Coden MLCNA

MATHEMATICS LECTURE NOTE SERIES

min ily
ESE (Somme

Marvin J. Greenberg
John R. Harper

THE BENJAMIN/CUMMINGS PUBLISHING COMPANY

Advanced Book Program/World Science Division
ALGEBRAIC TOPOLOGY
A First Course

Marvin J. Greenberg John R. Harper

University of California University of Rochester
Santa Cruz, California Rochester, New York

3/“er,
7 1’
(ad;
1981

THE BENJAMIN/CUMMINGS PUBLISHING COMPANY

Advanced Book Program/World Science Division
Reading, Massachusetts
London Amsterdam
- -
Don Mills, Ontario Sydney Tokyo
~ -
 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Greenberg, Marvin J.
Algebraic topology.
(Mathematics lecture note series ; 58)
“A revision of the first author’sLectures on
algebraic topology”——P.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Algebraic topology. 1. Harper, John R.,
1941- 11. Title. III. Series.
.

QA612.G7 514’.2 81-17108

ISBN 0-8053-3558-7 AACR2
ISBN 0-8053-3557-9 (pbk.)

American Mathematical Society (MOS) Subject Classification Scheme (1980):

55-01, 57-01

Copyright © 1981 The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
pennission of the publisher, The Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company, Inc.,
Advanced Book Program/World Science Division, Reading, Massachusetts
01867, U.S.A.
Manufactured in the United States of America
ABCDEFGHIJ-HA—898765432l
 CONTENTS

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ix

Part I. Elementary Homotopy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1
Introduction to Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
l. Arrangement of Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
2. Homotopy of Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
3. Homotopy of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
4. Fundamental Group of the Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
5. Covering Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
6. A Lifting Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
7. Loop Spaces and Higher Homotopy Groups . . . . . . . .
32

Part II. Singular Homology Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37
Introduction to Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
8. Affine Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
9. Singular Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
10. Chain Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
11. Homotopy Invariance of Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
12. Relation Between 1r, and H, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
13. Relative Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
14. The Exact Homology Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
15. The Excision Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
16. Further Applications to Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
17. Mayer—Vietoris Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
18. The Jordan~Brouwer Separation Theorem . . . . . . . . . .
106
19. Construction of Spaces: Spherical Complexes . . . . . .
112
20. Betti Numbers and Euler Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . .
128
21. Construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and More
AdjunctionSpaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
134

vii
viii Contents

Part III. Orientation and Duality on Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

153
Introduction to Part III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
155
22. Orientation of Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
157
23. Singular Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
174
24. Cup and Cap Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
25. Algebraic Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
208
26. Poincaré Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
215
27. Alexander Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
230
28. Lefschetz Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
237

Part IV. Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem . . . . . . . . .

247
Introduction to Part IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
249
29. Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
251
30. Thom Class and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem . . . .
276
31. Intersection Numbers and Cup Products «
. . . . . . . . . . .
290

Table of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
301

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
303

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
309
 PREFACE

Algebraic Topology is one of the major creations of twentieth-century

mathematics. Its influence on other parts of mathematics, such as algebra
[38], number theory [4, 49], algebraic geometry [27, 31, 50], differential
geometry [26], and analysis [12, 1963-64] has been enormous. In its own
right, it is a major tool for the investigation of topological spaces, especially
manifolds. Its key idea is to attach algebraic structures to topological spaces
and their maps in such a way thatthe algebra is bothinvariantunder a variety
of deformations of spaces and maps, and computable.
This book is intended as a first course, sufficiently comprehensive to
enable the student either to use the subject in other fields of endeavor and/or
to pursue its development and applications in more advanced texts and the
literature.
Our presentation is a revision of the first author’s Lectures on Algebraic
Topology. The intent in revising was to make those additions of theory,
examples, and exercises which updated, enhanced, and simplified the
original exposition. The point of view and organizational principles of the
earlier book have been maintained. Virtually all of the original book has been
reproduced.
In the additional material, special attention has been given to calculations,
with more geometry to balance all the algebra.
There are essentially four parts to this work: Sections 1-7 form Part 1,
elementary homotopy theory. Homotopy of paths and maps is defined, and
the fundamental group is constructed. The classificationof covering spaces
by means of subgroups of the fundamental group is given, and, finally, the
higher homotopy groups are defined inductively using loop spaces, following
Hurewicz.
Sections 8-21, Part II, treat singular homology theory. This Part has been
influenced by the lucid notes of E. Artin [3] and the work of Eilenberg—
Steenrod [23]. The advantages of singular over simplicial homology theory
are that, first, it applies to arbitrarytopological spaces; second, it is obviously
topologically invariant; third, once the excision theorem is proved, there is

ix
x Preface

never again any need to subdivide, and, finally, it is easier to calculate once
the basic formulas (19.16—l9. 18) have been proved. Combinatorial
techniques are still very important in algebraic topology [36, 62, 70].
However, it is now recognized that algebraic topology encompasses at least
three different categories—topological, differential, and piecewise linear. In
this book wetreat primarily the first (references for the second are [15, 17,
41-44, 51, 55, 68, 71]). The classical applications of homology theory to
spheres are given in Sections 15, 16, and 18.
Sections 22-28 form Part III, the orientability and duality properties of
manifolds. This part has been greatly influenced by notes of Dold, Puppe,
and Milnor. No assumption of triangulabilityis needed in this treatment. The
correct cohomology theory for the duality is that of Alexander—Cech;
however, for brevity’s sake, we only describe the Alexander—Cech coho-
mology module of a subspace A as the inductive limit over the neighborhoods
of A of the singular cohomology modules. We show that this coincides with
the singular cohomology module when A is a compact ANR.
Finally in Part IV we develop the basic features of the theory of products in
cohomology. The applications include the Lefschetz fixed point theorem for
compact oriented manifolds and an introduction to intersection theory in
closed manifolds.
Each part is divided into several sections. These are the organizational
units of the text. There is considerable flexibility(especially in the latter
parts) in the order in which they may be studied. In Part II, many sections
conclude with material which may be skimmed or skipped at first reading.
Most sections end with sets of exercises. No theoretical development
depends on an exercise nor is further theoretical material given as exercises.
Most exercises concern calculation and, as the subject develops, geometric
applications are made. There are many cross—references among exercises.
Refinements of calculations available with developments of the theory are
offered. Similarly, improvements in geometric results are made in several
sections. This process imitates the way the subject actually developed, and
may help motivate the successive layers of abstraction through which the
subject passes. Some exercises are accompanied with suggestions for their
solution. These suggestions should not be taken too seriously. Most problems
can be solved in different ways, and one’s favorite solution may not receive
widespread approval. But it is discouraging to be totally “stuck” so sugges-
tions are offered to alleviate that condition.
Prerequisites for this book, besides the usual “mathematicalmaturity,” are
very few. In algebra, familiarity with groups, rings, modules, and their
homomorphisms is required. From Section 20 on, some basic results for
modules over principal ideal domains will be used. Only in Sections 29 and
30 is knowledge of the basic properties of the tensor product of two modules
needed. The language of categories and functors is used throughout the book,
Preface xi

although no theorems about categories are required. For all of this material,
see Lang [35].
In point—set topology, the reader is presumed to be familiarwith the basic
facts about continuity, compactness, connectedness and pathwise—
connectedness, product spaces, and quotient spaces. Only in the appendix to
Section 26* do we require a nontrivial result, Tietze’s extension theorem.
Section 7 uses some elementary results about the compact—open topology on
function spaces. For this material, see Dugundji [20] or Kelley [34].
I recommend the survey articles [44a, 62, and 75, pp. 227-31 and its
bibliography]to the reader seeking further information on the extraordinary
achievements in algebraic topology in recent years.
I thank M. Artin, H. Edwards, S. Lang, B. Mazur, V. Poenaru, H.
Rosenberg, E. Spanier, and A. Vasquez; also my students Berkovits, Perry,
and Webber, for helpful comments.
We are grateful to a number of people for helpful remarks concerning the
revision. The comments of D. Anderson, E. Bishop, G. Carlsson, M.
Friedman, T. Frankel, J. Lin, and K. Millett were helpful in deciding what to
include and what to leave out. As the work developed, valuable remarks were
made by M. Cohen, A. Liulevicius, R. Livesay, S. Lubkin, H. Miller, R.
Mandelbaum, N. Stein, and A. Zabrodsky.
The typing of the manuscript was expertly done by S. Agostinelli, R.
Colon, and M. Lind. Additional figures were drawn by D. McCumber.
Special thanks are extended to Doris, Jennifer, and Allison for not
overreacting to neglect endured during preparation and assembly of this
material.
Lastly, we thank Errett Bishop for suggesting that we collaborate on this
book.

MARVIN J. GREENBERG
JOHN R. HARPER

*(26.l7)
ALGEBRAIC TOPOLOGY
A First Course
 Pan‘ 1
ELEMENTARYHOMOTOPY
THEORY
 Introduction to Part I

The wellspring of ideas leading to algebraic topology was the perception,

developed largely in the latter half of the nineteenth century, that many
properties of functions were invariant under “deformations.” For example,
Cauchy’s theorem and the calculus of residues in complex analysis assert
invariance of complex integrals with respect to continuous deformations of
curves. Perhaps the true starting point was Riemann’s theory of abelian
integrals. It was here thatthe significance of the connectivity of surfaces was
recognized. The interested reader is strongly encouraged to examine Felix
Klein’s exposition of Riemann’s theory [80], during the study of algebraic
topology.
It was Poincare who first systematically attackedthe problem of attaching
numerical topological invariants to spaces. In his investigations, he perceived
the difference between curves deformable to one another and curves
bounding a larger space. The former idea led to the introduction of homotopy
and the fundamental group, while the latter led to homology.
The development of these ideas into a mathematicaltheory is elaborate.
However, the idea guiding the development is easily described. Certain
functors are constructed. Thus to each topological space X is assigned a
group F (X), and to each map f : X —>Y (a “map” of topological spaces will
always mean a “continuous map” unless otherwise stated) is assigned a
homomorphism F (f) : F (X) F (Y) such that ->

(1) If Y =X and f =
identity, then F (f) identity,
=

(2) Ifg: Y —’
Z, then F(gf) =
F(g)F(f).
Illustration: Suppose we have a diagram of topological spaces and maps
Marvin J. Greenberg and John R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN O—8053—3558~7( H)
ISBN O—8053—3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, lnc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of
the publisher.
4 Elementary Homotopy Theory

E
fr /
//
/ P
/
/
Y X

and the problem is to findf such thatpf =f Applying the functorF we see
' ’

that a necessary condition for a solution to exist is thatF (f ) send F (Y) into
the subgroup F (p)(F(E)) of F (X). In certain cases later we will see this is
also sufficient (6.1).
Illustration: Suppose f 2 X Y is a homeomorphism. Then by func~
—-*

toriality F (f"1) is inverse to F (f ), so that F (f ) is an isomorphism. Thus a

necessary condition (but usually not sufficient) thatX and Y be homeomor-
phic is thatF (X) and F (Y) be isomorphic groups. This is usually the easiest
way to prove that two given spaces with similar topological properties are not
homeomorphic.
Illustration: Suppose 1' 2 A X is the inclusion map of a subspace A into X
-*

and our problem is to find a map r : X A such thatri is the identity map of
-+

A (such a map r is called a retraction of X ontoA). By functoriality,F (r)F(z' )

equals the identity transformation of F (A), so that F (1') sends F (A)
isomorphically onto a subgroup of F (X). If we happen to know, e.g., that
F (X) is trivial while F (A) is not, it then follows that no retraction can exist.
This is the way the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem is proved (4.11 and 15.7).
The reader may construct some more illustrations to convince himself of
the fruitfulness of this point of view.
 1. Arrangement of Part I
In Part I, we treat the fundamental group and the closely related notion of
covering space. The geometric idea for the construction of the fundamental
group functor is homotopy of paths. Roughly speaking, a homotopy of a path
is a deformation leaving the end points fixed. A composition of paths may be
defined when the end point of one agrees with the initial point of the other.
Familiar algebraic properties, like associativity, do not hold, but do hold up
to homotopy. The result is a group structure on equivalences classes, called
the fundamental group. This group is not just a topological invariant, but
invariant under a larger class of maps, called homotopy equivalences. These
topics are treated in Sections 2 and 3.
In order to exploit the fundamental group, we must be able to calculate it.
There are two principal routes to calculation: the Seifert—Van Kampen
theorem and the use of covering spaces. The Versions of the former used in
this text are stated in (4.12). There are several excellent accounts available
in other texts, so we do not reproduce the details. Our treatment of the
fundamental group of the circle is the prototype for the theory of covering
spaces. The lifting theorem for covering spaces (6.1), besides being useful, is
an outstanding example of the blend of algebra and geometry that gives this
subject its special flavor. Part I concludes with a brief discussion of higher
homotopy groups, introduced by means of loop spaces.

Marvin J. Grecnbergandlohn R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3-35 58—7( H)
ISBN 0—8053—3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1931 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, lnc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No pan ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the publisher.
 2. Homotopy of Paths

Consider, in the plane, the problem of integrating a function f of a complex

variable around a closed curve C, e.g., the unit circle. We have, for example,

fza'z=l
C

dz
~—¢0
cz

What is the difference? We take the point of view that C can be “shrunk to a
point” within the domain of analyticity of 2 (i.e., the whole plane), hence
integrating around C is equivalent to integrating at a point, which gives 0. On
the contrary C cannot be “shrunk to a point” within the domain of 1/2.
More precisely, let 0, 1' bepaths in a space X (i.e., maps of theunit interval
I into X) with the same end points (i.e., 0(0) 1(0) x0, 0(1) 1:(1) x,).
= = = =

We say 0 and r are homotopic with endpoints held fixed written

0=rrel(O, 1)
if there is a map F: I X I -* X such that

(1) F(s,0)=0(s) alls

(2) F(s, l) r(s) = alls
(3) F(0,t)=x0 allt
(4) F(l,t)=x1 allt
Man in J. Grcenberg and.lohn R. Harper. Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 0»8053»3558»7( H)
ISBN 0-805 3—3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. Inc.. Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part olthis publication may be reproduced. stored in 2: retrieval system. ortransmittcd. in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording. orotherwisc, without the prior permission of
the publisher.
Homotopy of Paths 7

F is called a homotopy from 0to I. For each t, s -* F (s, t) is a path F, from

xo to x1, and F0 0, F,=
‘L’. We write
=

F,:0=-L’ rel(O,l)
Pictorially:

In particular if 0 is a loop at x0 (i.e., x, x0) and r is the constant loop

=

z'(s) =x0 for all s, and if 0: r rel (0, 1), we say that “0 can be shrunk to a
point,” or is homotopically trivial.
Then the correct statement of Cauchy’s Theorem is that ff (z)dz
C
= 0

for all loops C in the domain X of analyticityoff which are homotopically

trivial (more generally, homologically trivial).
The following properties of relation ’—“ are easily proved:

(1) 0=0 rel(0,l)

(2) 0=r rel(O,1)=>t=0rel(0,l)
(3) 021' rel(O,l)andr=prel(O,1)=>0=prel(O,1)
Thus we can consider the homotopy classes [0] of paths 0 from x0 to x1 under
the equivalence relation —“—’.
If 0 is a path from x0 to x1 and 1' is now taken to be a path from x, to xz, we
define a path 01' from xo to x2 by first travelling along 0, then along 1'; more
precisely we set

(4) 09- 0’ re1(0, 1) and 1': 1" rel(O, 1) %> 01’: 0'1” rel (0, 1).
Proof: IfF, : 02 0’ rel (0, 1), G, : r—~— 1" rel (0, 1), then
 Elementary Homotopy Theory

F,G, : arm (r’r’ rel (O, 1). I

Thus we can multiply the class of 0 on the right by the class of r without
ambiguity, always supposing the end point of 0 equals the initial point of 1.
(2.1) Theorem. Let in (X, xo) be the set ofhomotopy classes of loops in X
at xo.If multiplication in 111 (X, x0) is defined as above, 7T1 (X, xo) becomes a
group, in which the neutral element is the class of the constant loop at x0
and the inverse of a class [0] is the class of the loop 0" defined by

a“(t)=a(1—t) osrsi

(i. e., travel backwards along 0).

Proof We will prove that 00"‘ 2x0, where now x0 denotes also the
constant loop at the point x0. The homotopy is given by the following
diagram:

0 0

X0

Thus, we define F (s, t) by

0'(2S) 0 S 2s _<_ t
F(s,t)= o(t) tS2sS2—t
a"l(2s—1) 2-tS2sS2

Clearly these functions are continuous on each triangle and they agree on the
intersections, hence by an elementary argument F is continuous on the whole
square.
The proof that multiplication is associative (up to homotopy) can be done
similarly, as can the proof that the class of x0 is the neutral element.
Homotopy of Paths 9

4s
«H1 0SsSa(t+1)
1

DefineF(s,t)= t(4s~t~ 1) ;‘,(t+l)_<_sS§(t+2)

4s~t~2
(1)
?—‘ §(l+2)SS.<_l

to establish (o'r)a) 2 o(1:w) rel (0, 1).

0 (ZS)
Z

t+1
H-1
OSSSF
2
DefineF(s,t)=
1+1
x0 73:51
to establish that the constant path at x0 is the neutral element of the
fundamental group. I
Is there a relation between 11, (X, x0) and TT1 (X, x, )'.’ There certainly is not if
x0 and x, lie in different path—connected components ofX. However, we have
the following result.

(2:2) Proposition. Let be

[a ‘oa] is isomorphism
a a path from x0 to x,. The mapping [(7] —’

an ct‘ ofthe group 7r1(X, xo) onto U1(X, x1).

Proofi It is clearly a homomorphism, and (a"‘)* is its inverse (where of‘

is the path defined as in 2.1). I

(2.3) Corollary. If X is pathwise connected, the group in (X, x0) is

independent of the point xo, up to isomorphism.
In that case we often write simply 17, (X) for 21, (X, x0) and call it the
fundamental group of X.
We would like 11, to be a functor from spaces to groups, but since rrl (X, xo)
does depend on the base point x0 in the general case, we must put the base
points into our category if we are to obtain a functor. So define the category
of pointed topological spaces to have as objects pairs (X, x0), and as
morphisms the mapsf : X Y such thatf(x0) yo. For any such f we obtain
-+ =

an induced homomorphism
10 Elementary Homotopy Theory

f; 3 7T1(Xa X0) "

7T1(Y»)’0)
defined by f;[s] =
[f s].
o One verifies easily that this is wel1—defined and a
homomorphism. Moreover,
(1) Y X and f identify %>f* identity;
= = =

<2) Giveng : (mo) (Z, 20), <gf>*=g*/1.

-

Thus we can speak of thefundamentalgroup functor from the category of

pointed topological spaces to the category of groups.
 3. Homotopy of Maps

Since paths are maps of I into X, we can try to replace I by any space Y
and define homotopy. Thus we no longer have end points but we can
substitute a subspace A C Y for the set {0, 1}.
Givenmapsf,g: Y—‘ Xsuchthatf|A=g IA, we say
f =
g rel A

if there is a map F: Y>< I —» X satisfying

(1) F(y,0)=f(y) a1ly€Y
(2) F(y,1)=g(y) a11y€Y
(3) F(y,t)=f(y)=g(y) a11y€A,I€1
In case A is empty, we write simply
f =
g

Once again we obtain an equivalence relation.

