[I ]

RO BO T DR IV E SY S1 'E! J
2.1. INTRODUCTION
trolled in orde r for the manipulator
The acti ons of the indi vidual join ts mus t be con
y to move its body, arm , and wrist is
to perf onn a desi red mot ion. The rob ot's cap acit
robot.
prov ided by the driv e syst em used to pow er the
a part icul ar form of drive system.
The join ts are mov ed by actuators pow ered by
electric drive, hydraul ic drive, and
Com mon driv e syst ems used in robotics are
pne uma tic drive.

2.2. TYPES OF DRIVE

✓ Elec tric Mo tors , like: Serv omo tors
, Step per mot ors or Direct-drive electric
mot ors.
✓ Hyd raul ic ~ctuators.

✓ Pne uma tic actu

"--
ator s.

2.3. DRIVE SYSTEMS

arm mov eme nt, the strength of the
The driv e syst em dete rmi nes the spee d of the
kinds of application.
robo4 dyn ami c perf orm anc e, and to som e exte nt the
le
2.3.1. The Important Charac teristics which must be considered whi
Basic Needs of Drive
choosing the Drive System for Robots (or)
System
(a) Accuracy
(b) Rep eata bili ty
(c) Degree of freedom
(d) Mobility
(e) Gravitational and acceleration force
(t) Backlash, friction and thermal effects
(g) Co--ordinate systems
 I

2.3.2. Actunh,>t o
JVJ,at arc., <n'f11ntm \
,1 A tlh.'ltor h'l\l·tlw, ,, Ith lhl' 1,urnm1issio11 and other ac<..cssories if any is refe
rred ~
a~ n1.·hmhn .
✓ Actuntot~ nt\' thl· dl·, u~c used for converti~g hydraulic, pneumatic and electo.
cncrg) into llll'l' hnnkul energy. 1 he mechanical energy used to get the work done~
. . . .
,~ Actuah,n- pct form tuncl1on Just opposite to that of pump. ·
✓ They can bl' used for lifting, tilting, clamping, opening, closing, metering, mix-1
3Ild mn1ing and for many other operations. ~

Types of Actuators
1. Hydraulic Actuators
2. Pnewnatic Actuators
3. Electrical Actuators
(a) Servomotor; (b) Stepper motor; (c) AC/DC motor

~ - Hydraulic Actuators
✓ Hydraulic actuators transform the hydraulic energy stored in a reservoir ii
mechanical energy by means of suitable pumps.
✓ Hydraulic actuators are also fluid power device for industrial robots ni
utilise high pressure fluid such as oil to transmit forces to the poia i
application desired. Hydraulic actuator as shown in Fig.2.1. -

Four-way
valve

Double acting
cylinder

Hand control
Oil reservoir
shift lever

Fig. 2.1. Hydraulic actuator

Robot Drive System [1]

to pneumatic
✓ Principle •:and working of hydraulic actuation system is similar
the inlet
system, except that instead of air, fluid such as water or oil supplies
ural design
power. Although the working principle remains the same, the struct
vanes.
✓ These devices utilize pressurized fluid to produce linear motio
n and force (or)
rotary motion and torque.
✓ Hydraulic actuators are used in a variety of power transf
er application .
✓ The pressure that is transmitted when a quantity of fluid
such as water (or) oil,
operate
is forced through a comparatively small orifice (or) through tube,
hydraulic
hydraulic actuator. Based on the principle, a handful number of
actuating components are designed.
✓ They are hydraulic accumulator, hydraulic cylinders,
hydraulic flow controls,
pressure
hydraulic motors, hydraulic power units, hydraulic pumps, hydraulic
regulators, rod less hydraulic cylinder and vacuum pressure regulators.

Types of Hydraulic Actuators

J. Linear Hydraulic Actuator
(a) Single acting cylinder
(b) Double acting cylinder
(c) Double acting double rod cylinder

2. Hydraulic Rotary Actuators

(a) Gear motor
(b) Vane motor
(c) Piston motor
✓ Hydraulic actuators, mainly are classified into three type.
(i) Single acting spring return type
(ii) Double acting cylinder
( iii) Ram type

(I} Single Acting Spring Return Type

✓ The single acting cylinder is pressurized on only oned end. An internal sp~ing is
d a ro extends· A reduction of
comp ressed by pressure on the cap end, an
pressure allows for the retraction of the rod by spring.
 I
~~==------ Roh 0 li
C't

,u \ \ llnriot
' , h un , t, pl , I''"' N111c t·,11 1 he npplicd to two parts, thereby generating
\,,, \,\ m,,un" in '" n di, l'C't ,onR,
(i ) R n, i, po
t t..' t mt, pe hos n ~i ntdc fluid chnmbc, nml produces unidirectional force.
, 1!h dmulic m~tuntor rnn :tlso he designed lo provide rot~1ry movement. TheSe
type of nchm1ors pnn idc torque.
✓ There arc nunn t, pcs as for as design is concerned, but importantly rack and
pini'-m tvpc and gear n10tor type actuators are employed m robot application.
They arc specified depending upon the angular rotation and torque involved.
✓ The rack and pinion type system uses rack and pinion mechanism whereas the
gear motor uses gearing mechanisms.
✓ Both types convert flui d power energy to rotary motion of a shaft in order ro
achieve mechanical function such as turning, positioning, steering, opening ~
closing, swinging or any other involving restricted rotation.

