.

In this session, we have discussed things to consider in inviting a

resource person as well as the approaches to be used inviting resource
person. In particular, we mentioned that the approach may be either
bringing the resource person to the school or visiting the resource person. I hope
you have appreciated this session. Good!!

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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.5
(i) State two approaches to be followed in inviting a resource
person.
(ii) Giving advance notice in inviting the resource person is not necessary
True/False.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• difficult topics if any.
• issues that are not clear;

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SESSION 6: IMPORTANCE OF USING A RESOURCE PERSON

Welcome to the final session of the unit. We suppose you have

understood and enjoyed all that we have discussed so far. That’s
good!!

The session will focus on such issues as the importance of using resource persons
as well as problems of inviting resource persons.

Objectives
By the end the session you should be able to:
a) Discuss the importance of using resource persons
b) State the problems of using resource persons.

Now read on . . .

6.1 Importance of Using Resource Persons

As of now, I believe you are getting to know the importance of using resource
persons. The fact that resource person plays an important role in the teaching of
any subject and social studies in particular cannot be denied. Okey, let us consider
the ways in which using the resource persons:
(i) They offer students a vivid and realistic contact with life outside the
school that could not otherwise be achieved.
(ii) The appearance of resource persons has a rejuvenating effect on
students. That is, those who have been bored may suddenly awaken to
new interest if the resource person is chosen with care.
(iii) Student motivation is enhanced through the use of carefully selected
resource persons. The students benefit from learning a subject
explained by a person who has an intimate acquaintance with it and thus
can be expected to provide authentic information.
(iv) They help to carry out impression of the school environment to the
community.
(v) Resource persons provide invaluable information of the locality to the
new teacher in the community. This cuts down the problems and
anxieties of teachers who work in communities other their own.
(vi) They provide role models for students to emulate the shining examples
or experience of the resource person. Example of lawyers, bank
manager, farmers, policemen etc.
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(vii) There is a great opportunity to eliminate abstract thinking and
encouraging practical activity instead.
(viii) It provides a sound and concrete basis for conceptualization.
(ix) It gives an opportunity for social relationships among students and
between students and teacher.

Try to make conscious efforts by adding to the list of importance

during your FTF discussion. Good!!

6.2 Problems in Using Resource Persons

Shall we now look at the problems associated with the use of resource persons?
Let us quickly consider these problems in the following ways;

(i) In most cases resource persons do no reply to the letters inviting them. Some
give excuses of inconvenience of time and inability to put up with number of
pupils.
(ii) Sometime if is difficult to send the students to the places of the resource
person because of the unwillingness of parents to allow their wards for such
trips.
(iii) It can be very time consuming in terms of planning and organization for the
invitation of the resource person.
(iv) The invitation of a resource person can involve additional expenses such as
refreshing the resource person, and sometimes fueling his/her car.
(v) Travelling can increase the risk of accident when the resource person is
coming to the school or when the class is visiting the resource person.

We have looked at the importance of resource persons place in the

teaching and learning of social studies. Likewise, attempt has also
been made to consider problems associated with the use of resource person than
you for the attention.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.6
(i) State two ways by which the use of resource persons are of importance.
(ii) List two problems associated with the use of resource person.

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IN TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

UNIT 5: ROLE PLAY/TEAM TEACHING/ CONCENTRIC APPROACH/

BRAINSTORMING/ DEBATE AND DISCOVERY METHODS IN
TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

Unit Outline
Session 1: Team Teaching.
Session 2: Role play/Dramatization.
Session 3: Concentric Approach.
Session 4: Brainstorming.
Session 5: Debate.
Session 6: Discovery Learning.

You are heartily welcome to this unit. I believe you had a good
time studying the fourth unit. I hope you will equally enjoy this
unit as well. Good!!
In this unit, you will be introduced to the use of Case Study, Role Play, Concentric
Approach, Brainstorming, Debate, and Discovery Method of Teaching of Social
Studies. That rhymes well Isn’t it? Good!!

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) explain the meaning of Team teaching role play; concentric
approach
(ii) State when to use teaching, role play; concentric approach etc.
(iii) Explain the benefits associated with the use of team teaching, role
playing concentric approach.
(iv) Mention the problems associated with the use of case study, role playing
concentric approach.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes no:

• Difficult topics if any.
• Issues that are not clear;

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METHODS IN TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

SESSION 1: EXPLANATION OF CONCENTRIC APPROACH/

SPIRAL APPROACH
Dear student, you are once again welcome to the first session of unit
5. The session will provide you with the meaning of concentric
approach and also helps you to be aware of the benefits and problems associated
with its use social studies.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a) explain what is meant by concentric approach
b) state the benefits of using concentric approach
c) discuss the problems associated.

Now read on . . .

1.1 The Meaning of Concentric/Spiral Approach

The term “concentric” implies two or more circles of different sizes but with a
common centre. In some cases, the term concentric is used interchangeably with
the term “spiral”. The Cambridge International Dictionary of English defines spiral
as shapes made of curves each one above or wider than the one before it. The
Colins Gen as continuous curves formed by a point winding about the central axis
on an ever increasing distance and steadily accelerating.

Are you gradually getting the understanding of concentric/spiral approach? Good.

Let us carry on.

The concentric approach is one of the methods of organizing the subject matter in
social studies which basically emphasizes teaching and learning beginning from a
point closest to the learner and expanding out words to what is distant or remote
from him or her. That is, the learner’s immediate environment (the home) and
gradually extends into the neighbourhood, village (town) district, region, country,
sub-continent, continent and finally, to the wider world.

The concentric approach stresses the educational maxim of teaching and learning to
be: from the “known to unknown”, from the simple to the complex and from the
concrete to the abstract. The approach stresses that the content in social studies at
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each succeeding stage gradually increases in difficulty as learners mature in age
and climb the educational ladder.

J.S. Bruner proposes the spiral approach. The spiral to the teaching of social
studies is that themes and problems of living are developmental which means that
complexity grows as does the capacity and capability of the children. Similarly, a
child’s mastery of complex skills depends upon his acquisition of some elementary
ones. For instance, the child must be made to learn about his/her home and family
before proceeding to the school and neighbours, so that his/her knowledge scope is
broadened gradually and not in a haste. This is because the children are able to
consider more complex and demanding tasks as mature in age and as they continue
with the subject matter of social studies. Let us establish that both concentric and
spiral approaches seem to project the idea that teaching and learning should start
from the “known to the unknown”. It is only how they are represented in diagrams
that differ.

1.1.1 Diagrammatic Representation Of concentric and spiral approaches

Now let us consider how concentric and spiral approaches will be represented in
diagrams. I hope you will appreciate them. Good.

The concentric approach is presented diagrammatically as

Fig 1

Let us a little discussion about what the diagram (fig 1) seems to project. In the
diagram (Fig 1) The teacher/learner needs to cover his/her immediate environment,
the “home” and gradually extends into the neighbourhood, and local community,
district, region, country sub-continent, and finally, to the wider world.

The spiral approach is also presented as follows:

Fig. 2

In Fig 2, we see a coiling like a spring through the various grades. Just as the
concentric approach. The major difference between the two diagrams is that the
concentric approach takes the shapes of circles whiles that of spiral takes the shape
of a coil or spring. It is essential to add that in spiraling the students continually
build upon what they have already learnt in order to grasp the new knowledge. In
the spiral approach learners, are made to revisit the concepts already learnt so that
those concepts are not completely ignored.
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1.1.2 Benefits Associated with the Use of Concentric/spiral Approach in Social

Studies
It is worthwhile at this juncture to consider the benefits that will be associated with
the use of concentric approach/spiral approach in social studies.

Can you guess some of these benefits?

Alright, let us consider them from these angles. Good!! To start with, the
concentric approach will arouse the interest of the learners and their active
participation in the lesson will be enhanced. This may be attributed to the fact that
they seem to be familiar with the content being discussed as the materials are
related to the things in the immediate environment.

The follow-up benefit is that due to their interest and participation there is a better
understanding and retention of the knowledge acquired.

Again, the teacher is in a better position to gather teaching learning resources as he

uses the resources in the known environment of the learner. Admittedly, the
teacher will have less or no difficulty in acquiring the needed resources since they
abound in the immediate environment.

Another benefit working of consideration is the fact, the approach recognizes the
pedagogical needs of the learners. In other words, it takes into consideration the
mental growth of the need. In this regard, materials that are best suited for the
child at that instance will be selected. The immediate environment issues will be
considered first before the distant environment.

With this approach students are better placed to simplify generalize new
proposition and to increase the manipulation of information. This is because
information are presented in a manner that they can absorb and make easy
predictions.