Example 1: LetX = Y =
R’, letf be the identity, g the constant map 0.
Then

F(x,t) = tx

definesa homotopy from g to f .

If X is a space such that the identity map on X is homotopic to a constant

map on some point in X, we say X is contractible.
Marvin]. Greenbcrgandlohn R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3-3558-7(H)
ISBN 0-805 3-35 57—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. Inc. Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in 21 retrieval system, or transmitted. in any form
0|” by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, orotherwise. without the prior permission of
the publisher.

1!
12 Elementary Homotopy Theory

(3.1) Exercise. X is_contractible if and only if for any space Y any two maps
of Y into X are homotopic. A contractible space is pathwise connected.

Example 2: Every convex subset X of Euclidean space is contractible.

For iff,,f2 : Y—- X, we define a homotopy by

F(y,t)=tf:(y)+(1—t)f2(y) J15 Y,t€1

Call a space simply connected if it is pathwise connected and its
fundamental group is trivial.

(3.2) Proposition. A contractible space is simply connected.

Proof: This is not entirely obvious, because although every loop 0 at a
point x0 is homotopic as a map with the constant loop, we do not know they
are homotopic relative to (O, 1).

(3.3) Lemma. Given F:I><I-+X.Seta(t)=F(0,t),B(t)=F(l,t),

7 (s) F(s, O), 8(s) F(s, 1), so that diagrammatically
= =

8
01 F 3
7

Then 8 =
of‘)/,6 rel (O, 1).
Proof: The proof is by juxtaposing 3 squares

where x0 =
8(0), x, =
8(1), and
x0 s£t
E (S’t)_ _

oz(l+t—s) sZt

G(S’t)_{x, __
B(t+s) 1—sZt
l—sSt I
Homotopy of Maps 13

If now X is contractible, we can obtain such an F with 8 =

0, y =
x0, and
C!=
[3 (since 0 induces a map of the circle intoX which is homotopic to the
constant map at xo), hence a is homotopically trivial.

(3.4) Corollary. Let f g be homotopic maps Y X by means of a

,
-+

homotopy F: Y><I—’X. Letyo E Y, x0=f(y0),x1 =g(y0). Let 01 be

the pathfrom x0 to xi given by

a(t)=F(y0,t) t€I

Then we have a commutative triangle

m(Y,yo) f* m(X,xo>
>14, * 7T1(Xax1)
Proof: For any loop 0 at yo, we have
8 °0

(1 F(o(t),t) a

f°<T I

(3.5) Corollary. Under the above conditions,f* is an isomorphism if and

only ifg,‘ is.
A map f : Y- X is called a homotopy equivalence if there is a map
f’ :X—~ Ysuch that
ff’ identity map of X
=

f ’f identity map of Y
2

If such f exists we say X and Y are homotopically equivalent spaces. For

an
example, is contractible if and only if it is homotopically equivalent to a
X
point.

(3.6) Corollary. Iff is a homotopy equivalence thenf* is an isomorphism

7Ti(Y,)’o) 7T1(X, f(J’0))f07‘ allyo € Y‘
"

For by the previous corollary,f* f; andf1‘ f* are both isomorphisms. I

Thus the fundamental group of a path-connected space is a homotopy
14 Elementary I-lomotopy Theory

invariant (a fortiori, a topological invariant). The relation of homotopy

equivalence is cruder than topological equivalence. For example, the most
elementary homotopy equivalence is a contraction—shrinkinga portion of a
space to a point. The importance of the idea of homotopy equivalence for
algebraic topology lies in the fact thatconstructions used to attach algebra to
spaces usually lead to homotopy invariant structures. Furthermore, the
understanding of homotopy types is a base from which to attack more subtle
questions involving topological type.
Exercise: Classify the letters of your favorite alphabet according to
homotopy type and topological type.
(3.7) Exercise. Let X be path connected. Then the following are
equivalent:
(1) X is simply connected;
(2) Every map of the unit circle S 1 into X extends to a map of the closed
unit disc E 2 into X;
(3) If or, r are paths in X withthe same initial points and the same terminal
points then 0 2 1: rel (0, 1).
Hints: To show ( 1) <%%> (2),represent E 2 as a quotient space of I X I by
sending the point (s, t) E [X Ionto the pointt e2”". To show (1) $> (3), use
the transformation of the square described by the diagram

1
(3.8) Exercise. Let CX X X I/XX {0}, be the cone on X. Regard X C
=

C X viax (x, 1). Generalize (_3.7)(2) to showf : X Y is homotopically

-> -*

trivial if and only iff extends to f : CX Y.

—*

(3.9) Suppose Y is contractible to a pointy. Show

Exercise.
f: X X X Y-+

byf (x) (x,yo) and projectionp :X X Y X are homotopy equivalences.

= -r

(3.10) Exercise. Letf,g : S" S" be maps such that for allx E S",f(x)
—>

and g (x) are not antipodal. Showf g If in addition there is xo E X such

=
.

thatf(x0) g (xo), showf= g rel xo.

=
Homotopy of Paths 15

(3.11) Exercise. Suppose X and Y have the same homotopy type. Show
that the are components of X and Y are in one—to-one correspondence.

(3.12) Exercise. Let X be are connected and suppose everyf : S‘ X is

-+

homotopically trivial but not necessarily by a homotopy leaving the base

point fixed. Show 17, (X, x0) O.
=
 4. Fundamental Group of the
Circle

We study the circle S ' via the line R. It turns out that the homotopy
class of a loop is determined by the number of times it “winds around,” the
number being negative if the “winding” is opposite to the given orientation
on S ‘.
More precisely, S ‘ is the group of complex. numbers of absolute value 1.
We have a continuous homomorphism <15 : R S 1 (R as additive group)
—>

given by
¢-(x)=e2’“i" x€ R

Moreover, the mapping <7) is an open mapping, as is easily verified. Hence <75
maps the open interval (-§, +%) on the line homeomorphically onto
S I {-1}; let it be its inverse on that set. We need two key lemmas.
—

(4.1) Lifting Lemma. Ifo is a path in S‘ with initial point 1, there is a

unique path 0' in R with initial point 0 such that qt) 0" 0. ° =

(4.2) Covering Homotopy Lemma. If also ‘C is a path in S 1 with the initial

point 1 such that
F:o=r rel(O,1)
then there is a unique F’ :I>< I'—> Rsuch that
F':cr’=r’ rel(0,l)
q5°F’=F

Marvinl. Greenbcrgand.lohn R. Harper, Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 0—8053—3 558-7(H)
ISBN 0-805 3—3557~9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. lnc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system. or transmitted. in any form
or by any means. electronic. mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the publisher.

16
Fundamental Group of the Circle 17

Proof: We prove both lemmas at the same time. Let Y be eitherIorI X I,

f: Y S‘ either 0 or F, 0 E Yeither0 or (0, 0). Since Y is compact,fis
-+

uniformly continuous, so there exists 3 > 0 such that | y y’| < s %> —

|f(y)-f(y’)| < 1; inparticularforsuchy andy',f(y)#—f(y’ ), so

1/; (f(y )/f(y' )) is defined. We can findNso large that | yl < Ne for all
y E Y. Set

f’(y)=¢ (fly)/f(—N—y>>
N—1

+l<f<~:;—v>//<%;—z>>
+°°°+¢(f(%,y>/f(0))
Thenf’ is continuous Y—* R,f’ (0) 0, and (p °f’ =f.
=

Ifwehadf”: Y-* R, f" (0)=0, and¢>° f"= f, then f’ —f" would

be a (continuous) map of Y into the kernel of <13, i.e., into Z. Since Y is
connected, f’ f is constant, hence f’ f ”.
-
”
=

In the case Y= I>< I,f=F,f’=F’, we see F’ : a= 1'. In fact, the

homotopy is relative to (0, 1), for on 0 X I, (b F’ F= 1, henceF’(0 X I)
° =

C Z, so by connectedness again, F ’(0 X I) 0. Similarly F ’(1 X I) is

=

constant. (For another proof, see 5.1-5.3.) I

(4.3) Corollary. The end point of 0’ depends only on the homotopy class
of (7.
Define amapx: rr,(S', 1) Zbyx [0] o’(1). We havejust shownxis
-+ =

well defined. It is a homomorphism: Given [(7], [r] E 7r,(S’, 1). Let m =

a"(1),n r’(1). Let T" be the path from m to m + n in R given by

=

z”(s) r’(s) + m. Then go 1'” 1' also, so cr’r’ is the lifting of or with
= 0 =

initial point 0; its end point is m -1- n. Hence X([0'][’l']) x[a] + X[1'].
=

X is onto: Given n, define o’(s) ns. Ifo

=
q3°o", X [0] n.
= =

x is a monomorphism: Suppose x [U] 0, so 0’ is a loop in R at 0. R

=

being contractible, 0’ 0 rel (0, 1), whence applying <73, 0 1 rel (0, 1), [0]
= 2

= 1. This proves the following theorem.

(4.4) Theorem.
1n(S ‘) E Z

Remark: The only property of S ' used in this proof is that it is a

18 —

Elementary Homotopy Theory

topological group, quotient of R by Z. The only property of R used in this

proof is that it is a simply connected topological group. The only property of
Z used is that it is a discrete subgroup of R. Thus exactlythe same argument
gives a more general result.
(4.5) Theorem. If G is a simply connected topological group, H a discrete
normal subgroup, then

1r1(G/H,1)%H
There is one detail to check: We must find an open neighborhood Vof 1 in
G which is mapped homeomorphically onto an open neighborhood of 1 in
G/H by (1) : G G/H, so that we can use x// as before. Since H is discrete,
-+

there is an open neighborhood U of 1 such that U F) H {1}. By continuity

=

of the map ( g1, g2) g1 g3‘, there is another open neighborhood VC U

—*

ofl suchthat g1, g2 E V%> g, gf‘ E U. This is the Vwe need. I

(4.6) Exercise. A discrete normal subgroup of a connected topological

group is central. Hence Tr,(G/H)is commutative.

(4.7) Corollary. The fundamental group of a torus is Z X Z.

For the torus is topologically S‘ X S‘, hence is a topological group
isomorphic to (R X R)/(Z X Z). I
The last result could have been derived in another way

(4.8) Proposition. Given spaces X, Y, xo E X, yo E Y, we have

TT1(XX Y, (xo,)’o)) E 7T1(XsXo) X 7T1(YaJ’0)-
Proof: The isomorphism is obtained as follows. Let

XXY

X
P/Y *’ Y

be the projection maps. They induce homomorphisms

Tn(X>< Y, (X0, yo))

<.vx/ \<py>.
7T1(X,Xo) 7T1(Y> yo)
Fundamental Group of the Circle 19

hence a homomorphism (( pX)*, ( p,/)*) of Tr, (X X Y, (x0, yO)) into

rrl (X, xo) X rr1(Y, yo). This homomorphism is an isomorphism, because it
has the following inverse: Given loops 0 at xo, ‘L’ at yo, assign to the pair
([0], [-r ]) the class of the loop (0, 1') at (x0, yo) defined by
(o,r)(t)=(o(t),r(l)) forall IE1

We leave the details as an exercise, as well as the verification that the

isomorphism is functorial in (X, Y). I

As an application our theorem and as an illustration of the method of

algebraic topology, we prove the following theorem.
(4.9) Theorem. The circle is not a retract of the closed unit disc.
This means there is no map f of E 2 onto S 1 whose restriction to S1 is the
identity. Suppose we had such an f. Let i : S’ E 2 be the inclusion map,
—*

so f i=
identity. Applying the fundamental group functor we get

Trl(S19‘1)l-:1‘7Tl(E2:(1s 0))£*nl(S]:§1)
identity
But this means Z -> 0 -+ Z is the identity, which is impossible. I

Note: In fact, there is no map f: E 2 S‘ such that f i identity, for if

-* 2

there were, f i would be an isomorphism (by 3.5), which is impossible.

* *

(4.10) Exercise. Prove the circle is a strong deformation retract of the

closed disc minus the origin. (A subspace A of a space X is a strong
deformation retract of X if there is a homotopyF , : X X such that F0 —> =

identity of X, F ,| A identity of A for all t, F 1 maps X into A.)

=

(4.11) Corollary. Any continuous map of the closed disc into itself has a
fixed point.
This is the case n 2 of theBrouwerFixed Point Theorem, to be proved
=

later for all n. (Exercise: Do the case n 1.) Suppose f : E 2

= E 2 has no -r

fixed point. For any x E E 2, joinx to f (x) by a line; move along this line in
the direction from f(x) to x until the point r (x) on S 1 is reached. Then r is a
retraction of E 2 on S 1, contradiction. I

(4.12) Exercise. Suppose the space X is the union of two open sets U and
V, such that U F) V is nonempty and pathwise connected, and U, V are each
simply connected. ThenX is simply connected. (This is a special case of Van
20 Elementary Homotopy Theory

Kampen’s Theorem, which says that 1r,(X) is “the amalgamated sum” of

7r,(U) and 1r,(V); cf. Crowell and Fox [16] or Massey [67].
On occasion, we shall use the following special cases of the Seifert—Van
Kampen theorem forX U U Vwhere U, Vare open and U F) Vis not
=

empty and is are connected.

a) If U F) V is simply connected, then 7r,(X) is the free product of 7r1(U ),
7r1(V).
b) If U is simply connected, then 1r1(X ) is the quotient of 71,(V) by the
smallest normal subgroup containing the image of rr,(U F) V) under
inclusion U (W V -+ V.

(4.13) Exercise. The rz—sphere S "

is simply connected for n 2 2.
(4.14) Exercise. Show that every 3 X 3 matrix with positive real entries has
an eigenvector with positive eigenvalue. Suggestion: Consider the triangle
T= {x + y + z 1; x, y, z _>_ O} and the self—map of T obtained by compos-
=

ing the associated linear transformation with central projection onto T. Apply
(4.11).
Remark. Other results from linear algebra have topological proofs.
Material in chapter 16 can be used to show that every invertible linear
transformation of RM“ has an invariant one dimensional subspace.

(4.15) Exercise. Suppose A C X is a retract and 77, (A) is normal in 171 (X).
Show 77, (X) E 771 (A) X 11, (X)/77,(A). Referring to the figure in exercise
(12.12), show thatthe circle represented by are b is not a retract of the Klein
bottle. Suggestion: use (4.12)(b)to calculate the fundamental group of the
Klein bottle.
 5. Covering Spaces

We have seen technique for determining 7r1(S ‘) generalizes to

that the
arbitrary topological groups which can be represented as a quotient of a
simply connected group by a discrete subgroup. We now try to generalize to a
space X without a group structure, by represegtingX as a quotient space of a
simply connected spaceX with the fibres of X X discrete. -

Definition: E -P» X is a covering space of X if every x E X has an open

neighborhood U such thatp‘1(U) is a disjoint union of open sets S,- in E,
each of which is mapped homeomorphicallyonto U by 12. Such U are said to
be evenly covered, and the Si are called sheets over U.
As immediate consequences we see:
(1) the fibre p“(x) over any point is discrete;
(2) p is a local homeomorphism;
(3) p maps E onto X and X has the quotient topology from E.
Condition (2) tells us thatXand E have the same properties locally, e. g.,
X is locally connected if? E is, etc.
We show that this definition captures the essentials of the situation
R S‘ (except that for greater generality we do not assume E to be simply
-+

connected) by proving the analogues of (4.1) and (4.2).

(5.1) Unique Lifting Theorem. Let (E, e0) 3* (X, x0) be a covering space
with base poz'nts,( Y, yo) -4 (X, x0) any map.Assume Yconnected.If there
is a map ( Y, yo) -f' (E, eo) such that pf’ f, it is unique. =

Pmfit&mw%fW(Ky0-%Ea&pf“=fLa
A={y€YlflU)=f%yN
Marvin J. Grcenberg and John R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology:A First Course ISBN 0—8053—3558»7(H)
ISBN 0»805 3—3557~9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company. lnc.. Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced. stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
3‘; Puagilisher.
9
by
y
means. electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, orotherwise, without the prior permission of

21
22 Elementary Homotopy Theory

D={y€ Yl f’(y)¢f"(y)}
Then Y is the disjoint union of A and D, and yo E A. We will show both sets
are open, so by the connectedness of Y, D is empty.
Given y, E Y. Let U be a neighborhood of f ( y,) evenly covered by p.
Ify1E A, f’(y,) f”(y,) lies on some sheet S ofp“(U). Hence
=

f "’(S) (7 f ”"(S) is an open neighborhood of y, contained in A. If y, E

D, f’(y1) lies on some sheet S1, f”(y,) on some other sheet S2. Hence
f "’(S1) O f ‘(S2) is an open neighborhood of y, contained in D.
”’
I

(5.2) Path Lifting Theorem. For (E, e0) 5* (X, x0) as above, ifa is apath
in X with initialpoint xo, there is a uniquepath ago in E with initalpoint e0
such thatp ago 0. =

Proof: The uniqueness of ago follows from the previous theorem.

Case I : The whole space X is evenly covered. If e0 lies on the sheet S, and
(,0 is the homeomorphism X S inverse to p| S, then ago 1//° a is the
-+ =

desired lifting.
General case: By definition of covering space and compactness of I, we
can partition I by 0 to < t,= < t,, =1 in such a way that 0 maps the
° ° °

entire closed interval [ t,, t,-+1] into an evenly covered neighborhood of 0 ( t ,),
for all i. By Case 1, we can lift 0] [0, t,] to a map 0, 2 [0, t,] E such that —*

01(0) eo. Assume by induction we can lift 0| [0, t,-] to a map a, : [0, t,.] E
= -*

such that a,»(O) e0. Then by Case 1 we can lift 0| [t,-, t,-+1] to a map taking t,-
=

into or,-( t,~); combining this map with 11,- gives 0,-H. Then 0,, ago. = I

(5.3) Covering Homotopy Theorem. (E, e0) -P’ (X, xo) as above. Let
(Y, yo) be arbitrary and f: (Y, yo) (X, xo) a map which has a lifting
—+

f’ : (Y, yo) (E, eo). Then any homotopy F: Y>< I—+ X with F(y, 0)
-»

=f(y)forallyE Ycan be liftedtoahomotopy F’ : Y><I Ewith —’

F'(y,0) f'(y)a1ly E Y-
=

(5.4) Corollary. Ifa, 1' are pat_hs_in X with initial point x0, and oz 1'
rel (O, 1), then

ago -3- «go rel (O, 1)

In particular 0'90 and rgo have the same end point.

Proof: The theorem is proved in several steps.

1. If all of X is evenly covered, it is obvious.
2. By definition of covering space and compactness of I, we can find for
Covering Spaces 23

eachy E Y an open neighborhood N), and a partition 0 to < t1

= < ° ° °

t,,
= 1 (depending on y) such that F maps Ny X [t,-,t,4+1] into an evenly
covered neighborhood of F ( y, t,-). By step 1 and the same inductive
argument as before, we can lift F on Ny X I to a map F’ : Ny X I E such
->

thatF'(y', 0) f'(y ') for ally’ E Ny.

=

3. The liftings in step 2 on N_,, X I and Ny. X I agree on (N). F) Ny.) X I,

hence we can piece them together to obtain the desired lifting F’ on Y X I:
F or let y, E
24 Elementary Homotopy Theory

ifp'1(x0) is finite, the number ofpoints in thefibre is equal to the index of

the subgr0upp*rr1(E, eo).