Advantages
✓ It has advantage of generating extremely large force from very COD)Ja.1
actuators.
✓ It can also provide precise control at low speeds.
✓ Robust.

✓ Self-lubricating.

✓ Due to the presence of accumulator which act as a storage device, the sysill
can meet sudden demands in power.
✓ t fo mechanical linkage is required.
✓ High efficiency and high power to size ratio.
✓ They g~neraJ ly have a greater load carrying capacity than electric ,,;
pneumatic actuator.
✓ Hydraulic robots are more capable of withstanding shock loads.
Disadvantages

✓ The hydraulic system ls required for a lar e

pump, tank, distribution lines. g infrastructure is high
✓ Leakage can occur causino a loss . .~
·~ in pcuonnance.
Robot Dril•c System
- ✓ 1ligh moint~nnncc.
✓ Not suitnblo for ck-111 environment.
✓ S('no control ofhydrnulic system is complex and is not as widely understood as
elcctnc servo control.
✓ Noisy operation.
✓ Expensive.
✓ Not energy sufficient.

2. Pneumatic Actuators ~
✓ Pneumatic actuators utilise pneumatic energy provided by a compressor and
transforms it into mechanical energy by means of pistons (or) turbines.
✓ Pressurised air is used to transmit and control power.
✓ Pneumatic actuators are the devices that cause things to move by taking the
advantage of potential energy.
Piston Pneumatic cylinder
located
inside cylinder

Double-acting
cylinder

Four-way
Filter Lubricator manually activated Adjustable flow-
control valves
Water drain Regulator control valve (one in each line)

Fig. 2.2. A pneumatic actuator

✓ The actuators in their conventional form are basically called pneumo-
mechanical device and have been used to automate industrial tasks of iterative
nature.
✓ The actuator has three components namely: 1. Cylinder, 2. Piston, 3. Valve.
✓ The cylinder is hollow chamber into which the external compressed air is
allowed to enter, so as to enable the piston to move.
✓ The air enters through a hole usually called port and a valve, which is
considered as an actuator, controls the rate of flow of air into the chamber. The
valve is a controlling element and it is an electromechanical device.
 I
--
Rohotiq

~/ ln operati,m. thl' pistl'll is rigidly 11llnchcd lo lotid rnul can slide inside the
cylinder. ln Yic" t)f tlwir motion, only two lypcs of m tuutor~ such as linear and
angular t) pt.'S nrt' manufol·turl'd, howcvl'I' in some more gcncrali7.cd sense
'
pncmnatk nrtunllW atl' clnssi lied uccording to their mechanical design
paramt'll'r sndl as thl' uumhl:r of ports nnd wuys the piston moves.
✓ rhc lint.'ar nrhhttor ~onv~rts the potential energy in the compressed air into
me~·ha.nical etwrgy in terms of linear motion. The actuator consists of a pistor
,md c~ lindcr. T'hc air enters the actuator and pushes the piston from one end of
the C) linder to the other.
Advantage s of Pneumatic Actuators
v Control is simple.
v \\ nen source of compressed air are readily available, as they often are in
engineering related facilities, pneumatic actuators may be good choice.
✓ It is cheapest form of all actuators.
✓ Pneumatic actuators have a very quick action and response time, thus allowing
for fast work C) cles.
✓ The systems are usually compact.
✓ Individual components can be easily interconnected.
✓ No mechanical transmission is usually required.
✓ Compressed Ju can be stored and conveyed easily over long distance.

Disadvantages
✓ More noise and vibration.

✓ Since air is compressible, pneumatic cylinders are not typically used for
applications requiring accurate motion between two well-defined end points.
✓ Pneumatics are not suitable for heavy loads.
✓ If mechanical stops are used, resetting the system can be slow.
3. Electric Actuators

✓ An actuator obtai ning electrical energy from mechanical system is called

electric actuator.

✓ Electric actuators are generally referred to as being those where an eiectri

• .
motor drives the robot links through some mechanical transm1ss1on 1.e., gean.
 12.11

~/ In thC' Ntd~ ) N11s Pl lnd11~tdnl 1oho111·~. liydl{111l1c rohols were the mo t

c0nm\lm , hHt I l'(Cnt i111p1 ovlm11..ml~ in dc<'ltlo 1,101<J1 dcAign hnvc meanl lhnt
nwsl tW\\ h>h,lts 111 L' ol 1111 ckeltio couHt111ctl{,i1.

, flH~ fit st comnw1ri11l f•l~rlt ic111ly dlivc11 ind,rntiinl 10h01 wus introduced in 1974
b, \HH.