The approach will enhance the mental development of the learners as their scope
become wider and varied at different levels. There is also retention and transfer of
knowledge since they already have an idea about the concept under discussion.

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Additionally the educands will have a better re-orientation towards the learning of
issues in social studies through the intrinsic or inner motivation derived from
learning based on their previous knowledge. With the spiral approach in particular,
the learner is able to fill in the gaps, since the concepts already learned will be
revisited at the next stage.

5.1.3 Problems Associated with the Use of Concentric/Spiral Approach

Are you aware that the concentric/spiral approach has its own problems? Alright,
let us now consider some of the problems in the light of the following:

The approach leads to over repetition of same facts and this can be tedious to both
the teacher and the learner. For instance, the teacher has to make sure that all key
issues are covered at the immediate environment before moving to distant
environment. Again when the teacher gets to distant environment, he needs revisit
issues in the immediate environment.

Another setback is if the approach is stuck to the latter there is the anxiety that a
wide spectrum of subject matter will have to be taught to be sure of better
understanding of the lesson. Technically, every bit of information about a topic say
“neighbourhood” needs to be exhausted before moving to the next stage. This may
not be possible due to time limitation.

The strict implementation of the concentric/spiral approach appears not to be

practical. A wide range of the syllabus at any given educational level my not be
covered. This emanates from the fact that the approach in reality denotes that one
has to finish dealing with all issues about ones immediate environment before the
distant environment.

If the approach is adhered to strictly it may consume time. This may be explained
on the grounds that there are so many issues which must be tackled in ones
immediate environment before moving to another stage. This will take students
precious time.

In this session, we have discussed the meaning of concentric/spiral

approach, the diagrammatic representations of concentric and spiral
approaches as well as benefits and problems in connection with the
use of concentric approach. Thank you for the co-operation.

Self-Assessment Questions
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Exercise 5.1
(i) Indicate a concise definition of concentric approach.
(ii) Draw diagrams to represent concentric and spiral approach.
(iii) State two importance of the concentric approach.
(iv) Indicate two possible problems the concentric approach.

This is a blank sheet for your short notes no:

• Difficult topics if any.
• Issues that are not clear

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SESSION 2
IN TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

SESSION 2: ROLE –PLAY/DRAMATIZATION

In this session we shall discuss the use of role-play as a technique in
the teaching and learning of social studies.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(i) provide the meaning of role-play
(ii) indicate when to use a role-play
(iii) describe how to use role-play in the social studies class

Now read on . . .

2.1 Meaning of Role – Play

Let us attempt to come out with the meaning of role-play. Role-play is one of the
techniques to bring changes in the usual classroom setting where the same
actor/actress (teacher) always seen performing in class. It is a form activity, which
encourages learners to play the part of a person in an imaginary way. It is
mentioned that role-play is one of the instructional techniques for generating
activity for the development of the “mind”, “heart” and “hands” of learners.
Students for instance, can be asked to play the role of assembly members in their
communities so that questions would be asked as to how these role could be played.
In some cases too students may be asked to play the role of a chief. Aggarwal
(192) describes this as act as “a synthetic act” involving the purposive coordination
and control of the delicate organs of speech and muscles of the body combined
with a sense of rhythm with a view of free and intelligent expression of emotions
and ideas.

Dear learner, be informed that the more closely aligned a role is to our
understanding the more comfortable we are likely to be in acting it out, likewise,
the more obscure or hidden the role we are asked to play, the less able we are
likely to be successful in acting out roles assigned us.

In sum, one can say that role-playing is the attempt be an individual(s) to place
himself or themselves in the position of another in an unfamiliar situation(s).

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Now attempt the definition of role-play.

2.2 When to Use Role Play

Let us find out when role-play can be used.

Role-play can be used when the aim is to improve the speech habits and language
of the learners. In the preparation of their roles, learners go through a number of
experiences like consulting people, rehearsing their roles and finally, acting out.
The students indirectly or unconsciously improve upon their speech habits by the
end of the exercise.

Besides, role-play can be used when we want to promote the spirit of teamwork
among the learners. Role-play affords the learners from training in teamwork.
When learners come together to play their roles as say assembly members they
work together as one body. And this develops in them the spirit of oneness which
is a cherished goal of social studies.

Again, when we want to provide an alternative to the traditional methods of

teaching such as lecture, discussion, enquiry then role-play is appropriate. Role-
play allows for understanding, appreciating alternative attitudes and behaviour in
the classroom.

Additionally, when the teacher wants his/her learners to be active participant in

class, the role-play technique is desirable. Learners, more especially the young
ones find it difficult by nature to stay still without engaging in any activity and that
role-play makes them active participants of the lesson.

It is also used when we want to call for reinforcement in the teaching/learning

process in the social studies class. As a reinforcement, students can either be
guided to role-play or dramatise whole or aspect of certain things which have been
discussed or taught in class.

Again, it can generally be used at anytime the teacher wants to solve problems, to
clarify a situation teach a lesson or bring about a desired change in behaviour.

Guess when we can use role-play.

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2.3 How to Use Role – Play

It must be pointed out that for an effective use of role-play, certain steps or
procedures need to be followed. The steps are:
(i) Identify a problem and brief learners on it during delivery.
(ii) Discuss the problem or issue with the learner.
(iii) Select the players, possibly volunteer.
(iv) Prepare the audience on how to behave.
(v) Prepare the players
(vi) Keep the role-play short
(vii) Let players express their roles spontaneously.
(viii) Stop and re-direct players, if they get lost.
(ix) Prevent the audience from interrupting.
(x) There should be a follow-up activity through discussion after the play.

2.4 Advantages of Role-Play

Here, we are attempting to find out the advantages associated with role-play in the
social studies class. Let us attempt that!

The technique is not teacher dominated but students. Therefore, experience is

gained when the students undertake a variety of which are closely related to their
interest, hence making them active participants of the lesson.

As a teaching technique, role-play encourages the students to emphasises with the

position and feeling to others, and to look beyond their immediate assumption and
expectation. Freeman and Cappet (1998) support this point when they mentioned
that following an evaluation of their web-based role-play, students achieved a
deeper understanding of their own views and those of others.

In the social studies class, role-play has been found to contribute to a positive
change dynamics. That is, it breaks down barriers of shyness and stimulates a
greater level of long term interactivity between students.

It is known that in supporting key skills development, role-play is an excellent

teaching strategy to encourage communication. As students act out their roles they
communicate and confidence will be developed to that effect.

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It gives students opportunity to practice in decision making process. In the course

of acting out role students are prompted to make decision based on the role they are
playing. For instance in acting the role as parliamentarians, students may be asked
to decide on how they would help their constituencies.

It allows both bright and weak students to participate in the teaching/learning

process. The reason is that memorization is not too much emphasized but students
are allowed play roles based on their skills ability and interest.

Suggest other advantages of role-play in the social studies class.

2.5 Disadvantage of Role-Play

Dear student, the weaknesses of using role-play as a teaching strategy are discussed
below.
It may be time consuming both preparation, playing and debriefing. Hence
frequent use of this method will comprise the covering of the curriculum for
stipulated period of time.

The technique may turn into mere entertainment. It is common knowledge that a
good and successful role-play depends upon the quality of the students and the
seriousness with which they welcome the exercise.

In this technique, the instructor tends to abandon a great degree of control over the
learning environment, not only in so far as what is learnt is concerned but also the
order in which it is learnt. In this instance, there are always issues such as how
effective is the role-play in the social studies class; and the level learning of
students/ learning during the play. With such uncertainty there comes inevitable
hesitation concerning the use and value of role-play.

There is the tendency of over simplification and that students will not be attentive
to the maximum use of the knowledge that have been taught in the role that they
play where customers will have to be secured. Role-play may demand that students
are academically good so as to ensure their maximum participation. In a situation,
learners cannot express themselves will, role-play will e rendered a waste of time,
energy and resources.

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The technique may not be suitable for students who are not prone to accepting
responsibilities as well as those who are shy. Since the technique depends on
students’, initiative, participation and responsibility.

In this session, we have discussed the meaning of role-play when to

use role-play as well a s advantages and disadvantages of role-play.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.2
(i) Define the concept “Role-play”.
(ii) State two conditions that prompt the use of role-play.
(iii) List two advantages of using role play.
(iv) Indicate two disadvantages of using role-play

This is a blank sheet for your short notes no:

• Difficult topics if any.
• Issues that are not clear

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IN TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 3

SESSION 2: DEBATE TECHNIQUE IN THE TEACHING/

LEARNING OF SOCIAL STUDIES
You are welcome to session 3 of unit 5. This session deals with the
use of debate technique in the teaching/learning of social studies.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a) differentiate between the two types of debate techniques use
in the social studies class
b) explain how to use debates
c) describe the steps to follow in delivering debates
d) state the advantages of the debate technique
e) discuss the disadvantages of debates.