(5.7). Exercise. If E is pathwise connected, all the fibres have the same
cardinality.
For any covering space E 3* X, the group G of covering transformations is
the group of all homeomorphisms of E which preserve the fibres:

EJLE
p\ /D
X
p<z>=p

(5.8) Theorem. Given a covering space (E, e0) 5' (X1x0) with group of
covering transformations G. If E is simply connected and locallypathwise
connected, G is canonically isomorphic to 1r1(X1x0).
This achieves our objective of describingthe fundamental group in terms of
a simply connected covering space.

Proof: Given (,1) E G. Since E is ‘simply connected, all paths from e0 to

<;b(e0) are homotopic rel (0, 1) (by 3.7), so if a’ is such a path, the element
[p °a’] of 1r1(X1x0) depends only on eo and <1>(e0); we denote it by X(¢>).
Clearly X is a homomorphism G 1r1(X1x0). Now ¢(e0) e0 X (¢). Hence
-> = -

X(¢) 1 implies qb leaves e0 fixed. But for a connected covering space, a

=

covering transformation is uniquely determined by its effect on one point

(unique lifiting theorem——<;b lifts p !); thus the only covering transformation
with a fixed point is the identity, and X is a monomorphism.
We use the assumption of local pathwise connectedness to prove X is onto:
Given [0] E 7r1(X, x0). For any e E E, let 1" be a path from eo to e, r=p °

1". Then flat is a loop at x =p (e), and we define

<i>(e)=e'[T"<7Tl
Since E is simply connected, gb depends only on [0]. Taking e eo we see =

thatX (¢>) [0], provided we show q) is continuous. Note that for any point
=

e1 E E, ifr’ is a path from e1 to e, ‘L'=p ° 1' ', then ¢(e) is the end point of the
path r’¢(,l, (lifting of 1' through ¢(e1)). Now there is an open pathwise
connected neighborhood U of x, p (e1) which is evenly covered. e1 is on
=

some sheet S1 over U and <z>(e1) on some sheet S 1. Fore E S1, we canjoin e,
to e by a path 1" in S1; then r(},(e1) will be a path in S 1. Hence its end point
<z>(e) is in S 1. Since <z>(e1) has arbitrarilysmall neighborhoods of type S 1, <1>
is continuous. I
Covering Spaces 25

(5.9) Exercise. Assume only E is connected and locally pathwise

connected. Let N be the norrnalizerof p*7r,( E, e0) in 17, (X, xo). Modify the
above argument to obtain a homomorphism ofN onto G with kernel p *7r1( E,
eo). If N 1r,(X, xo), i.e., p*7r,( E, eo) is a normal subgroup, the covering
=

space is called normal; a necessary and suflicient condition is thatG operate

transitively on the fibre p“1(x0).
(5.10) Exercise. Given a space E connected and locally pathwise
connected. Let G be a group of homeomorphisms of E which operates
properly discontinuously (i.e., for any e € E, there is an open neighborhood
Vsuchthat Vflg V= (1) for all g # 1 inG). LetX=E/ Gbe thespaceof
orbits, p :E X the map sending any e onto its orbit Ge. Then E -17> X is a
->

covering space, G is its group of covering trnasformations, and p*rr, (E, eo) is
a normal subgroup of Ir, (X, x0) for all e0 E E. (Note that any finite group
operating without fixed points on a Hausdorff space operates properly
discontinuously.)
This exercise tells us that if we know a simply connected covering space E
of X and its group G of covering transformations, then not only do we know
771 (X) % G, but we also can recover X (up to homeomorphism) as E /G.

(5.11) Example : Projective n-space P” is defined as the quotient space of

S obtained by identifying antipodal points. The group of covering trans-
”

formations of S P" consists of the identity and the antipodal mapping

" -4

only (becauseS is connected, n > O), and since S" is simply connected for rt
”

2 2, we have

7T1(P")%Z/2 n22

(Exercise. Show that P‘ R S1 (homeomorphic).)

(5.12) Exercise. Show that 1r1(P"),n Z 2, is generated by the composi-
tion pg where g : I S" is any continuous map satisfying g (0) -g (1)
-> =

and p : S" P" is defined in (5.11). Suggestion: Use (5.1) and (5.8).
—*

A comprehensive introduction to the fundamental group and covering spaces

has been written by W.S. Massey [67].
 6. A Lifting Criterion

Unless otherwise stated, all spaces considered in this section are assumed
to be connected and locallypathwise connected.
(6.1) Theorem. Consider the situation

1 (E9 230)
J://
/
V
P
/
’
(Y, yo) <X,xo>

where p is covering space map and f is arbitrary,

a There exists a
lIfil'Vlgf'0ff(pf'= f) ifandonlyif
f,,7Ti(Y, yo) C P,1Ti(E, 90)
Proof: Necessity follows from the functoriality of 77,. Conversely, we
define f’ as follows. For any y E Y, choose a path 0 from yo to y. Then fa
is a path from x0 tox =f(y ). Set

f'(y ) =
(f0)'e0(1)
The shows that this does not depend on the choice of 0.
hypothesis
Moreover, we can remove the dependence on yo: For any y, E Y, let
e, =f’(y1) and let 1' be any path from y, to y. Then

f’(y > =
(fr)'e1(1),
Marvin]. Grccnberg andJ0hn R. Harper. Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3—35 58—7(H)
ISBN 0—8053—3557-9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company, lnc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the publisher.

26
A Lifting Criterion 27

for there is a path 0'1 from yo to y, and

(f(0it))’e0 (f<r1)'e0(fr)’el
=

To show f’ continuous at y 1, simply choose 7 to lie in a suitable neighbor-

hood of y 1 (Y is locally pathwise connected). Compare the proof of 5.8. I

(6.2) Exercise. If, in the situation of (6.1), f 2 Y X is also a covering

—’

space, and f’ exists, then f’ : Y E is a covering space. (Show first that if

—’

U C X is a path—connected open set evenly covered by p and by fl then the

sheets of p_1(U ) and f _‘(U ) are the path-connected components.)

(6.3) Exercise. Let p : E —t X be a covering space, where X is connected

and locally path connected, but E is not connected. Let C be a connected
(hence path-connected) component of E. Then p| C:C X is a covering —>

space.

(6.4) Corollary to Theorem. IfYis simply connected, the lifting f’

always exists.

(6.5) Corollary. If(E,e0) —p> (X,x0), (E', e'0) -11 (Xaxo) are both
simply connected covering spaces ofX, then there is a unique homeomor-
phism §b:(E ', e’0) (E, eo) such thatpgb =p '.
—'

This follows at once from (6.4) and (5.1).

Call twocovering spaces of (X, xo) equivalent if there is a homeomor-

phism go in (6.5). We have shown that if (X, xo) has a covering space
as
(X, J70) (X, xo) such thatX is simply connected, then (X, 360) is unique up
-*

to equivalence. We call it the universal covering space of (X, xo), since all
other covering spaces lie “below it,” in the sense of (6.2) and (6.4).
The universal covering space need not exist, in general, for X is locally
homeomorphic to X, and so all “small” loops in X can be’shrunk to a point.
We thus have a necessary condition for the existence ofX : For any x E X,
there is a neighborhood U such that any loop in U based atx can be shrunk in
X to x. (In the process of shrinking the loop, we may have to go outside of U.)
A space X with this property is called semi-locally simply connected.

(6.6) Example: For any n > 0, let C,, be the circle with center (1/n, 0)
and radius 1/n, and let

X=UC,,
28 Elementary Homotopy Theory

Then X has no universal covering space, since the above condition does not
hold at the origin.

(6.7) Theorem. If X is semi—locally simply connected (and of course

connected and locally path-connected), then X has a universal covering
space.

(6.8) Corollary : Every connected manifold has a universal covering

space (which is also a manifold).
Recall that X is a manifold of dimension n if every point has an open
neighborhood homeomorphic to an open ball in R”.
Proof (Theorem 6.7): Choose x0 E X. We consider all paths in X
with inital point xo. Write ct [3 if a(1)~= B(1) and C! = [3 rel (0, 1). Let
~

(C! ) be the equivalence class of or. Take X to be the set of all (oz )’s, and set
12 <a >= a(1)- N

Take as base for a topology on X the sets (CE, V), where V is an open
neighborhood of p (a ), consisting of all (afi ), [3 a path in V with initial
pointa(1). If (a")E (Ck, V)() (a', V’ ), then at”, V) (a, V), and =

<01”, VF) V’ )C (Cl, V)() (a’, V’), sothey do form a base. p is con-
tinuous and open, since p (tr, V) is the path component of V containing
P < 01 >-
Given x E X, take a pathwise connected open neighborhood V such that
any loop in V based at x can be shrunk to x in X. Then V is evenly
covered: p”(V) is the disjoint union of the (oz, V)’s such that p (01 ) E V,
andclearly p(a, V)= V. Ifp(aB )=p(af3' ), then B and B’ have the
same end point, whence by choice of V, B ’—”— /3' rel (0, 1), so (013) =

<04?’ >-
L~.et 370 be the class of the constant path c at x0. We can join any point < oz >
E X to $0 by a path (henceX is pathwise connected). Let

aS(t) =
a(st) all s, t E I

One checks easily thats < a, > is a path E in}? from 360 to < 01 >; moreover
—*

& lifts a. N
‘ ‘

Finally, let 1' be a loop in X at 550, and let a p 1'. By uniqueness of

= °

liftings, r H. In particular & is a loop, so < a) 32(1) i0 (c >. Hence

= = = =

oz ~
c, whence r is homotopicallytrivial. Thus X is simply connected. I

(6.9) Corollary. Under the same hypothesis, for every subgroup H of

7r1(X, xo), there exists a covering space (E, eo) —p> (X, xo), unique up to
equivalence, such that H p*1r1(E, eo).
=

For letX X be the universal covering space, G the group of its covering
-+

transformations, H the subgroup of G corresponding to H under the

'
A Lifting Criterion 29

isomorphism G % 7r1(X, x0). Then we can take E X/H (with appropriate =

’

p). (See (5.l0).) I

(6.10) Exercise. When X exists, the theory of covering spaces of X is

entirely analogous to the Galois theory of fields, X being the analogue of the
separable algebraic closure of a field, the group of covering transformations
being the analogue of the Galois group. For example, in the situation

(E9 e0)
H
(Flfo) G

Kl: 1
(Xax0)

where G, H, K are the respective groups of covering transformations, if all 3

covering spaces are normal (5.9), then K % G/H. (For Riemann surfaces,
this analogy is not just formal: See Chevalley [13], last chapter.)
Returning to the case of topological groups, we obtain the following result.
(6.11) Theorem. If X is a topological group, thenfor any covering space
E -5 X and point e0 in the fibre of the neutral element x0 of X there is a
unique structure of topological group on E for which e0 is the neutral
element and p is a homomorphism.

Proof: Let m:X X X -+ X be the map m(x1, x2) =

x,x§‘. We wish to lift
"1 °
(p ><p)
(E X E.<eo, 90)) L”? (E. 90)
17 XP

(X X X9(x0s x0))
1 p
1:
I
(X! x0)

so as m'(e1, e2). m’ is unique by the unique lifting

to be able to define elez 1 =

theorem. The criterion for its existence is m*( p X p)*1r,(E X E, (e0, e0))
CPJI, (E, eo). (See (6.1).) This means the following: For any loops 0, 1' at
xo, We can define a new loop 0* 1' by
(0 * r)(t) =
a(t)r(t) allt E I

the right side being multiplication in the group. We can also define

i'(t) =
‘r(t)”1 all t E I
30 Elementary Homotopy Theory

The criterion then says thatif [U], [1'] E p*7r, (E, e0) then [0 *’l'] €p*rr1 (E, eo).
Since p*7r1 (E, e0) is a subgroup of in (X, x0), this will follow from a lemma.

Lemma. For any 0', 1'(loops at x0)

o'*1'=o1' rel(0,l)
o*1'=1'a rel(O,1)
%=~— 1" rel (0, 1)

In particular thefundamentalgroup of a topological group is commutative

(as was seen before (4.6) in case the universal covering group exists).
Proof: Consider the homotopies

0 * 1

x0 1' F (S, t ) =
a(s)r(st)
0

0 * 1'

x0 0 G(s, t ) =
a(st )1'(s)
1'

X0

x0 1' H(s, I ) =
1'(s)1'(st )4‘
1'

and apply Lemma (3.3). I

(6.12) Example 2 LetX SO(3), the group of rotations of R3. Topologi-

=

cally X is projective 3-space(intuitively, a rotation is determined by an axis

of rotation and a number 0, -11’ S 0 S 17 the angle of rotation; thus X is
homeomorphic to the closed ball of radius 17 in R3 with antipodal points on
the boundary identified). Hence the universal covering group of SO(3) is S 3
with some structure of topological group. That group turns out to be the group
of unit quatemions. For n > 3 it is still true that 1r1(SO(n)) %Z/2, the
A Lifting Criterion 3]

universal covering group being the group of spinors (cf. Chevalley [14],
Chap. 3). Another group of importance in physics is the proper Lorentz
group. Topologically it is P3 X R3, and its universal covering group is SL(2,
C), 2 X 2 complex matrices of determinant 1 (cf. Gelfand et al. [25]).
(6.13) Exercise. Prove SO(3) is not homotopicallyequivalent to S‘ X S 2.

(6.14) Exercise. We can use (6.13) to give an amusing proof that S2

supports no continuous nonvanishing tangent vector field (a more sensible
argument appears in chapter 16). Suppose there is t:S 2 R 3 {0} such that
-* —

the inner product (x, t(x) ) =0 for all x E S 2. We can assume t(x) is a
unit vector. Construct ¢:S ‘ X S2 SO(3) as follows. Let n(x) be the cross
—v

product of x and t(x). Then A(x) (x, t (x), n(x)) represents an element of
=

S 0(3). Define ¢>(6, x) to be the composition R9 A(x) where R 9 is rotation

°

about the line x through an angle 0 measured from t(x) to n(x) and -

77 _<_
03 11. Show <1) is continuous, one-to—one and onto, hence a homeomor-
phism, to obtain a contradiction with (6.13).
 7. Loop Spaces and Higher
Homotopy Groups

LetX’ be the set of all paths in X. IfX is a metric space withmetric d, we can
define a metric d * on X' by
d *(a, r) =
sup
16]
d(a(t ), ‘E(t ))

There is a method of topologizing X’ when X is not necessarily metrizable

which gives the d * topology when X is metric. Consider the sets

[K,U]={a|a(K)CU} KcompactCI UopenCX

These form a subbase for a topology on X’ called the compact—open
topology’; thus the open sets are arbitrary unions of finite intersections of the
[K, U ]’s.
(7.1) Exercise. IfX is metric, show this topology on X 1 is the same as that
defined by d *.
The main property of this topology is stated here.

(7.2) Proposition. The evaluation map w:X’ X I —> X given by w(a, t) ==

00) is continuous.
For the proof of this and the other purely point—set assertions below, see
Dugundji [20] or Kelley [34], or better, prove them yourself as exercises.
Note that the only property of I needed is local compactness in the strong
sense, i.e., for every t E I and open V containing 1‘, there is an open
neighborhood W of t whose closure is compact with W C V.
We will be concerned with the subspace Q XX 0 Ox 0 of X 1 consisting of
=

Marvin]. GreenbcrgandJohn R. Harpcr, Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 08053-3558-7(H)

ISBN 043053-3557-9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, In(:.. Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No pan oflhis publication may be reproduced. stored in a retrieval system. ortransmitted, in any form
or by any means. electronic. mechanical, photocopying.recording, or otherwise. without the prior permission of
the publisher.

32
Loop Spaces and Higher Homotopy Groups 33

all loops at xo. This is a closed subspace of X I if the point x0 is closed in X,

e.g., if X is Hausdorff.

(7.3) Proposition. 0', 1.’ E Qxo are in the samepath—connectedcomponents

offlxo ifand only zfo 1.’ rel (O, 1).
=

For a path f from 0' to 1' corresponds to a homotopy F:0 r rel (O, 1) by
=

the formula

f(s)(t)=F(S,t)
The factorization

I x 1 ifl’0,0 x 1 3 X

shows thatF is continuous iff is; the converse is an exercise. I

(7.4) Corollary. 7r,(X, x0) is the set ofpath-connectedcomponents of 0x0.

The multiplication of loops defines a map OX0 X OX0 Qxo which is easily
—>

seen to be continuous. Let C be the constant loop atxo; then CC C. Define

=

the maps L C, R Czflxo OX0 to be left and right multiplication by C,

—'

respectively.
(7.5) Lemma. LC (resp. RC) is homotopic to the identity map of OX0
relative to {C}.

Proof: We know Co 0 rel (0, 1) for every 0. Writing out explicitly the
=

homotopy Fa(s, t) used to show this, one sees that it is a continous function
of the pair (0, t), hence a homotopy of L C with the identity relative to
{C}. I

The properties continuous multiplication, CC C, and (7.5) are usually

=

expressed by saying thatthe pair (0 X0, C) is an H—space. This is weaker than

the notion of topological group, but is strong enough to prove the next
theorem.

(7.6) Theorem. 1r1(flx09 C) is commutative.

Proof: We modify the proof for topological groups, Let fi g be loops in

Qxo at C. Def1ne(f*g)(t)=f(t )g(t). We claim
fg =f*g=gfre1(0,1)
For example, for fg =f* g, we use
34 Elementary Homotopy Theory

fat: g C

c f(s)g(st) c *5’ g
c

f*c
c c

f c

while for gf = f =I= g, we use

fa: g C

c f(st)g(s) f* c

c * g C

g c

7Tn(Xs x0) =
nn—l(nx0a
Loop Spaces and Higher Homotopy Groups 35

(0t..)n=Tfn(X, xo) "

7Tn(X, x1)
for all n.
We wish to make 17,, into a functor. Given a map f:(X, x0) —>
(X ’, x5).
Define a map

Q(f)I(Qx0» C) "
(Qxbs C’)

0(f)(<7)=f° 0
One can easily show Q(f) is continuous; hence, by induction we can define a
homomorphism
(f,.)nI1Tn(X,xo) **
7rn(X '9 X6)

(f.)., (Q(f),,)n—1
=
11 Z 2

One checks easily by induction on n that

(1) ((identity)*),, identity

=

(2) (( gf).)n (g,,)n(f.),,

=

so that we do obtain a functor. Moreover homotopic maps f 1 g rel {xo}

induce homotopic maps (2(f) = Q( g ) rel {C}, so that (j:),, ( g*),, for all n.
=

(Exercise: Iff = g, but not relative to {xo}, what is the relation between (f;),,
and (g,,)n'-’)

(7.10) Corollary. If X is contractible then 7r,,(X, x0) is trivialfor all n.

(7.11) Exercise. For all n, there is a canonical isomorphism

7Tn(X X Y, (xo,yo)) ’=' 7Tn(X9 xo) X Trn( Y,yo)

(Determine n(x0,y0) and apply (4.8).)
(7.12) Theorem. If p:(E, e0) ->
(X, x0) is a covering space, then
(p*)n:7Tn(E9 e0) _’
7Tn(X= X0)
36 ilementary Homotopy Theory

is an isomorphismfor all n 2 2.