, ln the l'l("l'h k S) s tl'lll , n Sl'I vo power 11111plilic1 iR nlso needed to pro 11dc a
c<,mpkk lh.'tnation systt-m.
,, fhl" l\ L\kFR 110 is nn example of clcclric drive rohot, thal is consjstent with
thC~l" lt.'ndcncics.
✓ Electric motors can nlso be used to actuate linear joints (e.g., telescoping arms)
by mc-:.1ns of pulley systems (or) other translational mechanisms.
Flectrical actuotors comprise the following:
I. Drive system: (I) DC motor; (2) AC motor; (3) Stepper motor
2. Switching Device:
(a) Mechanical switch: ( 1) Solenoids, (2) Relays
(b) Solid state switch: (1) Diodes; (2) Thyristor; (3) Transistors

Advantages
✓ Widespread availability of power supply.
✓ High power conversion efficiency.
✓ The basic drive element in an electric motor is usually lighter than that
for fluid
power.
✓ No pollution of working environment.
✓ Being relatively quiet and clean, they are very acceptable environmentally.
✓ They are easily maintained and repaired.
✓ Structural components can be light weight.
✓ The drive system is well suited to electronic control.

Disadvantage•
✓ A larger and heavier motor must be used which is costly.
✓ Poor dynamic response.
✓ Compliance and wear problems are causing inaccuracies.
✓ Conventional gear driven create backlash.
 ~
1

\ l h \ 1il,
1
IJ 11 ,I
n, ._ " ' c run fmnnnically sate. 'I hey cannot therefore be useo in
~
c spl ohlVt 11111,, ;, p}u; tc, ,

Afll)llootlon
mbl y.
I heir :ippl icntions tcud loward more precise work an asse
1. AC sc, v,,motorn
2. l)r servo nmtors
3. Stepper nwtms )

FOR ROBOT OPERATION

( 2.4. VARIOUS TYPES OF DR IVE siiS ED
Tab le 2.1 shows the compari son of various types of driv
es.

Table 2~1.
Hydraulic Pneumatic
S.No. Factor EfectricaJ

350 - 35000 kpa 35 - 3500 k;la

lnput power 24 volts - 460 volts
supply

High quality oil base Air, Nitrogen

Working fluid Electricity
2 with additives, Water combustion
based solutions, products.
synthetic liquids.

Solid state logic, power Pump, sump, Compressor,

3 Basic system
simplifiers, DC or AC regulators, (pressure, inter stage
motors gearboxes, ball temp, flow filters) coolers,
nuts, coolers. heat exchangers, pressure
servo valves, motors controls filter,
actuators and dryers,
accumulators. mufflers., val\4IO
actuators
snubbers.
4 Efficiency Over 90% for large Seldom over 60%. Seldom over
systems. 30%.
5 Delivered Poor: Motor and gearing Excellent: Highest Fair: Light
weight to must be earned by each force to weight ratio. weight, out low
force ratio sub system. Poorest pressure
weight to force ratio. produces inter
mediate
Weight to foltt
ratio.
 Robot Drive System

S.No. Factor Elect rirnl Hydrnulic Pneumatic

6 Susceptibility Low: (Elcctricnl lino 111,:11: Filters lnterm('d/llte:
to noise ➔ I 0%) cosily required special Less trouble
contamination handled RFI noise, handling during than oil
easily handled by maintc11a11cc particles drop
shielding and li ltration cleaning procedures out before
important servo getting to
valve easily valves.
damaged. Moisture and
corrosion a
problem.

7 Safety of Safest system electrical Leakage of Flying debris

operation shock hazard and flammable fluids and ruptures can be
grounding must be fire hazards. High very dangerous.
considered. ve]ocity jets of fluid Explosions
can pierce skin, possible when
blood poisoning /eye volatile oils are
inflammations present
possible. (nitrogen non
explosive)
8 Component Availability very good Excellent air craft Poor
availability and improving. and industrial availability of
component servo
availability. components.
9 Load variation Dry friction on out put Dry friction on out Serious steady
susceptibility motors can cause small put can cause small states errors can
to intermediate steady steady
I
state errors occur around
state errors around nu11. around null. null position
due to dry
friction on
output shaft.
JO System Reasonably stiff The stiffest, most Very soft
stiffness stiffness dependent on responsive system system
speed reduction. for heavy loads. (Hydraulics 400
concepts stiffer)

2.&. VARIOUS KINDS OF MOTORS I

( Electrical actuators comprise the following drive system.
I. AC Motor 2. DC Motor
3. Stepper Motor 4. Servo motor
 DC Motors
✓ A~ tlw 11 n11 w s11gpesls, 11 moltlf which uses n DC (Dirc1,;.t (, .rrent) power.
,I' Con nm in hnlh directions.
, I' Spel·d Conlrollnblc.

DC Motor Characteristics
✓ DC Motors arc high-speed, low-torque devices.
✓ Using gears, the high speed of the motor is traded off into torque.
DC Motor Drivers
✓ These are current amplifying circuits.
✓ A low current control signal is converted into a proportionally higher curre-itl
signal that can drive the motor.

Servomechanism
AC or DC motor drives precision equipment in angular increments.

Servo Systems
Change position or speed of mechanical object.

Servomotors
✓ Precise degree of rotary motion
1. Synchronous motors
2. Stepper motors

AC Synchronous Motor
✓ Rotor is a permanent magnet, can reverse direction or stop quickly.
✓ Current drawn is the same when stalled as when operating.
✓ Speed proportional to AC frequency and number of pairs of stator poles.