Now read on . . .

3.1 Meaning and types of Debates

Debate is a contest where two or more speakers present their argument with the
intent of persuading one another. The social studies teacher may use the debate
technique when dealing with controversial issues in class. The intention of which
is to differing views under the topic of discussion. It is the method of presenting
the arrangement for and against one possible solution.

Basically, there two types of debate the teacher can use namely an information
debate and the formal debate. An informal debate is one in which two sides of a
question are discussed, but in which no set plan or organization is followed. The
participating parties simply air their views, and no judgment is made as to which
side argued more effectively.

The other type is the formal or contest debating. This type has definite rules of
procedure. The number of debaters on each side is usually limited to two, and a
time limit is set for each speech.

In the social studies class there can be a topic “Learning social studies leads to
brighter future”. In this case, one group may stand for the motion while the other
group stand against the motion.
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Dear learner, be informed that there must be a chairman to announce the

proposition introduce the speakers, preserve order and read the decisive of the
judge. There must be a timekeeper.

3.2 How to use the Debate Technique

There are certain issues that must be borne in mind concerning how to use debate in
the social studies class.
- The teacher gives out a topic based on their learning area and guidelines on
how the debate should be done.
- The teacher explains the topic or discusses it with students as to how they
should go about it.
- The teacher divides the students into two groups and
- (Adams & Pollock, 1964)
- In both informal debating and formal debating, the teacher should
encourage good sportsmanship and careful preparation and clear
presentation.
- Select someone as judge who is well acquainted with debating and who can
base his/her decision on a thorough, unbiased and critical analysis of the
debate.
- If two or more judges are used, they should be given ballots on which
instructions for their voting and bases for their judging are cited.

3.3 How to Deliver Debates

Dear learner, here are some hints in delivering debates in the social studies class:
- Follow the principles of good speaking. Speak loudly enough for everyone
to hear and clearly enough for all to understand. Try to speak correctly, so
that your words reflect precisely what you have in mind vary your speaking
voice, for you want no one to find it monotonous.
- Deliver your speeches spontaneously or unconsciously. In other words,
follow your notes or an outline, if you wish but do not write out or
memorise what you are going to say. It is commonly held that a speech that
is delivered spontaneously has a far greater measure of sincerity than one
that is merely.
- Listen to your opponents. What your refutation will depend very much
upon what your opponents have said. You must be attentive therefore to
what they say.
- Be courteous and tactful. By arguing courteously and tactfully you will
contribute to what should the true spirit of debate in the social studies class.
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Of course, you may acknowledge the introduction given you by the

chairman. A simple or a “thank you” will be alright. Then before opening
your speech, address the chairman and audience. “Mr. Chairman and
friends” or simply “ladies and gentlemen, are among the acceptable
openings of speech. It is worthwhile thanking your listeners for their
attention.
- Abide by the rules. Formal debate requires adhering to the rules of the
game. When the timekeeper informs you that your time is up, end your
speech immediately and when the judges reach out their decision, abide by
it graciously. Let them know by your conduct that who wins is not as
important as how well you fought the battle.

Dear learner can you use the hints given to prepare the students in the social studies
class?

3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of the debate technique in the

Social Studies Class
Now let us consider the advantages first.
- 1. It helps the students to develop critical thinking skills.
- 2. It develops the habit of team work therefore brings about cooperation and
tolerance.
- 3. It teaches students to be logical rather than emotional.
- 4. It promotes the awareness of the point of view of others.
- 5. It enables students to analyse issues critically.
- 6. It teaches one to accept defeat gracefully.
- 7. It teaches students to be outwardly calm when under stress.

3.5 Disadvantages of Debating

I am sure you can as well consider some disadvantages associated with debate in
the social studies class. Good! Let us look at them briefly together.
- 1. It can develop into quarrels among members.
- 2. It consumes time hence hardly use.
- 3. It does not encourage full participation of students since only a few
would be actively involved.
- 4. It brings about boredom on the part of the non-participating students.
- 5. It may not be appropriate for pupils at the lower forms say primary
school.
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I hope that you can add to these points.

In this session, attempts have been made to explain and differentiate

between types of debate and discuss how to use the debate technique.
We have also considered the steps to follow in debate as well as the advantages and
disadvantages of debate.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.3

(i) State the two types of debate

(ii) Debate is always the best technique in the social studies class.
True/False

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SESSION 4: BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUE IN SOCIAL

STUDIES
It is commonly held that knowledge does not reside in only one
main’s mind. Hence, it is essential to assemble ideas from different
people when decision is to be taken. In this connection, we shall be considering
brainstorming in social studies

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
a) explain the concept “brainstorming”
b) state rules to be followed in brainstorming
c) explain advantage of brainstorming
d) indicate the disadvantages of brainstorming.

Now read no . . .

4.1 The Concept “Brainstorming”

Brainstorming is one of the effective techniques that the social studies teacher can
use for effective teaching and learning.. Brainstorming is a problem-solving
technique in which members of a group suggest solutions to problems without
interruption or discussion by other members of the group. Dunn (1978) sees
brainstorming as exciting group participation designed to develop multiple answers
to a single question, alternate solution to problem and crate response.

Brainstorming can also be described as the act of defining a problem or idea an

coming up with anything related to the topic no matter how the response may be.
Alex Oxborn, the father of brainstorming stresses that it is a technique by which a
group attempts to find a solution fro a specific problem by amassing all the ideas
spontaneously by its members.

From the for gone brainstorming can be said to deal basically with how a group of
people come together and pull out their ideas with the view to finding solutions to a
problem.
At the primary school, a topic like the “integrated nature of social studies could be
proposed. In this regard, the students may bring similar meaning such as “gari and

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beans”, pounded cassava and plantain (fufu) etc. Again students can be asked to
come out with as many as possible solutions to poverty by way of brainstorming.

4.2 How to Use Brainstorming Technique in Social Studies

In using the brainstorming technique in the social studies class, the following must
be adhered to:
1. Divide the class into groups. Put them into separate sections of the
classroom, making sure someone in the group has paper and pencil to write
down the ideas suggested during the brainstorming section.
2. Explain briefly to the class the guidelines for brainstorming indicating the
time limit, stressing that there should be no negative evaluation of any idea
presented.
3. Ask each group to evaluate their result as a group and if possible let them
come up with the best options.
4. Share the results of each group with the class.
5. Evaluate the process of brainstorming in terms of efficiency, strengths,
weaknesses and how to improve its use as a class.

4.3 Advantages of Using Brainstorming

Now, let us consider the advantages of using the brainstorming technique in the
social studies class.

It is highly motivating. Students who usually allow their verbal, articulate

classmates dominate question – and – answer periods get the urge to participate.
They are not criticized for unacceptable responses and feel a real sense of
contribution as their suggestions are recorded.

The technique promotes sponeity and creativity. Students are able to come out with
quicker solutions to problems on the spur of a moment.

It generates enthusiasm and eagerness to join in by its open invitation to participate

and its rapid free flow of information.

It provides a permanent record and helps in developing solutions to problems. The

outcome of the sessions recorded can easily be reproduced or used again to design
alternate programmes for solving problems.

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It is effective in the teaching and learning of social studies because a number of

suggestions, facts, ideas and creativity solutions are generated in a matter of
minutes.
It is students involving and image building. Self image is enhanced for students
who see their ideas written group pride and cohesiveness increase as the members
begin to feel a part of the unit that came with the accepted list.

4.4 Disadvantages of Using Brainstorming

At this juncture, let us consider the disadvantages associated with the use of
brainstorming.

- Students may digress from the topic under discussion if the teacher leader
or the students have limited knowledge on the topic.
- It encourages only the extroverts in the classroom to participate in the
discussion to neglect of the introverts.
- If the number in group is too large, the leader may find it difficult to control
the class.
- It consumes a lot of time due to the formalities one has to go through for
effective brainstorming to be conducted.

We have tried to come out with the explanation of the concept

“Brainstorming” how to use brainstorming as well as the advantages
and disadvantages of Brainstorming. I hope you have enjoyed.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.4
1. Explain the concept “Brainstorming”
2. State two ways of using brainstorming
3. Indicate any two advantages of brainstorming
4. State two disadvantages of using brainstorming.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes no:

• Difficult topics if any.
• Issues that are not clear;

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SESSION 5: TEAM TEACHING IN SOCIAL STUDIES

The integrated nature of social studies demands that knowledge
should be looked at in a holistic manner. It is essential, therefore,
that the classroom teacher liaises with other teachers to present
knowledge in a holistic manner especially where he cannot teach everything on his
own. In this section, we shall consider the concept Team teaching in social studies.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
a) explain the concept “team teaching”
b) state the philosophy of education and team teaching
c) explain the advantages of Team teaching
d) stat the disadvantages of team teaching.