Proof: We use the interpretation of 1r,, as homotopy classes of maps from

(S ", so) into the given pointed space (7.8). To say ( p‘),, is surjective means
that any mapfi(S”,so) (X, x0) can be lifted to a mapf’:(S”,so)
—> ~+

(E, eo) such thatpf f; since S is simply connected for n 2 2 (4.13), this
'
=
”

follows from (6.4). To say ( p*),, is injective means that if f’ lifts J", g’ lifts g,
and f g rel {so}, then f’
2
g’ rel {so}; this follows from the covering
3

homotopy theorem (5.3). I

(7.13) Corollary. 1r,,(P ”') E ,,(S’”)forn 2 2, all m.

(7.14) Corollary. 11',,(S‘) Ofor n = 2 2.

Proof: The universal covering space R of S 1 is contractible. I

(7.15) Note. One might expect that

(a) 1r,,(S"') 0 forn < m.
=

(b) MS") % Z
(c) 1r,,(S"’) O forn > m.
=

Now (a) and (b) are true, (c) is false. One can prove (a) and (b) directly by
simplicial approximation (see Dugundji [20]) or one can first calculate the
homology groups of S (15.4) and then apply a theorem of Hurewicz. (One
’"

form of the Hurewicz theorem states that if n 2 2 and 1rq(X) O for all q < n,
=

then 7rq(X) E Hq(X) for all q S n; see Eilenberg [21].) Property (c) is
satisfied by the homology groups (15.5). H. Hopf gave the first example of a
map S
3 S 2 not homotopic to a constant (see Hu [33], Chap. 3). Although
—>

much has been discovered in recent years (cf. [33], last chapter), the
complete determination of the higher homotopy groups of spheres remains
one of the major unsolved problems in algebraic topology. A comprehensive
introduction to this subject was written by G. W. Whitehead [88].

(7.16) Note. Extremely fruitful generalizations of covering spaces are the

notions offibre space andfibre bundle. There is an infinite exact sequence of
homotopy groups attached to any fibre space. However, the homology theory
of fibre spaces is more complicated, requiring the use of spectral sequences.
See Spanier [52], Chaps. 2, 5, 7, and 9.
 Part /I
SINGULAR
HOMOLOGY THEORY
 Introduction to Part II

We next develop the theme of bounding introduced in the opening

passages of Part I. To help fix ideas, the reader might glance at the figure
accompanyingexercise (12.1 1) p. 69. Neither curve 8 nor yl is deformable to
a point on this surface. However 6 disconnects the surface, while 71 does not.
Note also, thatthe three curves, y, y2, y3, may be regarded as the complete
,

boundary of a piece of the surface.

The mathematicalexploitation of such observations is a delicate matter,
because there turn out to be two different approaches. One method leads to
“classical” homology theory while the other leads to a theory (bordism)
having many features in common with homology theory but differing in
fundamental ways. It was not until the l950’s that the true nature of this
dichotomy was understood.
In the early stages of algebraic topology, it was regarded as fundamental to
replace a space by a rigid combinatorial gadget known as a “simplicial
complex” and develop the theory on these objects. Besides making a theory
possible, simplical complexes provided a convenient means for discussing
manifolds. The Poincaré duality theorem is one of the earliest theorems of
the subject.
The simplicial techniques were gradually modified until it was possible
(Eilenberg[2l]) to introduce singular homology in a topologically invariant
manner in a few pages. However, the price paid for this improvement was the
loss of an explicit formulation permitting calculation.
A signal triumph was the introduction, by Eilenbergand Steenrod [23], of
axioms for homology functors. These gave the subject conceptual coherence
and elegance, at the same time providing ready access to calculations. It is
along this line that part II is organized.
The basic definitions are given in chapter 9. The fundamental theorems are
proved in chapters ll, 14 and 15. These might be regarded as the precise
Marvin J. Greenbergand John R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0-8053—3558—7(H)
ISBN 0—8053—3557—9(Pbl()
Copwighl (3 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, lnc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
31’
e
by any means. electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of
Publisher.
39
40 Singular Homology Theory

mathematicalformulation of the invariance properties expected of homology.

The material in chapter 10 is used for the proof of homotopy invariance.
Many instructors prefer a more direct proof of homotopy invariance through
the construction of “the prism operator”. This approach is outlined in
exercise (1 1.7) (consult the earlierLectures on Algebraic Topology for more
details).
In Section 12, an important result, due to Poincare, is proved. Here
appears one mathematicalconnection between the ideas of deformation and
bounding.
Special attention is paid to calculation. The ability to calculate is impor-
tant for applications of algebraic topology. The main tool for our calculations
is exact sequences. Their manipulation involves both algebraic and geo-
metric information. When first encountered, they may seem rather formid-
able. The second authorwell rememberswhen the term “diagram chase” was
an open invitation to do something else.
We introduce the calculations in a gradual way. Thus the general theory of
singular homology is developed to the point where exact sequences first
enter. At this stage, some of the standard algebraic manipulations are
introduced (five lemma and direct sum lemma) along with geometric illustra-
tions. The key to such calculation is pattern recognition combined with the
formal process of “chasing around a diagram”. In fact, in this text, if an
argument involving a diagram is not formal (i.e., requires additional geo-
metric information along the way) we do not call it a diagram chase.
The chief device for introducing geometric information into calculation is
the excision theorem in chapter 15. This theorem asserts the invariance of
relative homology modules with respect to neglecting certain subspaces. It is
analogous to the Noether isomorphism theorem A/A 0 B % A + B/B for
modules. When combined (in chapter 17) with a pattern recognition device
known as the Barratt—Whitehead lemma, a powerful and versatile tool, used
both for calculations and theory, emerges: the Mayer—Vietoris sequence. It
can be regarded as a generalization of the formula, card(A U B) =
card(A) +
card(B) card(A (W B) for finite sets.
—

An important theoretical application of the machinery is made in chapter

18 to obtain the Jordan—Brouwer separation properties.
The reader will have noticed that the term “calculation” is being used in
two senses. In particular, the above remarks did not address the issue of
calculating the values of the homology modules, but rather their exploitation,
once known. The key here is to describe spaces in ways that make
application of the basic theorems possible. The material in chapters 16 and
l9—21 is developed with this idea in mind. Projective spaces offer good
examples of how naturally occurring spaces are viewed so as to effect
calculations.
 8. Affine Preliminaries

Euclidean space stripped naked has neither coordinates, nor addition, nor
multiplication by scalars, as does R"; it has only points, lines, planes, etc.,
and when thought of this way, without any metric or vector space properties,
it is referred to as afline space. More precisely, an afiine space of dimension
n over R is a set E on which the additive group R" operates simply
transitively. Thus for each pair of points, P, Q in E there is a unique vector 1/
in R” from Q to P:

Q
We write 1/ P Q and P Q + 1/. However, the expression P + Q is
= — =

meaningless in this context. Nevertheless, certain additive expressions do

make sense in affine geometry.
Let t be a real number. We define IP + (l t )Q to be the unique point S -

such that S Q t ( P Q) (thisbeing a vector equation). If P # Q, the set

— = —

of all such points for all t E R is the line through P and Q (by definition).
More generally, given points P0, P, and real numbers ao,
. . . ,a, such . . .
,
that a0 + + a, .1, we can define the point
. .
=

2 a ,-P,-
i =0

38 the unique S such that

r

S —

P0 = E a,-(P, —

P0).
i=1

Marvin}. Greenbcrgand John R. Harper, Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN O—805 3—3558—7(H)
C ISBN 0—8053—3557—9(Pbk)
(?pY"Eht ©
reserved.
_

1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.. Advanced Book Program. All rights
No pan oflhis publication may be reproduced. stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form
a:Lb}'iItI)1lusher.
'
PU y means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of

4]
42 Singular Homology Theory

If P0, ,P, are independent (meaning the vectors P1 P0,

. . . P, P0 are —

. . .
,
~

linearly independent), the set of all such S is an affine space of dimension r

called the span of P0, P,. Each point S in the span has.
a unique
. .
set
,
of
coordinates (ao, a,) called its barycentric coordinates relative to P0,
. . .
,

. .P,. These coordinates are arbitrary except for the equation a0 + + a,

.
, . . .

= 1.
Given distinct P, Q, the points tP + (1 t )Q on the line throughP and Q -

which satisfy 0 S t S 1 fomi the line segment through P and Q. A subset of

afline space is convex if it contains the line segment through any two of its
points.
More generally,given independent points P0, P,, the points S in their . . .
,

span having all non-negative barycentric coordinates form the r—dimensional

geometric simplex spanned by P0, P,. It is equal to the convex hull of . . . ,

the set P0, P, (smallest convex containingP0,

. .
set
.
, P,). Prove this as . . .
,

an exercise. Intuitively, point

the with barycentric coordinates (ao, a,), . . .
,

all a,- Z 0, is the center of mass when we assign mass a, to the point P,. Taking
all a,- 1/(r + 1) gives the barycenter of the simplex.
=

A function f from one affine spaceE to anotherE will be called an affine ’

map if

f(tP+(1‘f)Q)=U"(P)+(1—t)f(Q)
for allpoints P, Q and real numbers t. If f(P) ¢ f (Q), f sends the line
through P, Q into the line through f(P), f (Q), respecting barycentric
coordinates. One can show (exercise) that such a map f can always be
obtained as follows: Let ]‘be a linear transformation from the vector space
R” to R”. Choose a point 0 inE and a point 0’ in E ’. Then

f(P) = 0' +]‘(P 0) —

a1lP E E

is an affine map. Conversely, given j’, choose 0; for any vector 1/, set P =

0 + 1x, so that f is determined by the equation

flu) _=f(P) —fl0)

Thus if E =
E’, an affine map is just a linear transformation plus a
translation.
Choosing an origin 0 sets up the one-to—one affine correspondence P <-+

0 + 1/ between E and R". We topologize E so that this correspondence

becomes a homeomorphism. Then clearly affine maps are continuous.
If Po, P,, are independent points which span E, the affine map f is
. . .
,

uniquely detennined by its effect on these points, since (exercise)

Affine Preliminaries 43

fu‘:-‘ a.«P,~) $61.-f(P,~)

=

Conversely, given any points f (P0), . . .

, f(P,,) in E ’, this equation defines
an affine map fiE E’.
—>
 9. Singular Theory

We take a countably infinite product R °°

of copies of R, and consider the
vectors

E0=(0,0,...,0,...),
E,=(1,0,...,0,...),
E2=(0,l,...,0,...),etc.
We identify R” with the subspace having all components after the n-th
equal to O.We let, for any q 2 O, Aq denote the q-dimensional geometric
simplex spanned by E0, Eq, called the standard (geometric) q—simplex.
. . .
,

Thus A0 is a point, Al the unit interval, A2 a triangle (including its interior),

A3 a tetrahedron, etc.
(9.1) If P0, Pq are points in some affine space E, (P0. .Pq) will
. . .
, .

denote the restriction to A, of the unique affine map R“ E taking E0 ~*

into P0, Eq into Pq. Thus (E0 Eq) is the identity map of Aq, which will
. . . , . . .

be denoted 8,].
Given a space X, asingular q-simplex inX is a map Aq X. Thus forq -> =

0 it can be identified with a point inX; for q 1 it is a pathinX; forq 2 it is = =

a (continuous) map of the standard triangle into X, etc. The affine map
(P0 .Pq) is a singular q-simplex in the affine space E.
. .

We will add and subtract these singular q—simplexes in a purely formal

manner. We also give ourselves a commutative unitary ring R and we will
multiply by scalars from R (main examples: R Z, R R, R a finite = = =

field). Precisely, define Sq(X) to be the free R-module generated by all the
singular q—simplexes. The elements of Sq(X) are formal linear combinations
212,0
0

where 0 runs through singular q—simplexes, and the coefficients v,, are from
Marvinl. Grcenberg andlohn R. Harper. AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0805 335 58—7(H)
ISBN 0-805 3-355‘/»9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, lnc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No pan ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying. recording, or otherwise. without the prior permission of
the publisher.
44
singular Theory 45

R, (The only way such a sum can vanish is if all the coefficients are 0.) These
sums are called singular q-chains.
One should take care to recognize the distinction between singular q-
simplices (maps a:Aq X) and singular q—chains (formal linear combina-
->

tions of singular q—simplices). In particular -0 is a singular q—chain.

Furthermore, one should not confuse a singularq—simplex with its image. For
example o:A1 X and o’:A, X defined by
—> —>

°“)_
,
_{dm) 0StS%}
an %StSl

are different elements of S1(X).

For q > O, define Ff,:Aq_, —*

A4, for 0 S i< q, to be the affine map

(E0...Ei...Eq)
where E, means “omit E”; in other words,

FiE
”(fl_ _{Q Q“
j<L
jza
For an arbitrary singular q—simplex 0 in a spaceX define the i—thface 0"’ of
<7 to be the singular (q l)—simplex 0° F :1. Thus F j, is the i—th face of ti], and
—

ifa= (P0 .Pq),Xaffine,

. .

d”=U%H.R.HPJ
Diagramatically,q = 2 is shown:

Plus F
46 Singular Homology Theory

We now define the boundary of a singular q—simplex 0 to be the singular

(q —

1)—chain
5(0) 2
.fi0(—1)"o(l')_
(In the previous diagram, 662 is the sum of the edges of the triangle with signs
chosen so that starting withE0 we travel around in a loop; however, 682 is not
a loop, but a formal sum with i signs of 3 paths!) In the special case 0 =

(P0 .Pq),
. .

6(P0...Pq) = _§“.(—1)I‘(P0
(=0
. . .P,. . . . Pq).
We extend (9 to a module homomorphism Sq(X) -’
Sqa,(X) by linearity; thus
6(21/G0) Zv,,0(<r).
=

For q =
O, the boundary of a 0—chain is defined to be 0.
(9.2) Proposition. 66 = 0.

Proof: It suffices to verify d(6c) 0 when c is a singular q—simplex 0.

=

(This type of remark, used repeatedly, will usually be omitted.) We derive

the following result through calculation:

(9.3) Lemma. F;F{,_, F{, F;:} for j < 1'.

=

Then

a(aa) =
I2:20(—1)’a(a<‘>)
.4"
£2
=,,=0<~1>' g<-1>J<a .

0 F :,> F4,-1
.

o
.

=J§=1<—1>‘+fa < F{,F 3:)o

+
singular Theory 47

boundary are called homologous, written cl c2. By (9.2) the boundaries

~

form a submodule Bq of the module Z,1 of cycles; the quotient module Zq/Bq
is called the q—th singular homology module of X, denoted

Hq(X; R)
or simply Hq(X) when the reference to R is understood.

(94) Example: X is a single point x. There is a unique singular q-simplex

aq for each q (constant map on x). We have

a(aq):{ 81 o_ qeven>0,
qodd

0 qeven>0,
Zq_Bq—
__ _

Sq qodd 9

so that Hq 0 for all q > 0. However Z0

= =
So whileB0 =
0, so thatH0 % R,
the isomorphism being V00 v.
->

(9.5) Proposition. Let (Xk) be thefamilyofpath connected components of

X Then there is a canonical isomorphism

Hq(X) E 69k Hq(Xk) all q 2 0.

(The direct sum @ Mk of a family of R—modules is defined to be the

Submodule of the Cartesian product of the Mk’s consisting of those families
(mk) such that at most finitely many mk are different from 0.)

Proof: We have, in fact, an isomorphism

Sq(X) % Gfik Sq(Xk) all q 2 0

such that theboundary operates component by component. Namely, A,

being pathwise connected, a singular q-simplex 0 maps Aqinto some path
°°mP0nent Xk. Thus each q—chain c decomposes uniquely into a sum

C =23kCk
Where ck is a singular q—chain on Xk. I
48 Singular Homology Theory

(9.6) Proposition. H0(X) is a free R-module on as many generators as

there are path components of X.

Proof: By (9.5), we may assume X is path connected. Choose a base

point x0 in X. For any x E X, let ox be a path from xo to x, so that t3(aX) =

x —

x0. Given a O—chain

c =
21/xx
X

we claim c is a boundary if and only if the sum of its coefficients is 0. If the

latter happens,

c =
zxlvxx (Z vx)x0
— =
a(Zv,,a,,).
The converse is clear. Now every O—chain is a cycle. The map sending c onto
the sum of its coefficients is a homomorphism of S0 onto R with kernel B0,
hence

H0(X) E R.
This proposition is the key to all the connectedness theorems in algebraic
topology (see sections 18 and 27).
(9.7) Exercise. The reduced 0—th homology module H 3‘ (X) is obtained by
defining a different boundary operator on 0—chains:
6#( Ex vxx) =
Zxlvx.
Verify that d*6 0. Hf,’ (X) is the quotient of the kernel of 6* by the
=

boundaries of l—chains. IfX is path connected, H ff (X) 0, while ifX has r

=

path components, r > 1, H 3‘ (X) is a free R-module on (r 1) generators, so

—

it is called reduced homology.

For q > 0 we define H;’(X) Hq(X). =

Consider now functorial properties. Let f:X X '. If 0 is a singular q-

->

simplex X, f
in 0 is
0
one inX ’. We obtain a homomorphism Sq( f ):Sq(X) —>

SAX ') by
S.,<f><Zv.,a> E‘/o(.fo o).
=

Clearly
(i) Sq(identity) identity,
=

(ii) Sq(gf) Sq(g )Sq(f)'

=
singular Theory 49

Moreover, we get the following relationship:

(9,8) Lemma. z9Sq(f) Sq_1(f)c9.

=

Immediate from(f°o)°Ff,=f°(<7°Ff,). I

Hence if z is a q—cycle on X, 2 its homology class, we obtain a

homomorphism
Hq(f)IHq(X) "’
Hq(X')
by Hq(f)(Z) Sq(f)(z). Since (i) and (ii) also hold for Hq(f), we see that
=

Hg is functor
a from the category of topological spaces to the category of R-
modules, for each q _>_ 0. Thus the homology modules are topological
invariants.

(9.9) Exercise. Let X be a path component of X’, f the inclusion map.

Then Hq( f) is a monomorphism, and there exists a homomorphism
Pq:Hq(X ’) Hq(X) such that PqHq( f) identity.
—* =

(9.10) Maps between singular complexes. Much of the technical work is

the construction of maps between singular complexes. Since Sq(X) is free on
the singular q—simplices, a unique homomorphism is defined on Sq(X) by
specifying its values on the singular q—simplices. The following device is often
used when the source and target are functors of the space X and when the
properties of the desired homomorphism are essentially independent of
spaces.
A singular q—simplex 0 E S,,(X) can be written
0= Sq(<r)(6q)
Where 8,, is the identity map of Ag. Then (for example, to fix ideas) a
homomorphism
PX:Sq(X) Sq(X) —*

can be defined for all X using a single value P (8,) E Sq(Aq) by the equation

PX(o) Sq(o) P (Sq). =

T_he basic feature of this construction is a property called naturality;

gwen flX —+
Y, then the diagram
50 Singular Homology Theory

(911) PX
s,(X) _.s,(X)
Sq(.f) Sq(f)
s.,( Y>i+s.,(Y)
Y

commutes.

Proof. We compute on singular q—simp1ices 0 E Sq(X). Then

P*S.,(/>(o) PY(f0) Sq(f0) Pm.) s.,(f>s.,(a) p(a,,)
= = =
=

S,( f) PX(a). The general statement follows because Sq(X) is freely

generated by all 0. I

Conversely, a homomorphism PX:Sq(X) Sq(X) defined for all X and

-'

satisfying the naturality property (9.1 1) is characterizedby its value PArI(8,1).