2.6. STEPPER IIOTOR

What is stepper motor?
A stepper motor ia a device which transforms electrical pulses inU>
increments of rotary shaft motion called steps. Figure 2.3 shows tho stepper.-_

slit
RoboJ Drfre ~) 'item

Stato \ -...---.-----

Stator B - ~....trtrtrtr+-

Phnse B

Fig. 2.3. Stepper motor

Ot-------+------t-----.---- -

STATOR EXCITING CURRENTS

Fig. 2.4. Magnetic flux path through a two pole stepper motor with
lag between the rotor and stator
Principle
✓ The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates indiscrete step increments when
electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence.
✓ The motors rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input
pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the direction of
motor shafts rotation.
✓ The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of the
input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to the number of input
pulses applied.
 I
~ \ 'CO Loop Oporation

.. Orn.' of th~ most s1gni ltcnnt advnnlngcs of u steppe, motor is its ability to~
81.'l'UmldY controlled in nn open loop system.

.. t)p~n loop control means no feedback information about position is need~

1"' ,is types of con.rot eliminates the need for expensive sensing ao<l feedbac(
1

de, ices such as optical encoders. Our position is known simply by keepiri~
track of the input step pulses.

2.6.1. Types of Stepper Motor

There are three basic stepper motor types.
1. Variable-reluctance
2. Permanent-magn,:;r
3. Hybrid

2.6.1.1. Variable-Reluctance (VR)

✓ This type of stepper motor has been

around for a long time. It is probably
the easiest to understand from a
structural point of view. Fig.2.5
shows a cross section of a typical
V.R. stepper motor.
Fig. 2.5. A Variable Reluctance M•

✓ This type of motor consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a W()IIDi
stator. When the stator windings are energized with DC current the poleS
become magnetized.

✓ Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth are attracted to the energized stator po.it

'
 2 13
Robol Drive System

2.6.1.2. Permane nt Magnet 1(PM)

Often referred to as a "tin can" or
..canstock .. motor the permanent magnet
step motor is a low cost and low resolution
type motor with typical step angles of 7.5°
to 15°. ( 48 - 24 steps re, olution). Figure
2.6 shows Principle of permanent magnet.

Fig. 2.6. Permanen t j1,fagnet (P~f)

2.6.1.3. Hybrid (HB)

✓ The hybrid stepper motor 1s more
expensive than the (PM) · stepper
motor, but provides better
performance with respect to step
resolution, torque and speed ..
Typical step angles for the HB Stepper
motor range from 3.6° to 0.9° (100 - 400
steps per revolution). The hybrid stepper
motor combines the best features of both
the PM and VR type stepper motors. Figure
2. 7 shows Cross section of hybrid stepper
motor.
Fig. 2. 7. Hybrid st~pper 1IIIOlor
✓ The rotor is multi-tooth ed like the VR motor and contains an a.xially
magnetized concentric magnet around its shaft. The teeth on the rotor provide
an even better path which helps guide the magnetic flux to preferred locations
in the air gap.
✓ This further increases the detent. holding and dynamic torque characteristics of
the motor when compared with both the VR and PM types.
 Robot,CJ

, i h1.. ,,, ,, 1111, ii 111111111011l y 11scd types of stepper motors arc the permanen
H\1\Plh'I 11nd Ihl' hyhiid ty pes.

, l I n ,t,•sig11~1 is not sure which type will best fit his r,ppljcvtions rcquiremen
ht' shtHdd first evaluate the Pt\ 1 type n si t is normally several times le
~~pensive.
✓ If not then the hybrid motor mnybe the right choice. There also excite some
special stepper motor designs. One is the disc magnet motor.
✓ Herc the rotor is designed as a disc with rare earth magnets, See fig. 2.7. n·
motor type hns some advantages such as very low inertia and a optimized
magnetic flow path with no coupling between the two stator v.rindings. These
qualities are essential in some applications.

2.6.2. When to use a Stepper Motor?

✓ A stepper motor can be a good choice whenever controlled movement is
required. They can be used to advantage in applications where you need to
control rotation angle, speed, and position and synchronism.
Because of the inherent advantages listed previously, stepper motors have foum
their place in many different applications.
✓ Some of these include printers, plotters, high end office equipment, hard disk
drives, medical equipment, fax machines, automotive and many more.

2.6.3. The Rotating Magnetic Field

✓ \Vhen a phase winding of a stepper motor is energized with current a magnetic
flux is developed in the stator. The direction of this flux is detennined by the
"Right Hand Rule" which states:
✓ '•If the coil is grasped in the right-hand with the fingers pointing in the direction
of the cun·ent in the winding (the thumb is extended at a 90°. wigle to tltt
fingers), then the thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field."
✓ Figure 2.7 shows the magnetic flux path developed when phase B is energized
with winding current in the direction shown.
✓ The rotor then aligns itself so that the flux opposition is minimized. In this cd
th e motor would rotate clockwise, so that its south pole aligns with the nortb
pole of the stator B at position 2 and its north pole aligns with the south pole rJ
stator B at position 6.
Rohot Drive System

✓ To get the motor to mlnll' w~ c:111 110w sec that we must provide a se<1uence of
energizing the stnto, wincl1ncs in !;Uch a foshion Hwt pr<,11dcs a rotating
magnetic flux fil'id which the 1oto1 follows due lo m~1gnctic nttr<1ction.