Now read on . . .

5.1 Concept of Team Teaching

Dear learner, the concept “team teaching” has become popular in social studies.
This stems from the fact nobody can claim to know everything under the sun.
Team teaching is an approach to teaching whereby two or more teachers come
together to play and select aspects of a topic based on the areas each can handle
creditably. The concept involves bringing together of resources such as
knowledge, skills experience and interest.
Team teaching can be adopted to teach topics like “Cocoa Production in Ghana” in
the social studies class. In this instance, the topic is broken down into aspects such
as:
(i) sociological aspect of cocoa production which will be handled by
sociology specialist
(ii) economic aspect of topic which will be handled by economic specialist
(iii) historical aspect to be handled by history specialist.

Ear learner, in using this approach, a teacher introduce the topic after which each
teacher comes in his/her area of specialty. All the teachers hold themselves in
readiness for questions that will be by the students. During testing of students, all
the teachers provide questions in the areas they have taught.
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5.2 Philosophy of Education and Team Teaching

Be informed that there is a philosophy that underpins the use of Team teaching.

To start with, it must be pointed out team is found in team teaching. When teachers
plan objectives, learning activities and evaluation procedures on a given topic, the
team can learner from each other.

Again, the concept of cooperative planning is essential to mention in team teaching.

Team members need to respect the views of each member when cooperatively
planning objectives, learning activities and evaluation procedures. It must be
stressed that it takes cooperation and respect to arrive at the best in teaching and
learning.
Another philosophy of team teaching is that the minds of more than one teacher is
considered superior as compared to the thinking of one teacher in a classroom. In
putting together the thoughts of two or more members in a team learners are likely
to receive better information as compared to a single teacher selecting activities and
experiences for learners.

Team teaching also borders on democracy. A team leader may be assigned to

provide direction in planning sessions. The team leader needs to provide
democratic leadership, the heart of which would involve respecting the views of
others. It is through this might the best in objectives, learning activities and
evaluation procedure be provided for learners. The master teacher cannot learn
from other team members if he/she dictates objectives, activities and appraisal
procedures. The team leader must provide leadership and yet be open to the
thinking of others.
Another philosophy is that a variety of learning activities need to be provided to
learners. In large groups adequate concrete materials (objects and items) and semi-
concrete materials (films, strips, slides, pictures, transparencies and study prints)
need stressing. This will motivate learners to perceive interest and meaning in
learning.
Can you also add another philosophy that underpins team teaching in social studies
class? Try/

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5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Team Teaching

It is necessary to be told at this juncture that Team Teaching has a myriad of
benefits and drawbacks. This sub-session highlights major advantages and
disadvantages of team teaching in the social studies classroom.

The first advantage is that Team teaching can open a student’s eyes to accepting
more than one opinion and to acting more cooperatively with others. Team
teaching may even provide educational benefits such as increasing the students
level of understanding and retention, in addition to enabling the students to obtain
higher achievement.

It must be pointed out that exposure to the views of more than one teacher permits
students to gain a mature level of understanding knowledge; rather than considering
only one view on each issue or new topic brought up in the classroom.

Again, the cooperation that the students witness between team teachers serves as a
challenge for teaching students positives teamwork skills and attitudes. It is said
that in a collaborative team teaching experience the students witness and participate
in a dynamic display of team members. This actually ensures higher achievement,
greater retention, improved interpersonal skills and an increase regard for group
work for both students and teachers.

Team teaching provides for a better utilization of superior teachers and many
students would benefit from their teaching. Their influence is reflected in the
planning of better programmes of instruction.

Teaching can go on more effectively when one member of the team is absent
because of illness than it does when one teacher is responsible for the entire
programme.

Team members are part of a supportive environment in which they are exposed to
different styles of planning, organization and class presentation. This gives the
members an opportunity to develop and enhance their own approaches and
methods.
Beginner teachers have a better opportunity for in-service growth than they do
when they are isolated in one room.
Having looked at the advantages in teaching, it necessary to also consider the
disadvantages of team of teaching which are far fetched.
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It is mentioned that the major disadvantage of using team teaching in the social
studies class appears to be the element of time. Members of the team must spend a
great deal of time working on plans scheduling, for group activities as well as the
numerous impromptu chats that are bound to arise from such an endeavour.
When team teaching involves two instructors teaching the same class at the same
time, the inevitability of larger class sizes may be a detriment for students
particularly students with attention deficit disorders or students who feel
uncomfortable in large group settings.

It is also mentioned that some students may feel frustration and discontentment
about having more than one teacher at the same time. The potential for diversity
and ambiguity within team teaching may prove disconnecting for some students
who might become confused by more than one way of looking at issues or grading
assignments.

The success of team teaching depends to a great extent on the ability of members
of the team to work together harmoniously. The programme suffers it friction
develops in interpersonal relations.

Instruction in the large group situation tend to be the formal lecture type learners
have little opportunity to ask questions or make contributions.

Superior teachers who serve as team leaders have little contact with learners. In
most cases the actual teaching the learners receive comes from teachers with less
competence and experience.

In this session attempts have been made in explaining the concept

“team teaching” philosophy behind team teaching as well as
advantages and disadvantages of team teaching. I am sure you have
enjoyed this session.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.5
(i) State a definition of Team Teaching.
(ii) Cooperative planning is essential in team teaching. True/False
(iii) Time is the most crucial disadvantage of team teaching. True/False
(iv) Write down one advantage of team teaching in social studies.

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SESSION 6
IN TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES

SESSION 6: CASE STUDIES

It is commonly held that learners in social studies can learn more in
social studies can learn more effectively when they are actively
involved in the learning process. The case study approach is one way in which
such learning strategies can be implemented in the social studies class. In this
session therefore, attempts would be made to explain the meaning of case studies,
the steps/procedure; merits and demerits of case studies.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
a) explain the concept “case study”
b) state the procedures/steps used in case studies
c) discuss the merits of case studies
d) mention the demerits of case studies.

Now read on . . .

6.1 The Concept of “Case Study”

The case study method involves procedures and techniques of investigation usually,
but not exclusively or always based on intensive interwing. (Kumekpor 2002) A
case study in social studies may be explained as the consideration of an actual or
closely simulated social, economic, geographic, historic event, situation,
development or policy measure. The concept has also be explained variously as:
(i) as complex which give an insight into the context of a problem as well
as illustrating the main point (Fry et al, 1999).
(ii) It is looked at as student centred activities based on topics that
demonstrate theoretical concepts in an applied setting.
(iii) Case study can also be defined as a detailed intensive study of unit such
as a corporate division or corporation that stresses factors contributing
to its success or failure.
(iv) An investigation into the component parts of a whole and their relations
in making up the whole.

Dear reader, the aim of case study is to enable the investigator to grasp and
understand an individual, a group, a community, a social situation or an issue in
order to take decision that into consideration the special and peculiar circumstances
surrounding the case investigated, or practical solutions relating to the case in
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question. A typical example of case study in social studies is “Students attitude
towards the social studies programme in Ghana: The case of selected school
schools in Cape Coast Municipality”. Here, the broader picture is the entire
students in Ghana but the focus is on the students in the Cape Coast municipality.

Admittedly, case study is focused on the study, learning, or conducting of research

on an aspect of bigger or broader theme, issue or topic. A case is generally specific
to a place, a theme and a time.

6.2 Step/Procedure in Using Case Study

You need to be informed that case study follows scientific investigation. It
therefore involves observation, recording, classification and judicious analysis of
information. It equally involves sifting, weighing and assessment of evidence,
information and circumstances surrounding a case in order to get the root causes of
the ca se as a means of identifying unduring relationships, factors, possible
solutions or remedies for the case investigated. It is therefore essential to follow
the following scientific procedures:
- Identify a topic or issue from a broader/bigger theme
- Establish your statement of the problem
- State your objective/purpose of study.
- Establish your research questions.
- Indicate the significance of your study.
- Review the literature on the case under study.
- Indicate the method to be followed in gathering information such as
population, sample size and sampling procedure, instrument to be used,
administration of instrument.
- Analyses and presentation of information gathered.
- Come out with the summary, findings conclusion and recommendation of
the case studied.
-
6.3 The Merits of Case Studies
In this area, we are considering the merits of using case studies in the social studies
class.
(i) The first and outstanding merit of a good case study is the realism which
it brings to learning. The case study is either an actual situation or a
closely simulated one. With a good case study the student feel that
he/she is in contact with the real world.
(ii) The method is appropriate where stress, focus and attention
are on the unique and the individual aspects of a case. That is
(ii)
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- People tend to give false information in sensitive cases leading to the

possibility and actual instances of suppression of essential information or
refusal to corporate talk or give evidence.
- Over-anxiety help find solutions to specific cases may divert attention from
adequate observation and analysis of the factors which are not the main
causes under consideration.
- The observer,/interviewer is opened to threats to his life, antagonisms,
among other especially when the case being investigated involves relatives,
highly placed personalities opinion leaders etc.
- Case study is admittedly time consuming since it involves rigorous
scientific consideration to arrive at worthwhile solution.