The naturality property is the precise meaning of the sense in which P is
independent of X. The usual categorical terminology is to call P a natural
transformation of the functor Sq. We shall usually suppress superscripts X
from the notation.
The singular chain complex is discussed in more detail in the next chapter.
The material is used in the proof of homotopy invariance, but remains in the
background until the introduction of cohomology theory. The reader who
prefers to go directly to homotopy invariance may do so after (10.6) and use
exercise (11.7) for the proof.

(9.12) Exercise. Let A, B be distinct points in an affine space X. Let

0, r:A1 -*X be the affine maps (A, B), (B, A). Then 0 75 -1’. Show 0 is
homologous to -1". Suggestion: let p E S 1 (X) be the constant map at A. Let
u), p’ E SZCX) be the affine map (A, B, A) and the constant map at A,
respectively. Show 0(a) + p’) 2' + 0. =

(9.13) Exercise. Regard the torus T and the Klein bottle K as quotients of
the affine space I X I obtained by identifications on opposite edges as
pictured:

Br—>j-[D B

’}' JD
’

A ______|_ C A r
C r

T K
Singular Theory 51

Let p, p’ : I X I -*
T, K be the identification maps. Define maps
01, 02 € S2(T)by<71=p°(A.B,D),<T2=19 (A. C. D); T1, 72 € S2(K) by
°

T]: p’ (A’, B’, D’), r2

° = °
p’ (A’, D’, C’); and w E S1(K) by
w =p’
°
(A’, B’) =p’ (D’, C’). Show 0(a1— 02) 0, 0(z', + 1'2) 2a),
° = =

and 0m = 0. Thus ifR Z, we have u) E Z,(K) and 2m E B,(K), whereas

=

ifR = Z/ZZ, cu E Z1(K) and 1'1 + 7:2 E Z;,_(K).

 10. Chain Complexes

This chapter presents algebraic properties of chain complexes with the

singular complex a central example. We abstract the central notions of the
previous chapter.
(10.1) Definition. A chain complex overR is a sequence C {C1, dq} of =

free R—modules and homomorphisms ¢9q:Cq Cr, such that 0q¢9q+1 O, -* =

Cq+1aq+1 Cq—afl—rCq_1.
In most cases Cq 0 ifq < 0. An element of C, has dimension q.
=

The singular complex of a space X is the example where Cq Sq(X) and =

64 is the boundary map constructed in (9.1). We often abbreviate [Sq(X), dq}

by S(X).
(10.2) Definition. A sequence of homomorphism {J2} withjf,:Cq ~>
C is a
chain map provided 6,’, fq =Jf,_,6q

fq
C4 Cq
(94 0,’,
Cq-1—Z:C ,'I_,
For example, a map of spaces fiX —* Y induces a chain map S( f ):S(X) —’

S( Y) (9.8).
Marvin J. Greenbcrgand John R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0~805 3~355 8~7(H)
ISBN 0—8053—3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. lnc.. Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No pan ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the publisher.

52
Chain Complexes 53

As in the topological case, we introduce Zq(C), Bq(C), the submodules of

Cq defined by
Zq(C) = Ker 6,, q-cycles,
Bq(C) = Im 6,1“ q—boundaries.
(10.3) Definition. The q—th homology module of C is defined by Hq(C) =

Zq(C)/Bq(C)-
By construction, Hq(C) is an R—module. If 2 E Zq(C) we write 2 for the
corresponding element in Hq(C).
A chain map f:C C sends cycles to cycles and boundaries to
—*
’

boundaries. Hence f induces a well—defined homomorphism

(10.4) H.,(f)=Hq(C) Hq(C '), ~

Hq(f)(2)=/,<z>.
Thus H defines a functor from the category of chain complexes over R and
chain maps to the category of R—modu1es and homomorphisms. The Verifica-
tion is an exercise; see the material following (9.8).
The motivation for the next definition will become apparent in the next
chapter.
(10.5) Definition. A chain homotopy between chain maps
f =
{ f;,:Cq ~* C "J }
andg={gq:C,] C[,} ~ is a sequenceD= {Dq:Cq —'
C[,H} of homomor-
phisms such that 0 j,+,Dq + Dq_,6q =fq —

gq.

We Write f=g. (If Cq = O for q < 0, the equation reads (9 ’,D0 =13 -go.)

(10-6) Proposition. Chain homotopic maps induce equal maps in

homology.
54 Singular Homology Theory

Proof. Let 2 E Hq(C) be class with representative z E Zq(C). Then

a
fq(Z) —gq(Z) =
;+iDq(Z) €Bq+1(C')- Hence Hq(f)(2‘-') Hq(g)(Z)- I =

The next sequence of ideas is motivated by properties of S( P ) where P is

a point. In (9.4) we observed im 6,,“ ker (9,, for q 2 1 and S0( P )/im 61 E-
=

R. We abstract the first of these properties.

(10.7) Definition. A chain complex C is acyclic if Hq(C) O for all q. =

This means im 6,,“ ker 6,, for all q (im 6. C0 if Cq 0 forq < 0). The
= = =

term exact is used synonymously.

Note that S( P) is not acyclicaccording to (10.7). A systematic device for
relating acyclicity to the properties of S( P) is the following
(10.8) Definition (for C such that Cq 0 ifq < 0). An augmentation over
=

an epimorphism e:C0
R for C is R such that 36,
—>
0, =

al 8
C1 _’
C0 _’ R.

This means im 6, C ker 8. Note the isomorphism C0/ker s E R.

For example S(X) has an augmentation e:S0(X) R given by s —+ 8* =

(9.7). In the case S( P) we have im 6, ker 8. =

Given a chain complex Cfvwith augmentation s:C0 R, wev form the

~*

reduced chain complegcvC {A9}, 6,} by setting C, C, forq Z 1, C0= ker s,

= =

and 6,, dq. Note 611C,

=
C0 since im 61 C ker 3. For example, exercise
-*

(9.7) asserts that the reduced homology of a space X is the homology of the
reduced singular complex S(X).

(10.9) Definition. A chain complex with augmentation is acyclic if the

reduced chain complex is acyclic. An equivalent formulation is im 6,,“ =

ker 6,, and im 6, ker 5.

=

(10.10) Proposition. A complex C {C1, dq} with augmentation s:C0

= -> R
is acyclic ifand only ifHq(C) Ofor q > 0 and H0(C) % R.
=

Proof If C is acyclic, then im 6,,“ ker dq and im 61 ker 8. Hence

= =

Hq(C) 0 for q 2 l and H0(C) C0/im 8,

= =
C0/ker e -E R. Conversely, if
=

Hq(C) 0 forq > 0, then im 6,,“ ker dq forq > O. The projection £:C0
= = —’

H0(C) satisfies ker s im 8, and is an augmentation if H0(C) -3 R.

= I

Our next goal is to relate acyclicity with certain chain homotopies. Every
complex with augmentation £:C0 R has a (nonunique) right inverse n:R
—’ -’

C0 given by 11(1) x where x satisfies e(x) 1. Then an 1. We regard

= = =

ne:C C as a chain map by defining 3| C, 0 for q _>_ 1. For example, in

-> =
Chain Complexes 55

5( P) we have 11(1) 00 and a chain homotopy 1 ’—“ ns given by Dq(aq)

= =

ml“ where o;,:Aq P is

—’the constant map. The verification of the equation
aq +1 D4 + D -164 1 =
ms is an exercise. More generally we have
—

(10.11) Proposition. Ifl =

me then C is acyclic.

Proof. The equation 6q+1Dq + Dq_,6q 1 17:: implies im dqfl

= —
= ker 6,,
forq Z 1 and im 6, ker 5. Then
= C is acyclic by either (10.9) or (10.10).

We now introduce a geometric condition on a space X which will imply

acyclicity (10.9) of S(X).

(10.12)"+1 Definition. X is aspherical if every continuous”+'fiS” X extends —*

to XE X. Here S is the unit sphere inR"+‘ and E

—*
"
the unit ball. We
shall understand the definition to apply to homeomorphic images of the pair
(E"“, S") as well.

Remark. Setting n = 0 in (10.12) shows X is arc—wise connected.

Remark. In some contexts, the term “aspherical” describes a space X

whose universal covering space X is aspherical in our sense.

Example. A convex subsetX of euclidean space is aspherical. To see this,

pick any point Q E X. Represent points in E "H by “polar coordinates” (t, x)
where 0 S t S 1, x E S" and (O, x) (0, x’) is the origin. Points in S” have
=

coordinates of the form (1, x). Given f:S” X, define "+1 X by —’ —>

f(l‘, x) (1 t)Q + tf(x).

= —

Example. A contractible space is aspherical. Let H:X X I X be a —~

Contracting homotopy such that fI(x, 0) x, H(x, 1) Q for some point

= =

Q E X. Define fE"” X by f(t, x) H(f(x), 1 r).

a = —

Exercise. The topologists’ sine curve is aspherical. This space is made up

ofthe graph ofy sin(1/x),O < x _<_ 1, the line segment {(0, y)] -13 y S
=

llv and an are from (O, O) to (1, sin 1) as pictured. Suggestion: use local
C0I1nectedness to show that the image of a sphere misses the nasty part.
56 Singular Homology Theory

(10.13) Theorem. If X is aspherical, then S(X) is acyclic.

Before proving this we recall a methodfor constructing continuous maps. If
X =
A, U U AA. with A , closed in X and we have continuous
. . .

maps f,.:/1,» Ysuch

—* that fl | A, 0 Aj =_/fl A, (W A], then a well—defined, con-
tinuous map g:X Y is given by g(x) f,7(x) if x E A,-.
-> =

Proof(suggested by A. L. Liulevicius). Let e:S0(X) R be the augmen-

—>

tation and_ n:R S0(X) a right inverse. We construct a chain homotopy 1 =

-*

178. Let Aq+1 Aq+, be the boundary. Then _Aq+1 is the union of q-
C
faces F;+,(Aq),
0 S 1' S q + 1. The pair (z_&q+,, Aq+,) is homeomorphic to
(EV1, ").
S SinceX is aspherical, any map Aq+1 X extends to a map A4“
-'

—> X. Let 0 be a singular q—simp1ex of X. We define Dq(or)

Chain Complexes 57

Hence F{,+i(Aq)F7 F{,+1(Aq) =

F5,+.F{,(Aq—i) F{,+iFi[”(Aqai)-The Ver-
=

ification that Dq(a) is well defined on overlaps is just a calculation:

Dq(a) Ffz+1F{, D,,_1(a Fff‘) Ff,

=

aF;‘;' ifj= 0,
=
ne(o'Ff,") ifq=l,j¢0,
Dq_2(0 Ff,"F{,Z} otherwise;
and
a1«‘;;'
_

ifj= 0,
Dq(cr) F{,HF§,"
. _

Dq_,(aF’q ‘) F; __ __ 1
otherwise,

aF;';1 ifj= 0,
=
ns(crF{f') ifq=1,j¢0,
Dq_2(a F{,"FfIZf otherwise.

These expressions are equal by the definition of 118 and (9.3). Hence we have
Dq(a):Aqfl X and Dq:Sq(X)
-*
q+1(X). We check that Dq is a chain
->

homotopy;
51Do(<T) 170(0) F?
= —

Do(<T) F} =
(1 ‘

118)(0),
q+l q

aq*1Dq(U) + Dq—laq(U) =
§(—1>‘Dq<a> Ff;+1 + Dq—l( _0<—1>"oF;>
q+l
=
a + i§(—.1)"Dq_.1(aF;';‘)
+ £(—1)’Dq_1(aFfI)
i=0
=
or

since the first sum cancels the second. I

(10.14) Exercise. LetX be a space, Q E X a point. Let c:X X be the -’

constant map at Q. What is S(c):S(X) S(X)? Let c’:S(X) S(X) be

-> ->

defined by: c’(0) 0 ifa € S'q(X), q 2 1, and c'(tr) 00 ifa E S0(X) where
= =

005130 Q and 0 is a singular q—simp1ex. Show c’ is a chain map and is chain

*’

homotopic to S(c).
(10-15) Exercise. Prove 2 is an equivalence relation.
58 Singular Homology Theory

(10.16) Exercise. Letfi, f2:C C’ andg1,g2:C’

—* -* C" be chain maps.
Iffi f2 andgl =g2 proveglfl =gzf2-
=

(10.17) Exercise. For each q, Aq is convex hence aspherical. Theorem

(10.13) produces chain homotopies D
principles (9.10)
in we can use the
§<1:Sq(AX)
values D
->
Sq+1(Aq). Following the
q<I(8q) to define natural maps
Pq:Sq(X) Sq+1(X) by Pq(a) Sq+1(a)DqAq(8q). Why doesn’t this construc-
-> =

tion prove the acyclicity of S(X) for all X?

 11. Homotopy Invariance
of Homology

A fundamental feature of the homology functors is their homotopy

invariance; homotopic maps induce the same map in homology. Spaces of the
same homotopy type have isomorphic homologies.

(11.1) Theorem. Iff, g are homotopic maps X ->

Y, then S(f) and S(g)
are chain homotopic maps S(X) S( Y). —’

Since chain homotopic maps induce equal maps in homology we have

(11.2) Theorem. Iff, g are homotopic maps X Y, thenforevery q 2 O, —>

the induced homomorphisms H,,( f) and Hq(g) on the homology modules

are equal.
(11.3) Theorem. IffiX Yis a homotopy equivalence, thenforevery q 2
—>

0, Hq(f) is an isomorphism Hq(X) H,( Y). -*

Proof. Let g: Y X be a homotopy inverse to f Then fg id Y and gfz

—> =

idx. By (9.8), Hq(f)Hq(g) 1 and Hq(g)Hq(f) 1. Hence Hq(f) and

= =

Hq(g) are inverse isomorphisms. I

To prove (11.1) we first reduce it to a theorem about X. Write

H:X>< 1 Yfor the homotopy such that H( 0) =fandH( 1) =g.
—>
, ,
Let 1'0, i,: X X X I be the top and bottom inclusions such thatf Hi0,
—* =

8 Hz]. By functoriality it is enough to prove

=

(11-4) Theorem. S(z'0) and S(i) are chain homotopic maps S(X) —*
S(X X 1).

Marvin]. Greenbergand John R. Harper, Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 0—80S3—3558—7(H)
ISBN 0—8053—3557—9(Pbk)
C °pY“€ht © 1981
by Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company, lnc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
,

r °S°”’°d-
No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form
gfebg 81:11)’ rlneans,
u
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of
[S ier.

59
60 Singular Homology Theory

Proof We start by proving the result in dimension 0. Identify A1 with

A0 >< Iso thatE,- in A1 corresponds with E0 >< {i},z'= 0, 1 by the unique
affine map. Define D0:S0(X) S1(X><I ) on singular 0—simplices or by
-+

D0(a) 0 X id
=

oXid

A1=A0><I—’_'X><I.

Extend D0 to all of S0(X) by linearity. Then 6,D0 =

S0(i,) S0(io) since this
—

holds for each 0'. Note that D0 is natural; if h:X -' X then
'

D0
S0(X) S1(X >< 1)
S0(h ) 1
Homotopy Invariance of Homology 61

Then for a singular q—simplex 0 in Sq(X) define

Dq(a) =
Sq+,(or X id )D,,(8q).
Extend Dq to map Sq(X) —»
q+,(X X I ) by linearity. The naturality
property (b) follows automaticallyfrom (9.11):
DqSq(h)(cr) Dq(/I0’) Sq+,(ha X id)Dq(6q)
== =

q+,(h >< id)Sq+1(0'X z'd)Dq(8q) Sq+,(hXz'd)Dq(a).

= =

To verify condition (a) we calculate:

6q+1Dq(a) 6qHSq+,(0 X z'd)(Dq(8q)) =Sq(cr X z'd)<9q+1Dq(6q).

=

Writing 0 =
Sq(a)(8q) and applying dq gives
dqor Sq-,(o)6q(8q).
=

Then

Dq_,8qor= Dq#,Sq-,(U)6q(8q)
Sq(a X z'd)Dq_,0q(8,,) by (b).
=

Putting these together, we have

(¢9,,t,Dq + Dq-,dq)(¢7) S,,(o' X ia')(6q+,Dq + Dq,,c7q)(8q)
=

=
Sq(U >< id)(Sq(il) s,,<io>><6,,)
—

=
(Sq(il) Sq<io))Sq<o)<6q>
—

since (or X z'd)iJ- ijcr, j= =

0, 1
=
(Sq(ii) Sq(l'o))(<T)»
‘

This completes the inductive step. I

Remark. We have proved more than was stated: S(z'0) and S(i,) are chain
homotopic by a natural chain homotopy.
Here are some exercises to aid in digesting the ideas used in our proof.
(11.5) Exercise. To obtain Do for all spaces it is enough to construct
Do=So(Ao) S,(A0 X I) such that6,D0 sea.) S0(1'0).
—~ = —
62 Singular Homology Theory

(11.6) Exercise. The augmentation eX:S0(X) R defined in (9.7) is

—*

natural, ex eyS0(f) for f:X Y. Prove that a natural right inverse 11 to 5

= -’

implies S(X) is acyclic for all X. Assume for all X, ex has a right inverse
71X5R S000 and So(f)7lX TIY- Define Do3So(Ao) S1(Ao) by D0070)
“’ = " =

0'1 (9.4). Then BIDO = 1 —

nA0eA0. Regard R as a chain complex concen-

trated in dimension 0 and e, 11 as chain maps. Define D0:S0(X) S1 (X) by —>

D0(or) S1(O‘)D0(0’0). Use naturality to obtain 61D0 1 11X ex. Complete

= = -

the construction Dq:Sq(X) —*

Sq+,(X) such that 6D + D6 1 178 by = —

the same sequence of steps as in the proof of (11.4).

(1 1.7) Exercise. A direct proof of (1 1.4) can be given without reference to

acyclicity,naturality or the equation (7 S(cr)(6q). In Aq X I denote Ag X {0}
=

by(E0,.:.,Eq)andAq ><{1}by(E{,,...,E,}).ForeachqZ0,0SiSq,
define U;:Aq+1—> Aq X Ito be the affine map(E0, . . . ,E,-,E,5, , , ,, E4).
4
Given a singular q—simplex 0:Aq -* X define Dq(a) =
S(cr X I )({;:_:.)(—1)’U;)
E Sq+1(X X I ). Show by direct calculation that (0q+,Dq + Dq_16q )(O') =

(Sq(z'1)—Sq(io))(a). An intermediate position is to verify the formula for

Dq(8q) and avoid reference to acyclicity,This Dq is called theprism operator.
(11.8) Remark. Another explicit chain homotopy will be available in
(15.26).
 12. Relation Between rr, and H,

Throughout this section we take our coefficient ring R to be the integers

and write H, (X) for H1 (X; Z).

(12.1) Theorem. There is a homomorphism X277, (X, x0) H,(X: Z) -+

which sends the homotopy class of a loop 7 into the homology class of the
singular 1—simplex 7. IfX is path connected, X is surjective, and its kernel is
the commutator subgroup.