2.6.4. Torque Generation

✓ The torque p1oduccd by a stepper motor depends on several factors.
• The step rate
• The drive current in the windings
• The drive design or type
✓ In a stepper motor a torque is developed when the magnetic fluxes of the rotor
and stator are displaced from each other. The stator is made up of a high
permeability magnetic material.
✓ The presence of this high permeability material causes the magnetic flux to be
confined for the most part to the paths defined by the stator structure in the
same fashion that currents are confined to the conductors of an electronic
circuit.
✓ This serves to concentrate the flux at the stator poles. The torque output
produced by the motor is proportional to the intensity of the magnetic flux
generated when the winding is energized.
✓ The basic relationship which defines the intensity of the magnetic flux is
defined by:
H = (N0;)01
where, N = The number of winding turns
i = Current
H = Magnetic field intensity
I = Magnetic flux path length
This relationship shows that the magnetic flux intensity and consequently the
torque is proportional to the number of winding turns and the current and inversely
proportional to the length of the magnetic flux path.
✓ From this basic relationship one can see that the
same frame size stepper motor
could have very different torque output capabilities simply by changing the
winding parameters.
 ✓ More •detailed info, 11mtin11 011 how the wi11dinu,,, P', ff' l th e <>ut
• • ll i1mc 1crs H cc
caprib11Jty ol tlte 111otrn c1111 he found in the np I' r t'tl d " Pu1
Circuit Basic~". p ,ca 1011 no 1c ci1 , e nrivc

2.6.5. What is Full-stop, Half-s top and Micro-stop?

In stcpf)Cr motors tho nt1111l)
·
• • f' I
1.:1 o lcct 1 OJ poll'S on the rotor t1n<l the number
IJolcs on the stator d~t~n 111· 111.:, ti 1c sm.~ of the sl<.:p or slcp angle. ,J hrn
. basic
. ",11/1;. of stt..<i
i::.. cnllcd full-step. "'I'

Full step = - --- _J_6<_>o_ _ _ - - - - -

Number of rotor poles x Number of stator pole pairs
1lnl f-stcp is dividing a full-step by two and micro-step is dividing a full-step intc
I 0, 16, 32 or 125 micro-steps. Half-step and micro-step operations are achieved in
stepper motor by passing partial currents to stator windings (or control windingsJ.
2.6.6. Stepping Modes
The following are the most common drive modes.
✓ Wave Drive (1 phase on)
✓ Full Step Ori ve (2 phases on)
✓ Half Step Drive (1 & 2 phases on)

2.6.7. Stepper Speed-Torque Characteristic

✓ Steppers develop maximum torque (holding) at zero angular velocity.
✓ As the speed of motor increases, the torque it develops reduces significantly.
✓ Steppers cannot rotate fast.
✓ If the signals coming are too fast, the rotor will miss steps.

2.6.8. Advantages of Stepper Motors

✓ The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
✓ The motor has full torque at standstill(if the windings are energized)
✓ Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors
have an accuracy of 3 - 5% of a step and this error is non cumulative from 011C
step to the next.
✓ Excellent response to starting stopping/reversing.
Rohot Drive Svs1em
[2.nl
✓ Very reliable sine~ thc1 e me 110 co11111ct hrnsli cs 111 lhc n,ot or. ·1hcrcforc the lire
of the motor is simply dcpcndunt 011 the life of the hc,1 ri11g.

✓ The motors r\.:'sponsc lo digiwl illpul pulses pw vidcs open•loop control, makin,
the motor simpler and less costly to control.

✓ It is possible lo achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that i
directly coupled to the shaft.

✓ A wide range of rotational speeds can be real iY-cd as the speed is proportional to
the frequency of the input pulses.

2.6.9. Disadvantages of Stepper Motors

✓ Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.
✓ Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

2.6.10. Uses of Stepper Motors

✓ Used for measured rotation.
✓ Can be held at a particular position of the shaft.

· ✓ Ideal for many autonomous robots requiring higher precision

2.6.11. Problems with Stepper Motors

•
✓ Very low torque to weight ratio.
✓ Torque decreases with increase in the stepping frequency.
✓ For sufficiently high stepping speed the stepper motor may skip steps du~ to
overshoot.

2.7. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DC MOTORS AND STEPPER MOTORS

The Table 2.2 presents the difference between DC motor and Stepper motor.
 Tnh/e 2. 2. Differe11ce~ lJ etwee11 /J C Mi
oto r lllu/ ,Sf Ppper MfJtor
DC Mo tors
-- --
1. Torque is proporfiotrnJ t<J the
--- - --
Stcr,pcr M,,fors
----
l . '/ orqt1c changes arc not possible.---....
annat urc current .
-----..
~ ~or 1c snmc
. -

2. I.., nrgc siic fl

2 Sm:,JJ ', J/J,;, for the gj,ren maximum
mnximum torque. torque.
. .............
3. Pi ccisc '- ,1•b 1·tr,try . is
. . mng
, 11osll1o 3. l'o\ itio n J', quantiw:1 ::Jnd precise.
possible.
- -
---
4. Rapid response. 4. R<.;sponsc time h poor.
5. High holding torque. 5. Not suitable for high holding torque.
-
Used for light loads only.
p or
-
6. Must operate in the closed loop 6. Can operate in the open loo
mode. closed mode. -
7. Non synchronous movement. 7. Synchronous operation is possible.