In this session, we have explained the concept case study, the

procedure/steps to follow in case study as well as the merits and
demerits of case study in the social studies class. I hope you have
enjoy it. Good!!

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.6
(i) Case study is a unique aspect of a broader theme. True/False
(ii) Case study has nothing to do with scientific investigation. True/False.
(iii) Indicate two merits of case study.
(iv) State two demerits of using case study.

This is a blank sheet for your short notes no:

• Difficult topics if any.
• Issues that are not clear;
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EVALUATION IN SOCIAL STUDIES UNIT 6

UNIT 6: EVALUATION IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Unit Outline
Session 1: The concepts Evaluation/Measurement.
Session 2: Types of Evaluation.
Session 3: Formal Test Items.
Session 4: Continuous Assessment.
Session 5: Evaluation Techniques in Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
Session 6: Importance of Evaluation in Social Studies.

You are welcome to unit 6 in acquiring methods of teaching

social studies. A seasoned social studies should go through the
evaluation process in social studies. This unit shows how an
effective social studies teacher should constantly and systematically find out the
effectiveness of the teaching-learning process.

As you go through the test your confidence level will increase and you can then do
your evaluation with the tactfulness it deserves.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) explain evaluation/measurement in social studies.
(ii) State the types of evaluation.
(iii) Mention the formal test items in social studies
(iv) Explain the meaning of continuous assessment
(v) State the evaluation instruments in the respective taxonomy of
educational objective; and
(vi) State the importance of evaluation in social studies.

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This is a blank sheet for you short notes on:

• issues that are not clear, and;
• difficult topics if any.

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SESSION 1

SESSION 1: THE CONCEPTS “EVALUATION/ MEASUREMENT”

In this session we are going to look at the concept “evaluation and

assessment”. Attempt will be made to establish the relationships
that exist between the two concepts. The guiding principles for evaluating students
would also be discussed.

Objectives
By the end of this session the student should be able to:
a) differentiate between evaluation and assessment
b) state the principles that guide the evaluation of students.

Now read on …

1.1 The Concepts “Evaluation” and “Measurement”

Has it occurred to you to consider the meaning of evaluation and measurement
before? If not, then I think this is the opportune time to consider that.

Evaluation is an elastic concept that stretches to cover judgments of many kinds.

Of course, different writers have different definitions of evaluation Gronlund
(1996) sees evaluation as including a number of techniques that are indispensable
to the instructor. He adds that evaluation is not merely a collection of techniques
but it is a continuous process which underlies all good teaching and learning.

Tyler (1949) defines evaluation as the process of evaluation is essentially the

process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are being realised
by the programme of curriculum and instruction. Here, the focus is on the
appraisal of a programme or project rather than the leaner or an individual.

Payne (1975) defines evaluation as the process by which quantitative and

qualitative data are processed to arrive at a judgment of value are worth
effectiveness. Salia-Bao (1990) says evaluation is the collection and use of
information for decision-making about an educational programme. He stresses
that it includes measuring and assessing pupils and their work so that judgement
can be made based on the results of the measurement and assessment. For
instance, if a teacher gives a test to a class and a student scores 70, that is

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measurement but if the teacher compares that students grade with the grades of
other students in the group, he would be judged to be either good or bad, passing
or failing satisfactory or unsatisfactory then evaluation has taken place.

Measurement is the collection of quantitative information on an individual learner

and the degree to which the learner possess a given characteristic. Ebel (1972) says
measurement is a process of assigning numbers to the individual members of a set
of objects or persons for the purpose of indicating differences among them in the
degree to which they possess the characteristics being measured.

The differences between evaluation and measurement are that:

(i) Evaluation is a qualitative description of learner traits while
measurement are quantitative description.
(ii) Measurement deals with assigning numbers whereas evaluation focuses
on passing judgement.
(iii) Evaluation may include both qualitative and quantitative descriptions
but measurement is purely quantitative.

Assessment according to Rowntree (1987) occurs when one person through some
kind of interaction with another obtains and interprete information about that other
person in terms of knowledge and understanding or abilities or attitudes.

Wheeler (1983) states that assessment will be used as a term for the process of
investigating the status of an individual or group, usually with reference to
expected outcomes.

Berdine and Meyer (1987) define assessment as any process of gathering

intrapersonal or interpersonal performance data on a pupils current behaviour,
language or motor skills in any environment that involves a part of the pupils
current or planned educational programme.

From the definitions, assessment can be seen as all means used in schools to
appraise an individual’s traits, potentials and actual performance in a systematic
manner. Assessment can be made through the use of a test or by means of the
teacher’s observation of the learner in course of his/her learning activities.

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1.2 Guiding Principles in Evaluation

Dear learner, be informed that evaluation is based on principles. These principles
are explained as follows:

Firstly, the teacher should have a comprehensive focus that values that considers all
objectives of social studies and not only an aspect. In their words, the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains must be considered in social studies. None
should be de-emphasised.

Secondly, evaluation, should be part of unit of study. Instructors who are effective
always observe and note learners progress and needs which may cause modification
to improve instruction. Some of the assessment instruments are interviews,
observation guides, short tests, and checklists.

Thirdly, evaluation should be an ongoing process in the social studies class. It

should be done in every lesson, from day to day and throughout the year. In other
words, the “before” “during” and “after” can of evaluation should be adhered to in
the social studies class. This will help to give a holistic picture about the learner’s
performance.

Fourthly, teachers, parents, supervisors, administrators and students should work in

concert to ensure successful evaluation. Learners should be admonished to respond
to respond to questions. Parents/guardance should be encouraged to discuss the
goals and achievements of their wards.

Fifthly, it must be pointed out that since the focus of evaluation to is to assess
whether the spelt out objectives have been achieved, objective should be clear and
easy to assess. It is prudent therefore that the objectives are stated in a behaviour
terms to facilitate easy assessment.

Sixthly, a lot and varied instruments and techniques have to be applied in

evaluating student’s performance. The “instruments must include those that assess
cognition such as interviews, questionnaire, discussion etc; those that assess
attitudes and values of opinionnaire, checklist, observation, interviews, etc; and
those that assess skills such as modeling, practical test, dramatization etc.

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SESSION 1 MEASUREMENT”

In this session, attempts have been made to explain the concepts

“evaluation”, measurement and “assessment”. The principles that
should guide the evaluation procedure have been highlighted.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.1
i. Measurement is both quantitative and qualitative description of the learner
ii. This statement “Kofi is clever than Kwame” falls under evaluation or
measurement.
iii. Evaluation is broader measurement in terms of scope. True/untrue.
iv. State a principle that guides the evaluation of social studies students.

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SESSION 2

SESSION 1: TYPES OF EVALUATION

We are going to look at types of evaluation that the social studies
teacher/learner could use. Specifically, attempt would be made to
discuss diagnostic evaluation, formative evaluation and summative evaluation.

Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
a) Explain the meaning of diagnostic evaluation
b) State when to use formative evaluation
c) Indicate when to use summative evaluation.

Now read on. . .

2.1 Diagnostic Evaluation

In most cases teachers find out from their educands about how much they know
about a given topic or their entry behaviour/knowledge of a topic to be studied.
This is the first phase of evaluation in social studies. Diagnostic evaluation is also
known as pre-course or pre-curriculum evolution. As said earlier, it assesses the
student’s level of knowledge before the instructional process begins. For instance,
a test on students will help the teacher to determine their standard and then give
him the knowledge of where to begin. The key feature is that it takes place prior to
beginning a unit of instruction such pre-instructional evaluation can help teachers
obtain information concerning the learner’s entry behaviour-the kinds of attitudes,
skills and knowledge students already possess that will encourage, limit or prevent
teacher and student efforts to achieve desired objective (Okunrotifa, 1981).

One of the main benefits of diagnostic evaluation is discovering whether or not

students have in their repertoire the kind of behaviour teacher wishes to promote.

2.2 Formative Evaluation

The second type of evaluation is formative evaluation. It is the process of judging
the worth of teaching and constantly during the period of instruction. It is used to
monitor learning progress during instruction. Its key purpose is to provide
continuous feedback to both learners and teachers concerning learning success and

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failure. If for any reason they are not understanding the material to pinpoint
exactly where the students are having problems.