(12.12) Corollary. IfX is path connected, then X is an isomorphism ifand

only if thefundamental group of X is commutative.
Proof of theorem : Suppose y, y’ are loops at x0 and
F:y=y'rel(0, l)
Define a singular 2—simplex a inX as follows: a(E0) x0. For any point Q of =

A 2 other than E0, the line throughE0 and Q meets the edge opposite E0 in a
P0int Q’. We write

Q'=tE2+(l—t)E1, and Q=sQ’+(1—s)E0

Define O'(Q) = F (s, t ). (T is continuous becauseA2 is the quotient space of I 2
Under the map (s, t) —’
Q, s 75 0, (0, t) E0.-’

Man/in .l. Grccnbergand.lohnR. Harper. AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0—8053—3558—7(H)

C0 ISBN O—8053—3557—9(Pbk)
wsPYT1ghl © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
.
_ _

eFVed. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
fgebggsly fktlicans.
IS er.
electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of

63
54 Singular Homology Theory

70

% E

If yo is the constant loop at xo, we have

N®=7—7’+m-
Since 70 is the boundary of the trivial 2—simp1ex at xo, we have y ~
y ', and X
is well defined.
To see that it is a homomorphism, use the diagram

to define a singular 2—simplex 0 such that

M®=7+W—YW-
(This formula applies more generally for paths 7, y
I
such that yy’ is
defined.)
Suppose now that X is path connected.
Let 2 =
Z1/,»oz,» be a 1—cycle, so that
0 =
2v,.(a,.(1) a,~(O))
— = az.

This means that after collecting terms, all coefficients are 0. Choose a path
71,0 from xo to oz,-(O), a path n,~, from x0 to 04(1), and choose the paths to
depend only on the vertices, not on the indexing. Then, collecting terms,
0 =
2:1/i(77i‘i T

71.0)-
Relation Between 1r] and H1 65

Setting fit =
mo + 04- -

mi, we get

2 =
Ev,-B,-.
Now if y,- is the loop n,-oam,-",1, we see that
x[H7F"l = 2

and X is surjective.
Next we identify Ker X. The main difficulty is recognizing commutators
when they are expressed as products of paths. Suppose a loop y is expressed
Y: Hafi
where oz, are paths which are not necessarily distinct and e,- = i1. Write

exp( 01,) =
26]-
where the sum is over allj such that aj =
0z,».

(12.3) Lemma. Ifexp(a,) = 0 for each distinctfactor a,- of y, then [7] is in

the commutator subgroup.

Proof Choose paths 21,0 and 17,1 from x0 to the initial and terminal points of
01,- and choose the paths to depend only on the endpoints, not the indexing.
Then

7 =
Ha?"-‘ 1,_I(t1.-oer.-71.-T)" re1(0, 1).
Let 17 '1 be the quotient of in (X, x0) by its commutator subgroup and lety be
the coset of [y]. Then writing [3, 17,-0a,11,-‘,1 we have
=

T: _2£iBi : Z 3XP(0li)Bi = 0

Where the last sum is over distinct path classes. I

We continue with the proof of the theorem.

Let -y be a loop homologous to 0. Thus

7 = d(2v,~0,-).
Write 5(U,-) =
04,0 -

01,-1 + 01,2, so that after collecting terms in the sum

65 Singular Homology Theory

(124) 2 Vr(01ro ’

an + 092)
y occurs with coefficient 1, all other paths with coefficient 0. We again
choose paths 21,], j 0, 1, 2, from xo to 01,-2(0), a,-0(0), a,,(1) so as to depend
=

only on the vertices, not the indexing, and we choose the constant path to the
Vertex xo.

711‘)

Consider next the loops at x0

fire =
71r101ro71 i2 ,

3n =
71zo01i171f2 9

3.1 =
?7r001i27171l-
Then

13:’ :
fiiOfli-l 13,2 2
77:": 04io01r'1 [$271,711 2
xo 1'e1(0, 1)-
Hence

Hlfirlv’ = 1-

By the observation on coefficients in (12.4), the composite of paths

1/(11,113.-"")"
satisfies (12.3). Thus [y] belongs to the commutator subgroup.
Since H, (X) is commutative, the kernel of X must contain the commutator
subgroup, and we are done. I

(12.5) Example: If X is the figure 8, its fundamental group is the free

group on 2 generators (by Van Kampen’s theorem; cf. Crowell and Fox
[16]). By our theorem, H1(X) is the free Abeliangroup on 2 generators, i.e.,
Z X Z.
Relation Between 17! and H1 57

(12.6) Exercise. Show that any map( 14, 6I‘’) (X, x0) (here 6]" is in the
-*

sense of (7.8)) induces by passage to the quotient a singular q—simplex each

of whose faces is the constant map on x0. Deduce from this a homomorphism
X:1rq(X, x0) Hq(X; Z) for all q 2 1. Show that these homomorphisms are
-+

functorial in the sense that a map fi(X, x0) ( Y, yo) induces a commutative
-e

diagram
X
77.,(X, xo)—>Hq(X)
lHq(.f)
(f.>qJyo)‘X"Hq(Y)
m,(Y,

(12.7) Remark. A more geometric description of the relation x[yj 0 is =

possible. Recall that the closed orientable surface Mg of genus g can be

obtained by identifying the edges of a 4g-polygon. The case g 2 is =

indicated (ignore the interior loop).

by by

02 Cl

b2 b2
02
If‘we remove the interior of small disc,
a obtain W, an orientable surface
we
withboundary y, and W has the homotopy type of a bouquet of 2g circles.
Hence in Wis free on {01,, fi,~; 1 S is g} where 01,- [a,-], B,« [b,-]. Since [y]
= =

=
Hi, [01,-, /3,-], it follows that y is homologous to 0 in H1(W). More
generally have
we

(12.8) Proposition. Let y be a loop in Xregarded as a mapf:S' X. For ->

XlY] 0 it is necessary and suflicientthatfextendto)’: W X where Wis

= ->

an orientable surface with boundary S‘.

_Qne should contrast (12.8) with the observation that f is homotopically

trivial if and only if f extends to a map of a disc f: E 2 —> X.
68 Singular Homology Theory

We sketch the proof of (12.8) leaving details for an exercise. On the one
hand, iff has an extension, then regarded as a loop in W, x[y] 0. On the =

other hand, suppose X[y] 0. Then there is a homotopy H:S' X I X with

= —~

H ( 0) f and by ( 12.1) H ( 1) is a product of commutators. Make suitable

,
=
,

identifications on S 1 X {1} to obtain W and]".

(12.9) Remark. There are nice results concerning the representation of

integral homology classes by embedded circles. For the torus T, H1(T) =

Z 63 Z. Denote the generators by (1 O) and (0, 1). Then (a, b) is represented

,

by an embedded circle if and only if a b O or gcd(a, b) 1 (gcd(a,0)

= = = =

a in this statement).

(0,0) (|,O) (2,1) (3,2)

A proof is given in Rolfsen [85], p. 19. The analogous results for the other
surfaces appear in Schafer, Canadian Math. Bull. 19 (1976); Meyerson,
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 61 (1976); Meeks and Patrusky, IllinoisJ. Math. 22
(1978).

The representation of H2(M 4) by embedded surfaces is an important open

problem, where M 4 is a closed 4—dimensional manifold.

(12.10) Remark. Let K be a knot in R3. A method, the Wirtinger

presentation, for calculating 1r,(R3 K) is described in Crowell and Fox
-

[16] or Rolfsen [85]. Applying (12.1) results in H1(R3 K) ——“—’ Z (this will
—

also appear in chapter 18). IfJ .andK are nonintersecting circles in R3,
possibly knotted, then X[J ] €H,(R3 —K ) defines an integer called the
linking number ofJ and K. The precise definition depends on orientations.
This topological invariant was formulated by Gauss. It has been used by
W. R. Bauer, F. H. C. Crick, and J. H. White, Supercoiled DNA, Scientific
American 243 July (1980), l18—133, in the study of DNA.

(12.11) Exercise. Consider the curves 7,, i =

1, 2, 3 and 6 on the surface of
genus 2 as pictured with orientations on 7,.
Relation Between TT1 and H1 69

&%
Show 6‘: 0 and 7, =
y2 + y; inH,.
(12.12) Exercise. Regard the Klein bottle K as the indentification space
pictured (the shaded part will enter later).
0

Leta =
[a], B =
[b]in 1r,(K). Show [(1, B] 75 1 in 171K. Find a map of a
punctured torus to K representing the commutator [a, [3]. Suggestion:

@
visualize the punctured torus

What is the subspace of K obtained by identifying the outer edges of the

Shaded region in the picture for K? The suggested map is not an embedding.

(12.13) Exercise. Show that the boundary of the Mobius strip is not a
retract. You can use the relation between 171 and H, to identify generators.
Calculations like (9.13) can be made to compute the map H,(6M ) ->

H1 (M ) induced by inclusion. Exhibit a deformation retraction of the Mobius

Strip Onto its median circle.
 13. Relative Homology

LetA be a subspace ofX. Then for every q 2 0, Sq(A) is the submodule of

Sq(X) consisting of linear combinations of singular q—simplexes Aq X -*

which actually map into A. We can then form the quotient module, and since
the boundary operator sends S,,(A) into Sq_,(A), it induces a homomorphism
5 which makes the diagram

(13.1) Sq(X)——-> S,,(X)/Sq(A)

a
V
1 5

Sq~l(X) —-
s.,_.(X>/s.g1<A)
commutative [i.e., if c E Sq(X), we define 3 (coset of c mod Sq(A)) coset of =

6c mod Sq_,(A)]. Clearly 33 0. We can then consider, as before, the

=

modules

(a) Keme1(Sq(X)/Sq(A)-+8 q_,(A))

(b) Image (Sq Fl(X)/Sq+1(A)-53 Sq(X)/Sq(A))
Since (b) is a submodule of (a), we can again form the quotient module,
which is denoted Hq(X, A) [or
Hqh(X,
A; R ) if we want to make explicit the
coefficient ring] and called the q‘ relative homology module of X mod A.
We can obtain this module directly from Sq(X) if we like. Start with c E
Sq(X). Suppose that in going around the square (13.1) to Sqo,(X)/Sqo1(A),c
is sent to 0; clearly this means that dc E Sq-1(A). The set of all such c’s forms

Marvin J. Grcenberg and John R. Harper. Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 0805 3-35 58—7( H)
ISBN 0-805 3-35 57—9( Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. lnc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced. stored in a retrieval system. or transmitted, in any form
0}l1'bpublisher.
t e )
any means. electronic. mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. withoutthe prior permission of
Relative Homology 7l

3 submodule Zq(X, A) of Sq(X) whose elements are called relative q—cyc1es

on X mod A.

(13.2) Example : If 0 is a pathinX, it is a relative l—cycle modA iff its end

points lie in the subspaceA. More generally, a singularq—simplex is a relative
q—cycle ifi” its faces are in A.
The module Zq (X A) is just the pre—image by the quotient homomorphism
,

of the module (a) above. What is the pre—image of (b)? Clearly it is the
submodule Bq(X, A) of Sq(X) consisting of chains homologous to chains in
Sq(A); they are called relative q—boundarz'es on X mod A (write c c’ modA
~

if c c’ is a relative q—boundary).
~

(13.3) Lemma. Hq(X, A) % Z,,(X, A)/B,,(X, A)

This is a consequence of the isomorphism theorem (M/P )/(N/P) ’% M/N
in algebra. I

(13.4) Example : IfX is the cylinder] X S’, A the subspace 1 X S‘, then
any horizontal loop s (t, eh”) is a relative 1-boundary, since it is
-'

homologous to the loop s (1, e2"”‘) in A (prove this).

—+

(13.5) Note. If A is empty, Sq(A) O for all q, by definition, hence

=

Hq(X,¢)=}L,(X). Thus any discussion of relative homology modules

includes the absolute ones as a special case.

(13.6) The relative homology modules are functorial in the pair (X, A).
Thus given another pair (X ’, A ’) (the word pair will henceforth mean two
topological spaces such that the second is a subspace of the first) and a
mfip fi(X, A) (X’, A’) [meaning fis a mapX X’ such that f(A) C
->

A ]! the induced chain homomorphism

->
72 Singular Homology Theory

Sq(f)ISq(X) '*
SAX’)

sends Sq(A) into Sq(A’), hence Zq(X,A) into Zq(X’, A’) and Bq(X,A) into
Bq(X ’, A ’), hence induces by passage to the quotient a homorphism
Hq(f):Hq(X, A) -+
Hq(X’, A’)
As usual

(i) Hq(identity) identity

=

(ii) Hq(gf) Hq(g)Hq(f)

=

(13.7) Example 2 We have always a map j:(X <15) ,

-*
(X, A) which is the
identity map on X, hence an induced homomorphism.

H,,(j ):Hq(X) —>

H,,(X, A)
On the other hand, the inclusion map z':A -' X induces a homomorphism
Hq(z'):Hq(A) ->
Hq(X)
What is the composite homomorphism
Hq(ji):Hq(A) ~*
Hq(X, A)?
Since Zq(A) C Bq(X, A), it is the zero homomorphism.
(13.8) Exercise. Show that both rectangles in the diagram

Hq(lA) Hq(lX) H,,(/JY, A)

- -e

Hq(A ’) -'
HqlX’) -*
Hq(X’, A ’)
are commutative (the vertical arrows are homomorphisms induced by a map
fi(X, A) (X', A’), the horizontal ones from 13.7).
-+

(13.9) Proposition. Let (Xk) be thefamily ofpath components ofX, and

put Ak Xk O A. Then there is a canonical isomorphismfor all q 2 0
=

Hq(X9
Relative Homology 73

Proof. Just modify the proof of (9.5). Of course the subspacesAk need not
be path connected. I

(13.10) Proposition. If A is nonempty and X is path connected then

Ho(X, A) = 0-

Proof Choose xo E A. Given a 0—chain on X, c Z1/Xx, choose a path ax

=

from x0 to x. Then (9(E1/xtxx) c (Z‘.vx)x0, so that c is homologous to a 0-

= —

chain on A. I

(13.11) Corollary. If(Xk) are thepathcomponents ofX, then HO(X, A) is

a free module with as many generators as indices k such that Xk does not
meet A.

For H0(Xk, AA.) 5- R whenever Ak is empty (9.6). I

(13.12) Exercise. IfA is a single point xo in X, then Hq(X) -*

Hq(X, x0) is
an isomorphism for all q > 0.

(13.13) Two mapsf, g:(X, A) (Y, B) are homotopic if there is a

-'

homotopy H:X X I Y between

—>
f and g such that H maps A X I B. ->

Iffl A =
g| A H|
= A X I then we writefzg rel A. The top and bottom
inclusions i0, i,:(X, A) (XX 1, A X I) are maps of pairs. Theorem (1 1.4)
-+

provides natural chain homotopies fitting in the diagram

O->Sq(A) Sq(X) S(X)/Sq(A) ————~ 0

Dql DG D ‘l

0~ Sq+,(A x 1) ~
s,,.,(X>< I) ~
Sq+1(XX I)/Sq+,(A x 1) ~0.
Hence a map Dq is induced giving a natural chain homotopy of S(i0) with
S(i,) on the relative singular complexes. We then have
(13.14) Proposition. Homotopic maps ofpairs fl g:(X, A) -*
(Y, B)
induce equal maps on homology.

We leave the proof for an exercise. One reworks the argument of (11.2).

(13.5) Example. LetX= X’ be the closed disc E2, A the circle S‘, and A’
3 A the closed annulus defined byé S I 2| S 1. We claim thatthe inclusion
map fi(X, A) (X A’) is a homotopy equivalence, hence
—+
74 Singular Homology Theory

Hq(f)IHq(X, A) ‘*
Hq(X: A’)
is an isomorphism. Define g:(X, A’) —'
(X, A) by
22 Iz| _<_ -Q,
g(Z) =

e19
_

ifz=re’”with§SrS 1.
_

We must show jg: and gf homotopic to the identity maps.

Define a homotopy F,:Jfg 2 identity by

(1+t)z |zISl/1+1,
F,(z)=
e'”
_

ifz=re"’with(1/1+t)SrS 1.
_

Define a homotopy G,:fg =

identity by
(1+t)z |z|_<_§,
01(2):
(1 + s + z —

st/2)e"9 if z=((l +s)/2)e"",0sss1.

(13.16) Exercise. A homotopy equivalence of pairs induces a pair of

homotopy equivalences, but the converse is false. For example, in (13.15)
replace A’ by the punctured disc A” defined by 0 < |z| S 1. Then the
inclusion (X, A) (X, A") is not a homotopy equivalence. Suggestion: X
- =

A” and a homotopy inverse to the inclusion yields a retraction of X to S‘.

 14. The Exact Homology
Sequence

The most important property of the relative homology modules Hq(X, A) is

the existence of a connecting homomorphism

Hq(X>
76 Singular Homology Theory

the connecting homomorphism is zero. This means that62 6w, where w is =

a q—chain on A. Therefore, 2 w is a cycle on X. Moreover, the relative

—

homology class ofz w is the

—

same as that ofz; thus Hq(j XZW) Z. This =

shows that the image of Hq( j ) equals the kernel of 6. I

(14.2) Remark. The homology sequence ends on the right with

Mom
“
Ho(X)’—’ Ho(X,A) " 0

Exactness at H0(X, A) means the image of H0( j ) equals the kernel of the
zero homomorphism, i.e., H0( j ) is surjective. This has been proved above.
(14.3) Example: Exercise (13.12) can now be carried out as an easy
consequence of(l4.l). For ifA is a single point x0, Hq(A) = 0 for all q > 0.
Thus for all q 2 2,

Hq(J')
0 4
Hq(X)——~ Hq(X, x0) 4 0

is exact, which says H,( j ) is an isomorphism. For q = 1 the right hand 0

must be replaced by H0(x0) 2 R. But clearly 6:Z1 (X, x0) -+
H0(x0) is the zero
homomorphism, so H,( j ) is also an isomorphism.
(14.4) Example: Let X be the rz-ball E” =
{:1 € R"; |z1| _<_ 1}, A =

S"" its frontier. Since E is contractible,Hq(E")

” = 0 for all q 2 1, so by the
exact homology sequence

6:Hq(E", S”’1) -*
Hq_,(S"")
is an isomorphism for all q 2 2. For q = 1 we get
0 _,
Hl(EI1’ S11-1) _,
H0(S:z—l) _,
H0(E:z) _, 0

Forn >1, S”" is path connected and we see H,(E", S”") 0. Forn =1, =

we get H,(E‘, S0) Kernel (H0(S°) H0(E1)).

E R E —>

In the next section we will develop a technique of calculating the relative

homology modules in certain cases; this combinedwith ( 14.1) will enable us
to determine certain absolute homology modules, such as Hq(S”).

(14.5) Proposition. The homology sequence is functorial in the pair

(X,A)-
Proof. This that a map fi(X,
means A) —+
(X’, A’) induces an infinite
sequence of commutative squares
The Exact Homology Sequence 77

~
H.,(A> ~
H.,<X> ~
H.,<X,A> ~
H.,-.<A)~
1 1 1 1
~
H.,<A'> ~
H.,<X'> ~
H.<X'. A’) ~
H,,-.<A') ~

the vertical homomorphisms being induced by f. By 13.8 we need only check

that

H.,<X.A>—"~ H.~«<A>
1 1
HM, A'>#H.,-.(A'>
is commutative; this is immediate from the fact that the chain homomor-
phisms Sq( f) commute with the boundary operator (9.8). I

The term “natural” is used interchangeably with “functorial” in the

context of (14.5) and elsewhere.