8. Commutators and brushes require 8. No maintenance is req uired.

maintenance.
9. Requires bipolar power supplies 9. Can operate from single battery.

10. The drive is smooth. IO. Accelerates and decelerates during

each step, smooth operation is jerky.

2.8. SERVOM OTORS

s are called servomotors
✓ The motors used in automatic control system
age}
✓ The servomotors are used to
convert an electrical signal (control volt
nt of the shaft.
applied to them into an angular displaceme
✓ Depending upon the control applica
tion, the servomotors can vary. In general
the features of servomotors are:
electric control signal
• Linear relation ship between the speed and
• Steady state stability
• Wide range of speed control
ughout the entire speed r&JJIO·
• Linearity of mechanical characteristics thro
• Low mec hanical and electrical inertia
• Fast response
Rohot Dl'lve Syst,w1 2~

✓ Depend ing on the supply usc.;d.s11vomotors tire das,,fo <l a·

• AC sc1v<'mnto1 s • DC crvomo tor
✓ Pri11ciple.\· nf .\ erw,nw tor.-.:
• Servom otor is used wi1hin position control (ur) peed contro and
feedbac k control sy~tcm.
• An ckctros tntic motor ,s based on the attractio n and repu
electrical charge.

2.8.1. The Charac teristic of Servo Motors

I. Linear relation ship between the speed and electric c<,mtroJ signal
2. Steady- state stability
3. Wide rang of speed control
4. Lineari ty of mechan ical characteristic through out the entfre sp~ ran~e
5. Low mechan ical and electrical inertia
6. Fast respons e

2.8.2. DC Servom otors

DC servom otors may further be classifi ed into:
DC SERVO MOTOR S

Sliding contact motors with Brushless or oontac: ess ,...,o:~:-s

commutat or and brushes with transistor CCr<'mt..ta:or

,., Permanent magnet motors ❖ Electroma gnetic field motors

,., Cylindrical armature motors ❖ Armature controlled motors

'.f Disc armature motors ❖ Field controlled motors

,., Moving coil motors
.__ ____ --- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---- ---- --
Sliding contact motors with perman ent magne t DC 111otors
Here the field windin g is replaced by permanent magnet s to produc e the desired
field.

2.8.3. Advantages
✓ A simple and more reliable motor because the field power supply is not
required.
✓ Higher efficien cy due to the absence of field loss.
 ✓
✓
Held lln:-.:
.
is less otfcc lcd hy 1,•rr,1'et·•1f .
.... ' , 11rc nsc.
Less hntr11g, making it possihlc lo fol'tlJy enc • ·I t

✓ N0 •, • . ~ ' osc tnc rotor

spccd in , • •
poss1 l1 lrty of over 1lie lo 1oss of f rcld,
✓ . g<
I mcnr torque Vs Speed cu, vc.
✓ f ligh powe r output nl II -.. , . .
tcmpcrnt11re Hrnitations.
le smnc dimenstons Hnd
2.8.4. Disadvantagos
✓ 1\ 1agnctic dctcr
·
· und dcmugncti1;uf by fargc current transient.
i ,1tl; WJI• I1 lime
or,

✓ I\ lag net ic rnatcrin Is Iikc ccram ic and rare earth magnets can be USed ~
overcome these drawbacks, but they arc very expensive.
few kw
✓ Pemrnncnt magnet motors are more economical for power rating upto a
2.8.5. Electromagnetic Field Motors
mic for hiwier
Unlike pennanent magnetic DC motors, there motors are econo
power ratings, above 1 kW. Its salient features as follows:
✓ Number of slots and commutator segments is large to
improve commutation.
ing.
✓ Compoles and compensating windings are provided to eliminate spark
✓ The diameter to length ratio is kept low to reduce inerti
a.

✓ Eddy currents are reduced by complete lamination

of the magnetic circuit a
by using low-loss steel.
olled, tla
Depending upon the manner in which the torque and speed are contr
.
motors are further divided into annature controlled or field controlled

(i) Armature Controlled

y.
✓ It is a DC shunt motor in which the field is excited by constant DC suppl
✓ Here since field is constant, torque and speed are
directly proportional •
armature current. Hence torque and speed can be controlled
by aQ\1ll1IC
voltage.
✓ Reversible operation is possible by reversing the anna
ture voltage.

(ii) Fief d Controlled DC Servomotors

✓ It is a DC shunt motor in which armature is supplied with
constant current d
voltage.
Robot Drive System
12.211
✓ s·mce armature voltngc is c ,, . 1.
, ' ' ons1,m t • torque 18 l ircctly proportional to field flux.
Hence the torque cnn be contrnllccl by varying fic1d flux .
✓ Rcversibk oprrntion is possihlc hy rcvcrning the field current.
2.8.6. Advantages of DC Servomotors
\' Higher output than from a 50 I Jz motor of same '>IZC-.
✓ L' . ,
meanty oJ characteristic achieved easily.
✓ Easier speed control.

✓ High torque to inertia ratio gives them quick response to control signals.
✓ Low electrical time constant (0.1 to 6 ms) and low mechanical time constant
(2.3 to 40 ms).