2.3 Summative Evaluation

The next type of evaluation in the social studies class is summative evaluation. It is
referred to the type of evaluation which is conducted at the end of an instructional
segment to determine whether learning is sufficiently complete to warrant moving
the learner to the next stage of teaching. It is designed to determine the extent to
which the stated instructional objective have been achieved. It is also used for
assigning course grades or for certifying learners acquisition of the intended
learning objectives. E.g. BECE, SSSCE are all summative type of evaluation.

2.4 Approaches to Evaluating Student Achievement

Having considered the types of evaluation let us move a little forward to discuss the
approaches involved. Dear learner, be informed that there are two basic approaches
involved in evaluation and criterion referenced evaluation.

Norm-referenced evaluation dwells on judging student’s achievement/performance

against the scores attained by others competing in the same test. In other words,
comparison is made on one student’s scores to the scores of other students.
Interpretation of these comparisons can be based on scores of a large of students for
a standardized test or on scores of a smaller, local group of students for a teacher –
made test. The key issue is comparing each student’s
performance/score/achievement to that of other students taking the same test.

Criterion-referenced evaluation essentially finds out whether a student has or has

not attained a specific level or standard. Thus, it determines the degree to which
the student has attained a criterion performance. It responds to the issue concerning
or dealing with what a person can do or cannot do with respect to a specific
instruction objective. Here, student scores are compared to the expected criterion
score in order to judge individual achievement. The merit of this evaluation is that
it enables the teacher to explore the learner’s thinking in an activity structured to
show developmental traits over a given time.

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SESSION 2

In this session, we have been able to look at the types of evaluation

such as diagnostic, formative and summative in social studies.
Again, we have explained the approaches of evaluation in terms of “norm-
referenced” and “criterion” and “reference”.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.2
1. The type of evaluation that takes before actual instruction is
called . . .
2. Summative evaluation allows teachers to constantly judge the worth of
teaching during the period of instruction. True/False.
3. The approach of evaluation which determines the degree to which the
student has attained a standard of performance is
(A) Summative
(B) Norm – reference
(C) Formative
(D) Diagnostic
(E) Criterion
4. The act of judging student’s achievement against the scores attained by
others competing the same test is
(A) Summative
(B) Norm-reference
(C) Formative
(D) Criterion
(E) Diagnostic

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SESSION 2

This is a blank sheet for you short notes on:

• issues that are not clear, and;
• difficult topics if any.

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SESSION 3

SESSION 3: FORMAL ASSESSMENT TOOLS (ITEMS)

In this session, you will be taken through the formal assessment

tools or items that are used in the social student class. Specifically,
the tools will be considered under objective and essay, test items. I hope you will
enjoy it.

Objective
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) State at least two types of formal assessment tools in the social studied
class.
(b) Discuss how any two of the formal tools will be constructed.

Now read on…

Formal Assessment tolls

Basically, the formal assessment tools would be put under two areas such as fuel
objective test and essay least. Can you think of the items that fall under each of the
categories?

Let us considered them one after the other. Good!

3.1 Objective Tests.

Objective test items can be considered either the “supply” types of items or as the
“Selection” types of item. When reaching to the “supply” type of test items, the
respondent (students) must provide the needed response (answers). Possible
responses to the items are not provide.

When dealing with the “selection” types of items, the students chooses the correct
responses from those provided. The true false test item, the matching test item, and
the multiple choice items are examples of the “Selection” type items.

3.1.1 Supply Test Items

Basically, there are two types of supply test items. There two are short answer and
completion. The difference between them is seen only in the form in which the
problem is presented. If presented as a question, it is a short answer item, but if
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presented as a incomplete, it is a completion item. Let us see examples of such
items.

Short answer
Who is the president of Ghana?
What is the name of your school?

COMPLETION
The fusing together of two or more subjects to be seen as ……………………..
The act of teaching from known to unknown is referred to as …………………
The main objective of the UNO is to …………………………………………..

NB: Dear learner, the following guidelines may be found useful in writing these
test items:
- Avoid length and winding statements.
- Write the items so that there can be only one answer.
- Talk care not to provide a clue to the missing world through the use of
other works
- Place the blank at the end of the statement
- Make sure that the answer to one question is not revealed in another
question
-
3.2 The True – False Item
In this types of item a statement is presented to which students responds by
indicating whether it is true or false. In writing this types of test. The following
hints must be borne in mind:
- Use statements that are completely true or completely false.
- Use short simple sentences
- Avoid arranging an answers pattern which makes it easier to store
prints and can also be detected by students.
- Aim for approximately one-half “true” Answers and one-false answers
for a test.
- Insist that students write their answers “true” or “false” in fall.
- Avoid grammatical confusion such as double negatives. For example it
is not uncommon” for boys to go to school.
Examples: Write “true” or “false” against the following statements:
1. The capital town of Ghana is Lome ………………………………
2. The longest river in Ghana is pra………………………………….
3.
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Dear learner, be informed that true/ false questions are subjected to gussing.
Usually, such question requires the student to remember facts and factual recall.

3.3 Matching Test Items

The matching test item is one in which a students must much up the entries in two
lists. In matching questions, the left column (column A) is often called the
statement and the right (Column B) the answer. The following guidelines must be
followed. In writing a marching test.
- Include more items in the answer column than the statement column,
- Items must be homogenous. That is all “statement” and “answers” must
deal with something (people, places dales ect.)
- Arrange the statements and answers alphabetically or serially
- The shorter items should be the answers. Column A should contain the
list of longer phrases
- State clearly what each column represents (as heaching)
- Place the statements and answers on the same page.

Example: Each city on the left is the capital of the one of the countries on the right.
Place the letter of the country on the line before its capital city.
…………………… Accra A Egypt
……………………Abidjan B Nigeria
……………………Cairo C Ivory coast
…………………….Lone D Ghana
E Togo
Guinea
3.4 Multiple – Choice Items
This type’s item is the most changeable and useful of all objective test items. It can
measure in any content area and at variety of levels and from mere knowledge of
facts in standardized tests.

A multiple- choice item consists of two parts a “stem” and several “choices” The
stem may be a complete or incomplete statement or a question. The choices
usually include one correct answer, known as “destructors”

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The major advantage of the multiple- choice test item is its wide usefulness to
many different types of materials .Its major setback however, it the difficulty of
preparing good items, especially writing effective “destructors”.
NB: The following are suggestions for writing multiple choice items.
- Avoid putting the correct answer too frequently in any on position.
- Avoid having similar or related words in both stem and correct answer.
- Avoid making the correct answers consistently longer or shorter that
the distractors
- Avoid using choice that are unrelated to the subject of the item or
obviously wrong. Such distractors will be immediately rejected and
therefore not appropriate.
- Avoid “hints” in the stem which are clues to the correct answers.
For example, all options should be consistent with the singular or plural
verb in the stem.
Ensure that each option is plausible that is seemingly correct.
- Avoid making the question incorrect by adding such words or “only”
“all”
“always” “always” “never”, “sometimes”

3.5 Essay Test Items

In essay test items, student is free to answer in their words. Essay tests are
practically helpful when the teacher wishes to assess the ability of students to
express their ideas in writing. For instance, essay items are appropriate for
measuring student’s ability to discuss, evaluate, describe, organize, apply and
interpret facts.
In setting any essay test, the following guide lines should be considered:
- The wording of the question must be simple and ask for specific
something.
- Keeping the number of questions and time required to answer them
within reasonable limits so that all students can respond to all
questions. It is suggested time limits and desired length of answer be
given.
- Keep the number of questions and time required to answer them within
reasonable limits so that all students can respond to all question. It is
suggested the time limits and desired length of answer be given.
- It is appropriate for all students to answer the same questions for the
purpose of enduring common base for comparison.

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- Questions must be accompanied with a marking scheme showing a

model answer and how the marks will be distributed among various
part of the answer.

Ensuring Objectivity in Scoring: Essay Items.

Dear student, to ensure the objectivity in scoring, the following suggestions should
be considered.
- Prepare a scaring key of acceptable response in advance. List the points
to be covered
- Decide in advance on the weight (grading percentage) assigned to each
question.
- Score the test without knowledge of the student, if possible. This will
reduce the “halo” effect.
- Do not be influenced by handwriting and spelling.
- Score the same question for all students at one time, that is, score the
first question for all before going on to the second question.

In this session, attempt has been has been made to discuss the
formal assessment tools such as objective, true, false, matching,
multiple- choice and essay test items. I hope you have enjoyed every aspect of the
test items. Good!

Self – Assessment Question

Exercise 6.3

(i) State any two types of the formal assessment tools in social studies
(ii) The left column of the matching test item is called ………
(iii) The test item which allows the student to express their ideas and
thoughts processes is referred to as…………………………………

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This is a blank sheet for you short notes on:

• issues that are not clear, and;
• difficult topics if any.