(14.6) Suppose A C
Exercise. X C X’. Generalize the previous to obtain
an exact homology sequence

.—» Hq(X,A) ~
Hq(X’,A) —»
Hq(X’,X) ~
Hq_,(X,A) ~
. ..

which is functorial in the triple (X’ X, A). , Suggestion: One can establish a
short exact sequence of chain complexes

0 —>
S(X)/S(A) -
S(X’)/S(A) -+
S(X’)/S(X) —’ 0

or use the diagram

Hq (X)
qt(X') \
-> H
1
Hq(X,A) -*
Hq(X’, A) -*
Hq(X’, X)
1 1
Hq—i(/1) _’
Hq—l(X) —’
q—1(X')
1 1
Hq_,(X, A) -*
Hq_1(X’, A).
Ladders of the sort occurring in ( 14.5) appear frequently in the subject. We
§hall develop a number of algebraic lemmas to handle them. The most
Important is known as the

(14.7) Five Lemma. Given a diagram of R—modules and homomor-

phisms with all rectangles commutative
78 Singular Homology Theory

.fl f2 f3 fix
A1‘:’A2‘j’A3‘*"/14*"/45

am t! in 61$!
B] j’B2 ""B3:—’B4—"-‘B5
81 32 83 84

such that the rows are exact (at joints 2, 3, 4) and the four outer
homomorphisms 01, B, 8, s are isomorphisms, then 7 is an isomorphism.
Proof. Show y is monic. If a E A3 and 7(a) 0 then 8f3(a)=O. Since 8 is
=

monic, j§(a) 0. By exactness at A3, a =f2(a’). Then g2[3 (a') yf2(a')

= = =

0. By exactness at B2, [3(a') =

g, (b). Since oz is epic, b =
a(a "). Then
[3(a’ -f1(a”)) =0. Since [3 is monic, a’ =f,(a”). Then a =f2f,(a") 0. =

The proof that 7 is epic is left as an exercise. Start with an element b E B3

and do the only obvious thing: apply g3. I

Remark. Arguments of this short are called “diagram chases”. Only

perseverence is required. At each stage there is one obvious new thing to do.

Remark. The hypotheses on at and s are excessive. The argument requires

only 0: epic and s monic. In the example

Z 12 -—’
Z 12 -—*'
Z

the need for this requirement is obvious.

Example (13.16) continued. The inclusion (E2, S‘) (E2, E2 {0}) is

-* —

not a homotopy equivalence; however by the five lemma, the inclusion

induces an isomorphism in homology.

(14.8) Application to retracts. By definition, a subspaceA C X is a retract

if there is r 2 X —>A such that ri id,,, where i:A
= X is the inclusion. The
-’

long exact sequence of the pair (X, A) where A is a retract has special
properties. Conversely, the impossibilityof A being a retract can sometimes
be proved by showing the incompatibilityof these properties with the values
of the homology modules. We first treat the relevant algebra.
The Exact Homology Sequence 79

(14.9) 4Definition. An exact sequence of R—modules of the form

0 —~ A 4*B C O is called a short exact sequence. In particular, i is
-+

monic, imi
ker j,=and j is epic. The Noether isomorphism theorem then
C imj 9- B/imi withA % im i. So, up to isomorphism, C is B/A.
says =

Among the short exact sequences, certain special cases are singled out.

(14.10) Definition. A short exact sequence is split if either (a) there is a

/¢;B A
—> such that ki id,,; or (b) there is l:C B such thatjl idc. For
= —* =

exampleO 2~ 4 z oz 4 2 0,i(1)= (2,

-2 is split. Take l:Z Z 69Zbyl(1)=(1,1).ButO Z
—>
~

Z
3,j(0, 1)
Z/2Z is
3),j(1,0X)2=
—’ —* ->
=

not split because Z accepts no nontrivial homomorphisms from Z/2Z.

(14.11) Proposition. Conditions (a) and (b) in (14.10) are equivalent.

Proof. Show (a) implies (b). Given c E C let b E B be any element such
thatj (b) c. Define l(c)
= b ik(b). We check I is well defined. If b’
= -

satisfies j (b) j (b’) then b b’ i(a). Then the difference

= —- =

(b —

ik(b)) —

(b’ —

ik(b')) = b —
1;’ —

iki(a) = b —

b’ —

i(a) = 0.

By construction I is a homorphism. Thenjl(c) =j (b ik(b))=j(b) c so I —

=

satisfies condition (b).

Show (b) implies (a). Given b E B, we havej(b lj (b)) 0. Since i is — =

monic, there is a unique a E A such that i(a) b lj (b). Define k(b) a. = — =

We check k is a homomorphism.Ifk(b) a, k(b’) a’, then i(a) b lj (b)

= = = —

and similarly for a’. Hence i(a + a’) b + b’ l]'(b + b’). By definition
= —

k(b + b’) a + a’ =
k(b) k(b').
+ = To check condition (a) we have
i(a) i(a) lji(a).
= -
Hence ki(a) a. = I

(14.12) Remark. The existence of k:B A such thatki id, implies that -> =

i is monic and k is epic. Similarlyl:C B such that lj idc impliesj is epic

—* =

andl is monic. Furthermore ker k im I if one map is used to construct the

=

other as in the above proof. (Prove this.)

In a split short exact sequence, the structure of the module B is determined

by A and C. Precisely we have

(14.13) Direct sum lemma. Consider the diagram of R—modules with

C0mmutative triangles

kl(J;'\.i‘.G
80 Singular Homology Theory

with im is =
kerjs, and ks an isomorphism for s =
1, 2. Then the com-
positions
i1@i2 v’
016902 ——. Goo ———>G

A h®h
G ——» G690 ——>G1®G2
are isomorphisms where V ’(g, g’) =
g+ g’, A(g) =
(g, g).
Proof. Since both ks are isomorphisms, then both is are monic and bothjs
are epic. To check V (il 63 i2) is monic, we note V °(i1 69 i2)(g, g’) 0
’ ° ’
=

implies i, (g) + i2(g’) 0. Applyingj, yields j,i2(g’) k2(g') 0. Hence

= = =

g’ 0. Similary g 0. To check the map is epic, take g E G. Thenjl (g)

= = =

k2(g’). Hencej,(g i2(g‘)) 0. Sog —i2(g’)=i1(g”). Then

— =

g= V i2)(g",g’)-
’
°
(i! <43
We leave the proof that ( jl 6915) A is an isomorphism for an exercise.
0 I

Remark. A split short exact sequence is an example

A C
% II
.

A
u‘%B\~\‘C
Returning to spaces we have
(14.14) Proposition. If A C X is a retract then the long exact homology
sequenceof the pair (X, A) breaks into split short exact sequences
Hq(i)
0 ~+
Hq(A) I Hq(X) ->
Hq(X, A) -+ 0
HM
for all q 2 0. For q = 0 either ordinary or reduced homology may be used.
In particular Hq(X) is isomorphic to the direct sum Hq(A) 69 Hq(X, A).
Proof. Since ri id,, we have 1 Hq(r)Hq(i). Then (14.12) implies the
= =

long exact sequence breaks into short exact sequences which are split by
(14.10), I
The Exact Homology Sequence 81

(14.15) Exercise. LetX X, U X2 andA X, F) X2. Using the exact

= =

sequences of triples, show that if the inclusion (X1 A) ‘-* (X, X2) induces an
,

isomorphism in homology then the same holds for the inclusion (X2, A) ‘-*
(X, X1).
( 14.16) Exercise. Verify that the sequence of reduced homology modules
(9.7) is also exact, where we define HEf(X, A) to be H0(X, A) if A is
nonempty, H 3‘(X 91>) H 3‘(X)
,
=

(14.17) Note. Ifxo E A C X, one can also define 1r,,(X, A,x0) for allq Z 1;
however, for q= 1 it is only a set with a distinguished element, not a group.
Forq > 1 it is a group, and forq > 2 it is commutative. Moreover, there is an
exact homotopy sequence completely analogous to the exact homology
sequence (cf. Hu [33], Chapter 4), or [88].

(14.18) Note. The proof of Theorem 14.1 can easily be generalized to

prove thefundamental lemma of homologicalalgebra, which states that any
short sequence of chain complexes has an associated connecting homomor-
phism which gives a long exact homology sequence. See Lang [35], Chapter
IV.
 15. The Excision Theorem

This states that certain subspaces U C A may be cut out or excised from
the space without affecting the relative homology modules. More precisely,
the inclusion map (X U, A U)
—

(X, A) is called an excision if it

—
—>

induces an isomorphism

Hq(X— U,A -

U) —~
Hq(X,A)
for all q.

(15.1) Theorem. If the closure of U is contained in the interior ofA, then

U can be excised. (Proof later.)

(15.2) Theorem. Suppose VC U C A and

(i) V can be excised

(ii) (X- U, A U) is deformation retract of(X
- -

V, A -

V). Then U
can be excised.
Proofof (15.2). Condition (ii) means that the identity map of
(X V, A V) — —

is homotopic to ir, where r is a retraction on (X U, A U), and i — —

is the inclusion map (X U, A U) —

(X —

V, A V). By homotopy
—* the - —

theorem (13.14), Hq(i) is an isomorphism for all q. Since homology is a

functor and Vmay be excised, (X U,A U) (X,A) is an excision. I
— — —*

Before proving (15.1), let’s give some applications.

(15.3) Theorem. Let E ff, E ,7 be the closed northern and southern hemi-
Marvin J. Greenbergand John R Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A FirstCourse ISBN 0—8053—3558—7(H)
ISBN 0-805 3~3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. Inc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced. stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted. in any form‘
or by any means. electronic, mechanical. photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the publisher.

82
The Excision Theorem 33

spheres ofthe n—sphere S", n 2 1, (so that E; F) E; is the equator S”").

Then

(E1, S”") *
(S",E,7)
is an excision.

Proof excising the open southern hemisphere

We are

U: {X E .S"lX,,+1< 0}.
We can’t apply (15.1) directly since its hypothesis is not satisfied. Thus we
proceed in 2 steps. Let
V= {x€ S"lx,.+1< “%}-
By (15.1) V can be excised. But (E,,+, S"") is a deformation retract of
(S” V, E; V) (move up along great circles), hence (15.2) applies. I
— -

Now projecting on the first It coordinates gives a homeomoVPhism

(E I , 5"”) (E ”, 5"” ). We have seen that the connecting homomorphism
-+

Hq(E", 5"”) Hq—i(S”") —'

is an isomorphism for q 2 2 (14.4). On the other hand, E ,7 being contractible

implies that
H,,<S"> ~
H.,<S': E;)
is an isomorphism for q 2 2. Combining these facts with (15.3) gives an
isomorphism
Hq(Stz) _,
Hq_I(S::—l)
fora11q22,n21.
It remains to settle the case q = 1. By (14.4),
84 Singular Homology Theory

0 n > 1,
H1(En, Sn-I) 2

R n == 1.

We also have the exact sequence for n 2 1

b
0 ~
H1(S 71
>—“-H.(S ,E,,)—~Ho(E,.)——"~Ho(S
H _

)~ 0 ’

ll

Since c is an isomorphism, we again get a to be an isomorphism(b =

0).
(15.4) Exercise. The above can be expressed in a neater way by using the
reduced homology modules (9.7): The homomorphisms
H2‘(S") H:;*(S", 29;)
~ ~
H;*(E", S“) H;*..(S"*‘) ~

are isomorphisms for all q 2 O, n 2 0.

Thus we get

(15.5) Corollary. For q 2 1 and n 2 l

R q=n,
Hq(S”)E
0 gain,
R q=n,
Hq(E”, S”") -3-
O qsén.
(15.6) Corollary. S”"' is not a retract ofE”.
The argument is the same as in (4.9), using homology functors instead of
homotopy: If we had a map f:E" S”" whose restriction to S”“ is the
->

identity, then the induced homomorphisms give

HH(S”") ‘*
H..—i(E") -*
H.,—1(-9"").
\::____?__:)
identity
For n 2 2 this is

R —> O -> R
\_j_/
identity
which is ridiculous. (Exercise: do n =
1.) I
The Excision Theorem 85

(15.7) Brouwer’s Fixed Point Theorem. Any continuous map E" -* E"
has a fixed point.
Same proof as (4.11). I

(15.8) Remark. If we take R Z, and pick a generator a of H,,(S”)

=

corresponding to the integer 1, then for any map f:S" S”, H,,( f )(a)
-’

corresponds to some integer called the degree of the mapf. This can be
described explicitly (see Dugundji [20], Chapter XVI).
The proof of 15.1 involves some completely new ideas.
First, let 7: (V,) be a family of open sets which cover X. Call a singular
q—simplex small oforder 7 if it maps A4 into one of the V,-. A key fact we will
need follows:

(15.9) Theorem. Every homology class in Hq(X, A) can be represented by

a relative cycle which is a linear combinationofsimplexes small of order 7.’
We will apply this to the covering consisting of the two open sets X U —

and A (interior of A) and deduce (15.1).

Secondly, to obtain these small simplexes we will use the technique of
barycenzric subdivision, which for q 2 is illustrated by
=

More precisely, we will construct subdivision operators

Sd: Sq(X) —*
Sq(X)
which commute with the boundary operators. To be able to compare c and
Sdc, we will also need operators
T: S.,<X> ~
.+.(X>
(Which for q 2 corresponds to constructing a degenerate 3-dimensional
=

Polyhedron on a given subdivided triangle as base). For an excellent intuitive

discussion of these constructions, see Wallace [5 9], pp. 133-137 (where the
notation is somewhat different).

(15.10) Let B be a point, 0 =

(P0 . . .Pq) an affine singular q—simplex in
Some affine space. We define thejoin B0 to be the affine singular (q + 1)-
Simplex
36 Singular Homology Theory

Bcr= (BP0 . . .P,,)

For example, if q =
1, its image is
P1
The Excision Theorem 87

Thus it suffices to define these operators for the space X Ag and the =

singular q—simplex 8,1 (see 10.9). For q 0, set Sd8o 80, T80 0. = = =

Assuming these operators defined in dimension <q, we use thejoin operation

to define them in dimension q:

Sd Bq =
BqSd aaq
T8, Bq(8,,
= —
Sd Bq —

T68q)
where Bq is the barycenter of Aq:

i$0q_——f———1—Ei
1
=
Bq

(15.11) Lemma. We have the operator equations

6Sd = Sdé

6T = Id —
Sd -
T6

where Id is the identity operator.

Proof: Induction on q, q 0 being obvious. For q > 0, it suffices by

=

functoriality to evaluate both sides of the equations on 8,]. Using (15.10) (and
dropping the subscripts q for simplicity) we get
6Sd 8 = (33 Sd68= Sd68 -
B6Sd68
but by inductive hypothesis
B6Sd68 = B Sd628 = 0

Similarly
6T8=6B(8 Sd8 T68) — —

=8—Sd8—T<98—B(68-6Sa’8—6T68)
=
8-Sd8—T88-B(68—Sd68—68+Sd68+T628)
=8—Sd8-T68 I

NOW let 0 =
(P0 . . .Pq) be an affine q—simplex in some affine space. The
‘mage 0(Aq) is a compact set, and we can consider its diameter d(o').
88 Singular Homology Theory

(Exercise: d(o) = maximum of the lengths of the edges.)

(15.12) Lemma. Each ajfine singular simplex appearing in the q—chain

Sdo has diameter at most

qd(0)
q+1
Proof: Exercise. I

(15.13) Proposition. Let obe a singularsimplex in X, 7 an open covering

of X. Then there is an r > 0 such that Sd’ cr is a linear combination of
singular simplexes small of order if
Proof: Since Aq is compact, there is an 5 > 0 such that 0 maps the s-
neighborhood of any point in A4 into one of the sets in 1' (exercise). By
(15.12), since
q
lim
r--(q+1) r

there is an r > 0 such that Sd’ 8,, is a linear combinationof affine singular
simplexes of diameter < 3. But Sd’cr Sq(o)Sd" 8,].
= I

(15.14) Note. In (15.13), we can replace 0 by an arbitrary q—chain

(exercise).
We can now prove Theorem (15.9): Let 2 be any relative q—cycle. Then
(15.11) gives
2 -
Sdz = ¢9Tz + T62

Since 62 is a chain on A, so is T82, so we have

2 ~ Sdz mod A

Hence by induction, for all r

2 ~ Sd '2 mod A

whence by the above note we are done. I

Finally we prove the excision theorem (15.1).

The Excision Theorem 39

Proof: Given a homology class in Hq(X, A), represent it by a relative

cycle
Z :
El/,'O','
such that each 0, is small of order (X U, A). Now any 0, which does not
-

map entirely into X UD X —

U must map into A C A, hence can be
—

dropped from this expression without changing the homology class of 2 mod
A. Having omitted such 0'!‘ we see thatz can be regarded as a relative cycle on
X— U modA —
U. Thus

Hq(X— U,A —

U) —*
Hq(X,A)
is onto.
Suppose z is a relative cycle on X —
U mod A —
U such thatz ~ 0 on X
mod A.
Thus

z = z’ + dw

where z’ is a q—chain on A and w a (q + 1)—chain on X. Subdivide r times

(which does not change the homology class Z£Hq(X U, A U )) - —

Sd’z = Sd’z’ + (3Sd’w

where r is chosen so that Sd’w is a linear combinationof simplexes small of

order (X —

U, A). Hence we can write

Sd’w =
w, + w

where all simplexes occurring in w, map in X —

U, and simplexes occurring

in w; map into A. We get

Sd’z -

5w, = S'd’z’ + aw;

Since the left side is a chain on X U, the right side a chain on A,
—

we see
both sides are chains on A U, and solving for Sd‘z again shows
—

Sd’z~0 on X—UmodA—U

Thus Hq(X —

U, A —

U) a
Hq(X, U) is a monomorphism. I

Here is a picture of what is happening in the proof of (15.9). In figures 1

90 Singular Homology Theory

and 2, the space X is the rectangle, A is the triangle below the diagonal, and
U is a disc inside A.
In figure 1 we have the image of a relative singular 2—simplex. In figure 2
we have subdivided to get a singular 2—chain. Throwing away the pieces in A
does not change the relative singular 2—chain. The result (shaded) is a relative
singular 2—chain of (X U,A U ). Regarded as an element of S2 (X)/S2(A),
— —

the new chain is homologous to the singular 2—simplex in figure 1.

(15.15) Remark. The excision theorem holds for reduced homology if

we assume U# A, for in that case

H3‘(X-U,A—U)=H0(X—U,A—U),
H3‘(X, A) H0(X, A) (we assume of courseA ;é gb). U= A can occur only
=

under the hypothesis of (15.1) whenA is both open and closed.

(15.16) Note. A stronger form of Theorem 15.9 will be needed later: Let
S(V) be the subcomplex of S(X) generated by all the simplexes small of
order '2’ Then the inclusion homomorphism S(7'’) S(X) is an equivalence
-’

ofchain complexes.
We shall establish (15.16) by the general method of algebraic mapping
cones. In order that submodules of free R—modules be free, we assume R is a
p.i.d. (see Lang [35]).
(15.17) Definition. Let f:C C —*
’
be a chain map of chain complexes. The
mapping cone Cf is the complex
(Cf)q =
C; 39 Cq-1s
a{1(-xsy ) =
The Excision Theorem 91

5£~1(az’;x +.fi]—ly9 aq—1)’ ) (az}—1ai;x + ai;—1f;;—1.V

‘ =

_.f;1~2aq*lyaaq—2aq—ly ) =
92 Singular Homology Theory

(15.21) Lemma. Iff:C -> C’ satisfies H(Cf) =

0, then f is a chain
homotopy equivalence.