2.8.7. Applications of DC Servomotors

1. CNC 2. Robotics
3. Machine tool 4. Typewriter and Printers

2.9. AC SERVOMOTORS
An AC servomotor is basically a two-phase induction motor except for certain
special design features. It differs from the induction motor as foilows.
✓ The rotor of the servomotor is built with high resistance. So that its X/R ratio is
small this results in linear speed characteristics unlike in induction motors.
✓ The excitation voltage applied to two stator windings should have a phase
difference of 90°.
Construction
STATOR
✓ Stator consists of two pole-pairs, such that there axes are at an angle of 90° in
space.
✓ Each pole-pair consists of a winding. One winding is called reference winding
and the other control winding.
✓ To produce a phase difference of 90° between the two winding, a phase
advancing capacitor is used can be of two types.
ROTOR
Rotor construction can be of two types.
 2.9.1. Squirrelcage Type
·
In this the rotor is· m•·1d,,.' 0 t· I·t11111· 1101to ··
11s. I he rotor ham arc plnccd on slots and sho
. .
.· . 'f'I1c c1rnmc . . . • rt
c1rcmted at both ends· by c,1d 'mgs tcr of lhc rotor 1s Y(.;.pt sma 1J m order to
. .
rizing
reduce mer tia and lo obtain good accclcruting chnractc
2.9.2. Drag Cap Type
rotor wiJ1 be in the forro <,f
This type is employed for low inertia applications. The
cylinder itself acts as shon
holl ow cylinder made of aluminium. The aluminium
circuited rotor conductors.
Working
✓ Stat or windings are excited by voltages
of equal rms and 90° phase difference
because of which exciting currents are generated.
✓ These currents give rise to a rotating mag
netic field of constant magnitude. The
of the currents .
direction of rotation depends on the phase relationship
✓ The rotating magnetic field sweeps
over the rotor conductors. The rotor
ages are induced in ~
conductors experience a chan ge in flux and so volt
conductors. This voltage hence create a rotor flux.
✓ Due to interaction of stator and rotor flux,
a mechanical force (or torque) is
in the same direction ~
developed on the rotor and so the rotor starts moving
that of rotating magnetic field.
Advantages
no
✓ AC motors cost lower, high er efficiency and less maintenance as there are
commutators and brushes.
Disadvantages
are quite non- line ar and hence
✓ The disadvantage is that the characteristics
control for positioning systems is difficult.
Applications
AC motors are best suited for low power applications
such as:
)
✓ Instrument servo (Example: Control of_pen in x-y recorder
ters etc).
✓ Computer related equipment (Example: Hard disk devices, prin
2.10. COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC SER
VOMOTORS

The Table 2-3 Presents the Comparisons between

DC servomotor and AC servo
motor.
Robot Drive System
~:ti]

....1 3. C0111panw11 "'''!l'<'C'/1 nc S,•r,,omotor (IJ I{/ A{ ',\nvomotor

Table -
-=
S.No. DC Se n ol11ofor
1 AC Scrvom<Jtor
output than
1. Higher power output. Relativity lesser power
a DC--servomotor of same
- - -
,,j/.,e
~

linear.
2. Characteristic arc linea
r. Characteristics arc non-
y slower
3. Fast response du e to lo
w elec tri cal The response is relativel
e to higher
and mechanical time co
nstant. than DC servomotors du
values of time constants.
applications.
4. Suitable for large pow
er Suitable for low power
application.
RS
PE R M A N EN T M AG NET DC SERVO MOTO
GES O F
2.11. THE ADVANTA
be ca use the field po wer supply is not required.
ble motor
1. A simpler, more relia .
r effic iency du e to the absence of field losses
2. Highe e.
cted by temperature ris
3. Field flux is less affe .
m ak ing it po ss ible to totally enclose the motor
4. Less heating, .
ssibility of ov er sp ee ding due to loss of field
5. No po
Vs speed curve.
6. A more linear torque an d temperature limitations
.
at the sam e dim en sio ns
7. Higher power output
EP PE R M O TO RS AND SERVOMOTORS
BETWEEN ST
2.12. COMPARISON or and servo motor.
be tw ee n stepp er m ot
the comparisons
The Table 2.4 presents
or
parison Betw een Stepper Motor and Servo Mot
Table 2.4. Com
or Servomotor
Steppe r mot
Since the design is very
ssible
Drive circuit Simple. complicated, it is not po
The user can fabricate. to fabricate own driving
circuit.
Very little
Noise and Significant
2.
vibration Faster (3000-5000 rpm
Spjed Slow (l 000-2000 rpm maximum)
3.
maximum)
 REVIEW AND SUMMARY
R(lho~ ~~b•e: :he rnhol's capodfy In move ifs body, Hrm, ancl wrist is pro~~
th~ d11H sy~km used tn pn,\l'I the 1(1hot.
Type.Ji of drfre:
I. Fll~l'1l k drive
2. 1h. drautic drive
3. Pncnmntk drivr
Requirement ,~f robot drfre syste111:
1. Accuracy
2. Repeatability
3. Degrees of freedom
4. Mobility
5. Backlash, friction and thermal effects
Actuators:
✓ A motor together with transmission and other accessories if any is referred
to as actuator.
✓ Actuators are the device used for converting hydraulic, pneumatic, am
electrical energy into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is used to
get the work done.
Types of actuators:
l. Hydraulic actuators
2. Pneumatic actuators
3. Electrical actuators
(a) Servomotor
(b) Stepper motor
.,- - - - - (c)_~C/DC J?10to1~
Types of ltydraulic t1ctuator: - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - ~ -- -