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EVALUATION IN SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 4

SESSION 4: INFORMAL ASSESSMENT TOOLS

In this session, you be taken through the informal assessment tools
in social studies. In particular, our focus will be on observation,
quizzes, interviews and chats, assignment etc. Let me hope that you will follow it.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) State of this session , you should be able to
(b) explain at least two of this informal tools

Now read on…

Informal Assessment Tools

The informal assessment tools consist of observation, quizzes, interviews,
assignments and projects. These forms of assessment give a quick and casual
students achievements, attitudes character and aptitudes.

Now let us attempt to take them one after the other.

4.1 Observation
Classroom teachers often observe their students on an informal basis to discover
their attitudes. Such an observation helps the teacher to form quick opinions about
his students.

A student under observation should not be made aware that he is being watched.
Else, he is most likely to put a “front” so that the impression created may not be
the true reflection of his attitude.

Basically, there are three types of observation that will be discussed here. These
are checklists, rating scales and unobtrusive measures.

Checklists are helpful in finding out the presence of absence of certain attitudes
On “ yes” or “No” scales. For example:
(i) Do students respect their teachers? Yes No
(ii) Does the boy respect his father? Yes No
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4.1.2 Rating Scales are helpful

In evaluating the strength of attitudes when a wide variation can be expected. The
scale enables the respondents to reflect the intensity of their opinions by using
dichotomous or multiple-response formats. Usually, the rating scale arranges
responses on a continuum and quantifies them for analysis. Examples are the
semantic- differential and the likert-type.

Semantic Differential Items:

Directions: The following worlds were selected to enable you to express your of the
line between each pair of words. The closer place an X to a word indicates the
degree to which it represents your perceptions. s

IAM
Cautious 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Impulsive

Relaxed 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Tense

Secure 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Insecure

Mature 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Immature

Happy 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Sad

Friendly 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Unfriendly

Likert Type Scale

It is an example of the rate scale. Opinions can be assessed by Likert-types scales
written to solicit gradations of favorable and unfavourable responses which are
about an issue under study.

Sample Likert- Type items

DIRECTIONS: Indicate your opinion of the following statements by marking SA
is you strongly Agree; A if you Agree; |U if you are undecided; D if you Disagree
and SD if you Strongly Agree.

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Statement SA A U D SD
(i) My friend is a good demonstrator
(ii) My teachers a good man
(iii) My teacher is fair and square

4.1.3 Unobtrusive Measure

They are non-direct ways of judging attitudes without the physical presence of an
observer. An observer’s presence or even the knowledge that the teacher is
recording an observation can influence students (respondents) to display attitudes
designed to please the observer.

Example
(i) How often does the boy speak nicely about family members?
(ii) How often does not the girl attend classes?

4.2 Quizzes
A quiz is an aspect of an informal assessment tool. It is short oral or written test. It
normally demands very answers and is quick methods of assessing how well
students have understood a topic. Teachers usually find quizzes very useful for
revising a pervious lesson during the introduction of a new lesson.

Quizzes must be marked promptly and the individual’s student’s marks announced.
To ensure prompt feedback students may be trained to mark each other’s answers
soon after the quiz is over.

4.3. Interviews and Chats

An interview consists of verbal interaction in person or by telephone. The success
of an interview depends upon the interview’s ability to communicate questions and
to motivate the respondent to cooperate and answers the questions.
The main advantage of the interview is what it gives the respondent an opportunity
to provide detailed and complete answers. The respondent has an opportunity to
clarify the meaning of some of the question and the interview can explore
responses in depth, if necessary, in order to obtain complete answers to the
questions. Chatting occasionally with students may also help the teacher to assess
their language skills and interpersonal relations.

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4.4. Assignments and Projects

An assignment is a work given out to students to do outside the classroom over a
period of time. The period for submission is usually made known to the student(s).
Assignment may set as individual, pair or group tasks. Where the task requires the
production of something concrete or original. It is termed as project.

Individual tasks enables the teacher to find out which students have understood
their lesson well enough to work on their own and which students need further
help. Pair and group tasks enable teachers to discover the natural leaders in the
class. They also promote cooperation and friendliness among members of the same
group and healthy competition among different groups.

In the session, attention has been drawn to the informal

assessment tools such as observation, quizzes, interviews and
assignment we have mentioned that these informal assessment tools provide a
quick and casual way of finding out students’ performance. I hope you have
enjoyed this session too.

Self –Assessment Questions

Exercise 6.4

(i) State two of the informal assessment tools in social studies

(ii) Semantic-differential and Likert-type scale fail under interviews.
True/False.
(iii) The non-direct ways of judging attitudes without the physical presence
of the observer fails under
(a) rating
(b) Unobtrusive
(c) Check list
(d) Likert

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SESSION 5

SESSION 5: THE USE OF CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT IN

SOCIAL STUDIES
In this session we shall look at the of continuous assessment in
the social studies class. Specifically, we shall tackle the meaning,
features as well as advantages and disadvantages of continuous assessment.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) define the terms continuous assessment;
(b) state at least two features of continuous assessment
(c) Indicate at least two advantages of continuous assessment
(d) Mention two disadvantages of continuous assessment.

Now read on…

5.1 Meaning of Continuous Assessment

Dear leaner, I hope you have head about the term continuous assessment. Can you
give it a try in explaining it? Good. Let us try together.

Continuous assessment is a type of formative evaluation procedure using

systematic approach to know how the students have gained knowledge. In other
words it is a system of finding out student’s performance which is conducted
concurrently with teaching and learning. The main feature of the continuous
assessment is the frequency. That is, the final grade of a student becomes
aggregate of all his/ her performance during the duration of the course or
programme. The student under this form of assessment, is assessed a number of
times during the period of the course or programme at predetermined sort intervals.

5.2 Features of Continuous Assessment

Dear leaner, the features of continuous assessment will be discussed in terms of:
Comprehensive, formative, cumulative, systematic and guidance – oriented.
(a) Comprehensive: The comprehensive feature of continuous assessment
lines in the extent of coverage. It touches all the cognitive, affective and
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psychomotor domains of personality. It implies that the learner’s

knowledge attitude, interest and skills are considered. The comprehensive
nature is also seen is terms of a number of evaluative instruments or
procedures such as observation, standardized tests, interviews, assignment
and projects used concurrently in the classroom.
(b) Formative in nature: This feature breaks the teaching materials into smaller
teachable units. This facilitates measuring of specific parts of instruction.
There is continuous and immediate feedback both to the learner and the
teacher. It compels the collection of data on the students on a regular basis
and it also calls for effective analysis of results to provide the feedback
needed by the teacher, students and curriculum developer.
(c) Cumulative in nature: The cumulative nature of continuous assessment lies
on the summation (aggregation) of grades used in determining final
assessment on any students at the end of a programme. The final is the
addition of all assessments collected systematically throughout the period of
the programme such as a term, semester or a year. To make assessment on
any students. It will involve the accumulation of all grades in assignment,
project class test, weekly test, mid semester test, end of semester, etc. The
decision does not depend on only one-short examination.
(d) Continuous assessment is systematic in nature: The assessment is a well-
planned procedure of measuring students’ academic progress. It is orderly
executed and done at short predetermined intervals. It calls for planning on
the types of trails or performance on the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains to assess.
(e) Guidance – oriented: Continuous assessment is said to be guidance –
oriented in the sense that it is aimed at building a healthy total personality
of the learner. This kind of assessment helps to unearth the learner’s
potentials which can be used to counsel them.

5.3 The Implementation of Continuous Assessment

Dear leaner, at this juncture let us look at the implementation of continuous
assessment in Ghana.
Before the introduction of the continuous assessment concept in Ghana, the
educational system in Ghana was based on trimester system during which period,
assessment was done each term. To a large extent, final assessment did not include
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the grades from class work or homework which the student obtained throughout the
programme.

The Middle school Leaving Certificate(M.S.L.C) and the General Certificate of

Education) (& A) level were focused on one-short examination conducted by the
West African examination Council (W.A.E.C.) Therefore, the cumulative outcome
of assessment in schools was not recognized.

With the inception of the new Educational Reform, continuous assessment has been
embraced for implementation in schools and colleges. “I accordance with its
principle, the learner is assessed during the entire period in his/her schools life.

The school – based continuous assessment is supplement with an external

examination conducted by WAEC. Initially, the weighting for the external
assessment was sixty percent (60%) and that of internal assessment (continuous)
assessment was forty percent (40%).
But now changed to 30% and 70% respectively, probably because of the
unreliability of the internal assessment.