1. Linear hydraulic actuator

(a) Single acting cylinder
(b) Double acting cylinder
(c) Double acting double rod cylinder
 Rohot DriPe System

2. Hydraulic rolnry nctuntor

(a) Gear motor
(b) Vane motor
( c) Piston motor
Ad,,a11tages of hydraulic actuator:
Robust
Self lubricating
No mechanical linkage is required
High efficiency
Disadva11tages of hydraulic actuator:
Expensive
Noisy operation
High maintenance
Not energy sufficient
Pneumatic actuator
Pressurised air is used to transmit and control power.
The actuator has three important components, namely
(i) cylinder, (ii) piston, (iii) valve.
Advantage ofpneumatic actuator
Compact
Control is simple
It is cheapest form of all actuator.
Compressed air can be stored and conveyed easily over long distance.
Disadvantages ofpneumatic actuator:
More noise and vibration.
Penumatics are not suitable for heavy load.
If mechanical sto s are used. resetting the system can be slow.
Electrical actuator:
- An actuator obtaining electrical energy from mechanical system is
called electrical actuator.
Electrical actuator comprise
1. Drive system: (1) AC motor, (2) DC motor, (3) Stepper motor.
 2. Switching device:
(a) ~ kchanknl switch: ( l) Solenoid, (2) Rcloys
(3) rransistors
(h) Solid stntc switch: ( 1) Diodes, (2) ·r hyristor,
Ad1'antage of e/ectricnl ncluntnr:
1. " 'idc sprcnd nvaiJuhility of power supply.
2. No pollution of working environment.
High pO\\ er conversion cnicicncy.
4. The drive system is well suited to clect~onic control.
It-------

Disadra11tage of electrical actuator:

I. Poor dynamic response.
2. Larger and heavier motors must be used which is costly.
3. Conventional gear driven create backlash.
Various kinds of motors:
1. AC motor
2. DC motor
3. Stepper motor
4. Servo moto r
~ Stepper motor:
inetenw:-.
Stepper motor is a device which transforms electrical pulses into equa1
of rotary shaft motion called steps.
Types ofstepper motor:
1. Variable reluctance
2. Permanent magnet
3. Hybrid
Advantages ofstepper motor:
1. The motor has fulJ torque at stands still.
2. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

11
3._E xce~ ent response !o s~tarting, stopping and reversing.
_____

Disadvantage ofstepper motor.·

1· Not easy 10 opera te at extremely high speed.
2. Resonance can occur if not properly controlled.
Robot Drive System
!2.371
Uses of stepper n,otors:
✓ Used for measured rotation.
✓ Can be held at n particular position of sh!!fl.
Proble111~f ,vit/1 stepper 111otor.\·:
✓ V cry low torque to weight ratio.
✓ Torque decreases with increase in the stepping frequency.
DC Motor - -1 _____ StP-pper_Moto!' _ _ _ __
1. Torque IS proportional to the 1. Torque changes are not possible.
arn1ature current.
2. Precise arbitrary position IS 2. Position is quantized and precise.
possible.
Servo motors:
✓ The servo motors are used to convert an electrical signal applied to them into
an angular displacement of the shaft.
✓ The motors used in automatic control system.
Characteristics of servo motor:
✓ Wide range of speed control.
✓ Fast response.
✓ Low mechanical and electrical inertia.
✓ Steady state stability.
Advantage ofservo motor:
1. Simple and reliable motor.
2. Higher efficiency due to the absence of field loss.
3. Field flux is less affected by temperature rise.
Disadvantage ofservo motor:
1. Magnetic deteriorate with time and demagnetized by large current
transient.
2. Permanent magnets are more economical for power rating upto few kW.
Open loop system:

Input Open Loop System Output

(Plant)
 A/J 71tlrJ,~., tif
• ' open lflop AY,\len,.·
-- SrmpJc
.._ hconomH.: al
- bct~icr (() Const, Uct
Disad,,a,,taRe:
- Inaccurate nnd unrcfiublc.
- The changes in the outpul due to external disturbance are not corr
automatically.
Adva11tage of closed loop system:
- The systems arc accurate even in the presence of non-Jinearities.
- Less affect=ed::_:::.:by~ no=-.:i:.:..se=-.:·._ _ _ _ _ __
Disadvantages of closed loop system:
- Complex and costlier.
- The feedback reduces the overall gain of the system.
Main components of harmonic drive:
I . Elliptical wave generator.
2. Flex spline with external teeth.
3. Rigid circular spline with internal teeth.
Advantage of hannonic drive:

1. Compact and light in weight.

2. Zero backlash.
3. High torque capability.
4. Coaxial input and output shaft.
- - - -··--·------
Drive system used in the robot.•

I. Gears (i) Spur gear, (ii) Bevel gear, (iii) Helical, (iv) Wonn gear
2. PuJley dri vcs

3. Rack and pinion drive

4. Recirculating ball and screw
5. Rotary drives