Dear learner, it must be emphasized that the effectives of continuous assessment

thrives on the instructions’ preparedness to:
(a) to accept the philosophy of the continuous assessment systems;
(b) they should have in –depth knowledge about continuous assessment what it
means and its implications.
(c) The availability of materials and facilities to be used for continuous
assessment;
(d) Commitment of teachers to do critical assessment, grading and recording of
students performances on a systemic basis
(e) Provision of feedback to students on their work, remediation for student’s
weakness.
(f) Effective supervision at all levels.

5.3.1 Guidelines for Continuous Assessment

Dear leaner it is necessary to follows the following guidelines when undertaking
continuous assessment.

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1. Class assignment/exercises: More exercises will have to be conducted be

four (4) of such scores in the term. Each class assignment should be marked
over 10 so that maximum score for all will 40 as indicated in the brackets
under subtotal.
2. Class test: The teacher administers at least three classes for this purpose.
The test may be carried out over three or four weeks of the term. The first
two tests should carry 10 marks each, and the third should carry 20 marks
two test should carry 10 marks each, and the three tests should be forty (40)
marks.
3. Project/homework: In some cases the instructor may give the learners work
to do in group work, each member of the group is award a maximum of 5
point or marks. The actual mark will depend on each member’s contribution
to the project. If homework is given learners are expected to do this
individually, each homework also attracts a maximum of 5 points with the
actual work depending on the quality of the work done. The maximum score
for all the project/homework in the terms 20.

NB: You should be informed that if you find the maximum score of 5 for
project/homework different to use, you can as well score it over any convenient
number eg.10.You should however add up to 100%

Finally, you should calculate 40% of the total class score of the homework,
assignment, project etc. and 60% of the end – of term examination score to get the
over score to get the over score for the term.

5.4 Advantages of Continuous Assessment

Now, let us attempt to discuss the advantages of continuous assessment.
1. Continuous Assessment gives immediate and continuous feedback which is
diagnostic in native. The student knows his weakness and strength which
ensures effective study habit.
2. It motivates students to work hand towards better attainment. Students are
always kept alert on their toes. Inactiveness in learning is minimized.

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3. It reduces fear and anxieties in students. The fear of failure in one – short
test is reduced. The cumulative nature of continuous assessment gives
psychologies balance to students.
4. Examination malpractices may be better controlled since students are not
so apprehensive on one test. The temptation to employ a;; available means’
whether fair or foul, is curtailed since the student’s final grade will not be
based solely on that particular examination.

5. The comprehensive nature of continuous assessment provides a more valid

picture of student performance. There is a broad sampling of student’s
ability which is different from one-short examination.

6. With continuous assessment, the teacher gets time to measure all the
three domains such cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

5.5 Problems of Continuous Assessment

1. Continuous assessment increases the workload of teachers. The number of
tests, assignments and projects coupled with large class sizes put unbearable
pressure on the social studies teachers.
2.It is also time consuming in nature. It is common knowledge that teachers grades.
This has negative effect on teaching itself since less time will be devoted to actual
teaching and researching.
3. There is lack of uniformity in continuous assessment. The 40% which is awarded
by classroom teacher is said to be inflated by most teachers.
Teachers more or less control the “fate” of students and may tend to temper with
the actual grade of the students.
4. As a result of the distortion in grades, continuous assessment tends to reduce
credibility of certificates. Teachers’ competence and sincerity in giving objective
grades is at times questionable.
5. There is improper records- keeping. The recording, the storage and the retrieval
of records may not be done to perfection. Teacher’s carelessness in record keeping
may lead to “manufacturing” of grades of students.

In this session, we have been able to discuss the concepts of

continuous Assessment, features, its implementation as well as the
advantages and disadvantages of Continuous Assessments. Thanks
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for your involvement.

Self –Assessment Questions

Exercise 6.5

1. Define the term “ Continuous Assessment”

2. State two feature of Continuous assessment
3. Put down two advantages of using continuous Assessment.
4. Mention two disadvantages of Continuous Assessment.

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EVALUATION IN SOCIAL STUDIES SESSION 6

SESSION 6: IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION

Session 6 welcomes you. This session, the various ways in which
evaluation is of importance in social studies will be discussed. We
shall also take a brief look at the various instruments used in the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) state at least two ways in which evaluation is of importance
(b) list two instruments for evaluating cognitive domain
(c) indicate at least two instruments for evaluating the affective domain
(d) mention at least two instruments for evaluating the psychomotor domain.

Now read no . . .

6.1 Importance of Evaluation

It is crucial at this juncture to consider the importance of evaluation in social
studies.

Specifically, the importance will be considered under improvement in learning.

Teaching curriculum design, decision about individuals, certification, prediction of
success or otherwise, academic guidance among others.
(a) It provides guide for the improvement of learning. The use of evaluation
will provide feedback to students on areas they have mastered or
otherwise. When students are fed with their test scores they will get to
know areas they are doing well as well as areas their not performing. This
will enable them to put up remediation measures to ensure better
performance.
(b) It provides feedback for the improvement of teaching. The feedback from
learners will help the social studies teacher to identify the unit where
teaching has been effective and where it has not.
(c) It helps to identify particular portion of the curriculum programme or
course where students have difficulties and where revisions are needed.
The feedback received serves as a tool for reviewing, modifying or
changing the curriculum designed.

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(d) Evaluation also brings out the inherent capabilities of a leaner such as
attitudes, habits appreciation and understanding, manipulative skills in
addition to the conventional acquisition of knowledge.
(e) Evaluation helps teachers to classify children. They are able to group
pupils within content areas and place new pupils at levels appropriate to
their abilities using evaluation outcomes.
(f) Instructors are able to predict the suitability of individual children for
particular courses or careers since evaluation will indicate the overall level
of a learner’s attainment in relation to other learners in the class.
(g) It provides results for certifying student after a successful attainment of set
standards in an examination.
(h) It provides guides to improve curriculum and instructions for subsequent
groups of learners.

6.2 The Cognitive Domain and Evaluative Instruments

Dear learner, as it has been stressed already, the cognitive domain deals with the
acquisition of knowledge. It therefore deals with the head.

In the acquisition of knowledge, learners should broadly:

(i) Have opportunity to learn about their social and physical environment without
inhibitions of subject area restrictions.
(ii) Be able to identify major problems facing developed and developing
communities and locate sources of major problems knowing how they affect
national and international issues.

Dear learner, it is of importance at least to consider the evaluative instrument under

the cognitive domain. It must be pointed out that evaluation in the cognitive
domain will generally take the paper and pencil form of testing. This should have
items to measure each of the specified areas of cognitive achievement such as
recall, understanding, application, analysis synthesis etc. The evaluative instrument
spelt out under is domain are:
(i) Interviewing the children on issues of society which are reflected on the
topic.
(ii) Questioning in class to find out if children have understood the lesson.
(iii) Written tests/examinations to recall and comprehension.
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6.3 The Affective Domain and its Evaluative Instruments

It has been mentioned that the affective domain looks at the behavioural changes
that occur in an individual. It thus considers, attitudes, values, habits of pupil. It
considers the heart as centre of action.

The instruments recommended in the evaluation of the affective domain are as

follows:
(i) Observation: Observing children’s behaviours to detect any changes and
the direction of such changes.
(ii) Assessing individual child’s involvement and participation in class.
(iii) Using socio-metric techniques of evaluating children’s social standing
among their mates (eg. How often does Akwasi relate with others).
(iv) Anecdotal Records: Assess the person’s behaviour under certain
conditions.

6.4 The Psychomotor Domain and its Evaluative Instruments

Dear learner, can you guess what the psychomotor domain stands for? Well, be
informed that the psychomotor domain is concerned with muscular skills and
physical manipulation of objects requiring neuromuscular coordination (Harrow,
1972). Actually practical or performance tests are usually employed in evaluating
the psychomotor domain. Simply, we shall consider the following evaluative
instruments under the psychomotor domain:
(i) Assessing the creative ability of children from their practical work
(ii) Practical test to test practical skills. Eg. Drawing of maps, making
models, etc.
(iii) Dramatization
(iv) Role-playing etc.

In this session, we have considered the importance of evaluation,

the taxonomy of educational objectives such as the cognitive,
affective and the psychomotor domains in brief. In particular, we have considered
the evaluative instruments that are needed for the cognitive, affective and the
psychomotor domains. I hope you have enjoyed the session. Good.

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SESSION 6

Self-Assessment Questions:
Exercise 6.6

(i) There is no need evaluating students’ performance. True/False.

(ii) The cognitive domain concerns with the exercising of muscles. True/false.
(iii) State two evaluative instruments under the affective domain.
(iv) List two evaluative instruments under psychomotor domain.

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