Proof By (15.19) there is a chain homotopy D:Cf Cf such that 6fD +

-»

D8f= id. Then Dq:C,’, 6B Cq_, C,’,+1 ®Cq defines four maps Sq:C;
—> -+

§,+1,gq:C[I C,,,E,,_,:Cq_1
—’ -*
C,’,+,, Y},_1:Cq_, ->
Cq such that

Dq(x9y ) =
(Sq-x + Eq—lyagqx + Tq—1y
The Excision Theorem 93

(15.24) Exercise. Generalize the argument of (15.3) to prove the suspen-

sion isomorphism Hf,*(X) w+,(2X).
T-= Here EX is the quotient ofX>< I
obtained by identifyingX {0} and X X {1} to points P and Q. We can regard
X
X as the subspace X X {§} in 2X.

EX Xx{-L}
O
(15.25) Exercise. Concoct an example where excision fails for reduced
homology, cf. (15.15).
(15.26) Exercise. Let Mq E A, X I be the point (Bq, %), cf. (15.10). Use
the join with Mq to prove (11.4). Suggestion: Consider T84 Mq(i18q
= —

i08q Tdoq). Draw some pictures comparing the chain homotopy T with
—

the prism operator (11.7).

(15.27) Exercise. Let I be a homeomorph of [0, 1] in S 2 with x a point

in I. Show the inclusion (S2 —

x, I—

x) (S2, I) is not an excision.

—>
 16. Further Applications
to Spheres

(16.1) Proposition. Let r:S" S” be the reflection r(x0,..., x,,)

-+ =

(—x0, x1, x,,). Then the induced homomorphism

. . .
,

Hn(r)IHn(S”)7’ HAS")
is multiplication by -1 for all n 2 1.

Proof This assertion is valid for n 0 provided we use the reduced

=

homology module H3‘(S0) (exercise). But then we can do an induction on n,

since we have the commutative diagram

HAS”) ——“—~ H211 5"")

H,.<r>l l H,,-,(r>
H)I(Sn) -3» H:7:.<s"-‘)
(see 15.4). I

(16.2) Proposition. Any rotation of S” is homotopie to the identity map of

S ”.

Proof. If A E S0(n + 1), there exists B such that BAB" has the form
[":1] 2 X 2 matrices of the form
< —
cos 0
sin 0
sin 0
cos 0
Marvin]. Greenbergand John R. Harper, Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3-35 58—7(H)
ISBN 0-8053-3557~9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company, lnc.. Advanced Book Program‘ All rights
reserved. No pan ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system. ortransmitted. in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise. without the prior permission of
the publisher.

94
Further Applications to Spheres 95

along the diagonal, 1 in the last diagonal place if n is even, and O elsewhere
(Halmos [28], p. 164). Replacing 0 by t0 gives a homotopy H, such thatH0 =

id and H1 BAB". The desired homotopy is B“H,B.

= I

(16.3) Proposition. Let g:S" ->-* S ” be the restriction of an orthogonal

transformation of R"“- Then the induced homorphism
H,.(g)=H,,(S”) HAS") “*

is multiplication by the determinant of g (which is il).

Proof. By (16.2) we may assume det g -1. But then rg and gr are =

rotations (r as in (16.1)), hence by (16.2) again (and the homotopy theorem)

H,,(g) H,,(r)" mult. by -1. (Exercise: If det g -1 then in fact
= = =

g r.)—’= I

(16.4) Corollary. Let a:S" S” be the antipodal map a(x) —x.

—> = Then
the induced homomorphism H,,(a) is multiplication by (—-1)"“.
Because det a =
(-1)"“. I

We say that a has degree (-1)"+’, (15.8).

This result leads to a classical theorem about vector fields on spheres: A
vector field on S” is a continuous map z/2S" R"“ such that x is ->

perpendicular to a(x) for all x E S ” (which makes sense because x and 1/(x)
are both vectors in (n + 1)-space; if a(x) is placed with its initial point at the
end point of x, it will be tangent to the sphere).

(16.5)
isodd.
Theorem. S" has a nowhere vanishing vectorfield ifand only ifn

Proof. For n = 2m + 1, define

Z/(X0, xl, . . .
, x2,,,+1) =
(—x,, x0, —x3, x2, . . .
, —x2,,,+,, x2,,,).

Conversely, given 2/, with I/(X) ¢ 0 for all x E S ”. Then

W(x) =
1/(X)/I v(x)|
is a map S" -'
S", withx _L w(x) for allx E S”.
96 Singular Homology Theory

Now, as the diagram suggests, we can deform w(x) back to x, or in the other
direction to —x. To be precise,

F(x, t ) =
x cos tn + w (x) sin trr
defines a homotopy such that
F (x, 0) =
x

F (X, %) =
W (X)
F (x, 1) =
—x

Thus

Id 2 w ’—‘— a

but by (16.4) and the homotopy theorem, the antipodal map is not homotopic
to the identity map for n even.
Note. If n is odd, we have shown in the course of the proof that any field of
unit vectors w on S” is, when considered as a map S ” S ”, homotopic to the -+

identity map.
(16.6) Note. If I1 is odd, it is a difficult problem to determine the maximal
number of linearlyindependent nowhere vanishing vector fields on S”. This
problem was solved by Frank Adams [1].
(16.7) Exercise. Letf, g be maps S" S” such that f(x) ¢g (x) for all x
->

E S”. Then f = ag, where a is the antipodal map, hence

H,.(f) =
(‘1)"“Hn(g)
In particular, any map S" -> S” without fixed points is homotopic to the
antipodal map.
Further Applications to Spheres 97

(16.8)Exercise. Let fiS” S be homotopic to a constant, e.g., any

-+->
”

map which is not onto. Then f has a fixed point and also a point x at
which f(x) =
—x (use (16.7)).
(16.9) Exercise. Any fiS2” —’-> S 2” either has a fixed point or sends some
point into its antipode.

(16.10) Adapt the construction in (16.5) to produce 3 linearly

Exercise.
independent nonvanishing tangent vector fields on S 4””.
Vectorfields on spheres Theorem. Write n + 1 (odd)(24‘””),0 S b S
=

3. Then S" admits exactly 21’ + 8a 1 linearly independent nonvanishing

—

tangent vector fields. The construction is due to Hurwitz—Radon and

Eckmann. The proof that no more exist is a hard theoremdue to J. F. Adams.
Along the lines of (16.10), construct 7 independent tangent vector
fields on S 7 and 8 on S”. Can you see a general pattern for producing
the Hurwitz—Radon number of independent vector fields on S ” of the form
(ixflo), ,ixa(,,)) where 0‘ is permutation of (0, ,n)?
. . . . . .

(16.11) Exercise. Let G be a group of homeomorphisms acting freely on

S2”, i.e., for allg E G, gx x for some x <=> g 1. Prove I G] S 2.
= =

(16.12) Exercise. Every fiP2" P2” has a fixed point. Suggestion: Use
->

(16.9) and the lifting theorem (6.1). Construct f:P2”+‘ P2"+' without —>

fixed points.

(16.13) Exercise. Prove that the covering projection S " —* P” is not null-
homotopic. Suggestion: The lifting theorem provides a set equivalence
[X, S”] [X, P"] for all simply connected X.
->

(16.14) Exercise. Refine (15.4) to observe that replacing the pair

(S'’, E?) by (S’', E;“) has the effect of multiplyingH,,(S") by 1. ~

(16.15) Exercise. We define j; g:S”-> S ” to be orthogonal at a pointx E

S", if the inner product (in R”+‘)f(x) g (x) 0. Prove; if I degf| #
- =

l deg gl ,
then f, g are orthogonal at some x.
 17. Mayer-Vietoris Sequence

We now consider triads (X, X, X2), ordered triples of spaces such thatX,
,

and X2 are subspaces of X. We have inclusion maps

k23(X2,Xi 0 X2) "

(Xi U X2, X1),
k15(X1»Xi 0 X2) "
(X1 U X2, X2)
obtained by excisingX, X, F) X2, X2 X, F) X2 from X, U X2. Ifbothk,
— —

and k2 are excisions, the triad is called exact (or “proper” in some books):
Thus

Hq(kr)3Hq(Xr'= Xi 0 X2) —’
Hq(X1 U X2» Xi)
is isomorphism for all q, (i, i’) (1, 2) or (2, 1). These isomorphisms are
an =

analogous to the first isomorphism theorem in group theory. Exactness

depends only on X, U X2, not X.

(17.1) Example. If X,, X2 are both open sets, then (X, X,, X2) is exact.
For we can assumeX= X, U X2. ForA X,, U= X, X, F) X2, thenX—
= —-

U =
X2, so U is a closed subset of X contained in the open A, and the
excision theorem applies.

(17.2) Example. (S", Eff, E,f) is

Mayer-Vietoris Sequence 99

(17.3)
-’
Hq(A) —’
Hq(Xl) "
Hq(X1>A)_’ Hq—l(A) "
H.,—1(Xi)"'
4 1 1 1 5
—
H.(X2> ~
H.,<X> ~
H.,(X, X2) ~
H.,-1(X2> ~
H.,-.<X)~ - --

in which all rectangles are commutative. A useful lemma for dealing withthis
set—up is

(17.4) Barratt— Whitehead Lemma. Given a diagram of R—m0dules and

homomorphisms in which all rectangles commute and rows are exact
/7 gi hi
—:.
CI'+lj'AI'-?'.Bi_—.Ci——.A1'-l *‘
B1"-l ——.

i7i+1 I011‘
100 Singular Homology Theory

rqfl <1> (I ‘I’

~.mw~wM~wm®wmJmm~m
Functoriality is a consequence of (17.6).

(17.8) Corollary. Suppose thatforsome q, Hq+, (X) 0. Then necessary =

and suflicient conditions that an element a E Hq(A) be zero are that

wmmm=0=mmmo
Proof. The conditions are certainly necessary. Conversely, these condi-
tions imply ‘I’(a) O, by definition of ‘I’. By exactness, a is in the image of
=

A, hence by hypothesis is zero. I

This little corollary will be very useful in the next section.

(17.9) Remark. If A 75 0, the Mayer-Vietrois sequence can be terminated

in

*’
Hl(X) —'
H3‘(A) “‘
H§(Xi) @H3(X2) —*
H?1(X) "
0,
by remark (15.15).
(17.10) Relative Mayer—Vz'et0rz's sequence. Suppose (X, X1, X2) is an
exact triad but not necessarily X =
X, U X2. Let Y X, U X2 and =

A =
X, F) X2. Then there is a relative Mayer— Vietoris sequence which is
exact:

-‘* Hq(X, A) “*
Hq(X9 X1) @H.,(X,X2)"’Hq(X,Y)
q_,(X,A) ~
. ..

and functorial for maps of exact triads. The proof is to apply (17.4) to the
ladder obtained from the homology long exact sequence of triples ( 14.6) and
the diagram of inclusion maps

apm~cnm—wxXn
1 1 1
(Y,X2) ‘*
(X»X2) '*
(X, Y)

in which the left vertical map is an excision.

(17.11) For certain calculations (notably (26.6)) we want to evaluate F on

the chain level. Consider
Mayer-Vietoris Sequence 101

kl
S(A)—-S(Xi)—*S(Xi,A)

1: it 11>)
S(X2)—-*S(X)»~S(X,X2)
k

where 1' is the chain map induced by inclusion and j is a chain inverse,
ij id &D + D6, given by (15.16). First note, ifz E Zq+,(X) and
- =

w E S,“ (X,) satisfy

kz'(w ) kz
~ in S(X, X2),
k,(c9w ) 0
=
so dw lies in Sq(A),
then 3-; P2. Furthermore a suitable w is one satisfying klw
= =
jkz, since
iklw =kz + ¢3Djkz kiw; and k1(6w ) dklw =jkdz
= = 0. =

(17.12) Application. A graph is a space which is a union of finitely many

closed arcs, any 2 of which have at most end points in common (i.e., no
crossings); a closed arc is a homeomorph of the closed unit interval or of S‘.
We wish to compute the homology of a graph. By direct sum decomposition
(10.5), it suffices to consider connected graphs. Now a connected graph is
homotopically equivalent to an r—leaved rose G,

the union of r topological circles having one point P in common (see Artin
[3], p. 49). So it suffices to compute the homology of G,.
Now G, S‘ and we know the answer. For r 2 2, G, S‘ U G,_, with
= =
,
S‘ m G,_1 {P}. Now (G,, G,_1, S‘) is an exact triad. The maps
=

kl:(Gr-la
102 Singular Homology Theory

areobtained by excising S‘ P, G -1 P, respectively. By excising slightly

- -

smaller opens, we can apply the excision theorem; then a deformation retract
argument shows kl and k2 are excisions. Thus we can use the Mayer—Vietoris
sequence: For q > O,

0 =
H.,<P > ‘3 H.,(S‘) 69 H.,(G.—1)(2 H.,(G,) ‘3 H.,-.<P>
which gives

Hq(Gr) % HAS‘) 69 Hq(Gr~l)

for all q > 1. The same result is also valid forq 1 as can be seen by directly
=

showing that A:H1(G,) H0(P ) is the zero map or by remarkingthatin this

-+

case the Mayer—Vietoris sequence holds for augmented homology ( 17.9).

Thus by induction we get

H.,(G,.) =0 q >1,
Hl(G,)%-R GER 69- - -
C-BR.
\
rcopies

(17.13) Example. We compute the homology of the torus T by two

methods.
(a). The torus be regarded as two annuli A identified along their
can
common boundary. (By abuse of notation both annuli are denoted A.) The
boundary is the disjoint union C1 + C2 of two circles C1, C; with the
inclusions Q A homotopy equivalences. Using the excision theorem
-+

(15.1) and (15.2) we observe that (A, 6A) C (T, A) induces an isomorphism
in homology. Hence using (17.7) we get an exact Mayer—Vietoris sequence
<1)
0 —*
H2(T) *
Hl(Cl +C2) -" H1(A) 69 H1(A)
"
Hl(T) —*
H3’(Ci + C2) 0- “*

By (9.5) and (15.5), H,(C, + C2) 2 R EBR, and by (9.7) H3*(C, + C2) e R.
Using the homotopy equivalences to identify H, (A) 69 H1 (A) R ®R, the =

matrix of (I), with respect to the natural basis is ({ { ). It follows that ker CD % R
generated by (1, -1) and im CD, % R generated by (1, 1). Then HZTE R and
H1(T) a R GBR.
(b) The torus can be regarded as S‘ X S‘. Let x0 6 S‘ be a point and write
S‘ V S‘ for the subspace S‘ X {xo} U {xo} X S‘. We use the long exact
sequence for the pair (S' X S‘, S‘ V S‘). Letp,~:S‘ X S‘ S‘ be projections,
->

j,~:S‘ S‘ VS‘ inclusionsj,(x) (x, x0),j2(x) (x0, x1). From (17.12) we

—> = =

have a direct sum decomposition (14.13)

Mayer-Vietoris Sequence 103

H4(S1) HAS‘)

id H,,(S‘ v S‘) id

Hq(S1)
‘/Iq(Pi) ‘ I
104 Singular Homology Theory

their boundaries. Use the methodof ( 1 7.1 3)( a) to calculate H2(Mk) % R and
H,(M,,) % R 69 69R 2k—copies.
. . .

0000 D4

(17.15) Exercise. Replace E2 in (17.14) by the n—disc E”, n 2 3. LetD}§

be obtained from E by removing k sma'll disjoint open n—discs. Show DZ. ’—V
”

S "" V .
V S "T1 k—copies. Let M 2 be obtained by identifying two copies of
. .
,

DZ along their boundaries. Show H0(MZ) % H,,(M,Z) % R H,(M,'§) % ,

H,,_1(M’Al) ER 69 69 R k—copies and Hq(M,’§)

. . .
0 for the remaining
=

values of q.

(17.16) Exercise. Let T* be the torus T with a small open disc removed.
Let C C T* be the boundary circle. Show thatthe inclusion C T* induces -*

0 on H1. Suggestion: This follows from the calculation in (17.13)(a) and a

Mayer—Vietoris sequence computing H(T) in terms of T* and the disc. Use
this observation to calculate Hq(M2) regarding M2 as two copies of 7*
identified along C. Generalize to calculate Hq(Mk).

(17.17) Exercise. Suppose x0 E X, yo E Y have neighborhoods U,

V such that x0 E U and yo E V are deformation retracts. Write X V Y =

X X { yo} U {x0} X Y C X X Y. Obtain a direct sum decomposition for

H*(X V Y). Obtain split short exact sequences 0 H (X V Y) —*
ff —*

H§*(XX Y)—>H;‘(XXY,XVY)-*0.
(17.18) Exercise. The join X =x< Y of two spaces X, Y is the space
obtained from X X I X Y by making identifications (x, l, y) (x ’, 1, y) ~

and (x, 0, y) (x, 0, y '). In X * Y there are the subspaces C+X X Y

~ =

{(x,t,y)|§StS1}and X X C.Y {(x, I, y)|0 _<_ IS1}. Then =

C+X X Y (W X X C. Y= X X Yregarded as the subspace {(x, §,y )}. Show

that the triad (X * Y, C+X X Y, XX C_Y) is exact, and =I= Y) % H;*+,(X
H;‘(XX Y, Y).XV

(17.19) Exercise. Regard the Klein bottle K as two copies of the Mobius
Mayer—Vietoris Sequence 105

strip M identified along their boundaries. Show H1 (K) E R ® (R/2R) and

H2(K) % ZR {r| 2r 0}. Use (12.13) for information on Hq(M ). Use
= =

homology to prove the nonretraction result in (4.15).

(17.20) Exercise. LetA, B be subsets of S", n 2 2. Show (a), ifA andB
are closed, disjoint, and neither separates S ", thenA U B does not separate
S". Show (b) ifA, B are connected, open, andA U B S”, then A F) B is
=

connected.

(17.21) Exercise. Let (X, X1, X2) be an exact triad, X X1 U X2 = and B

C X1 fl X2 A. Obtain another relative Mayer—Vietoris sequence
=

4
Hq(A, B) 4
Hq(X1, B) EB Hq(X2, B) 4
Hq(X, B) 4
. ..

The cases A B, and X

= Y in (17.10), yield direct sum decompositions.
=

Further generalizations appear in Eilenberg—Steenrod [23], Dold [64] or

Spanier [5 2].
(17.22) Exercise. Let a denote the antipodal map. Observe that the
diagram
(El, 5””) (S”,E,T)
—’

0 1 1a
(EL SW1) (S",E,l)
"

commutes. Let F1 and I‘; be the Mayer~Vietoris connecting homomorphisms

associated with the top and bottom sequences respectively. Show T1 F2. = —

Suggestion: Use (16.14). Use this relation to obtain another proof of ( 1 6.4).
 18. The Jordan-Brouwer
Separation Theorem

We apply the results of the previous section to compute the homology of

the complement of a closed cell inside a sphere (where a closed cell is a
homeomorph of I " for some n) and the homology of the complement of a
sphere inside a sphere.
(18.1) Theorem. Let e, be a closed cell of dimension r in S". Then

H;’(S" —

e,) = O forall q 2 0

Proof: By induction on r: If r 0, e, is a point, and S

= " -

e, is contractible.
Suppose r > O and the theorem true for r 1. Letz be a q—cycle in S e,.
—
” —

Let (15: I’ e, be a homeomorphism. Fort E I, lete _,( t ) (;b( t X 1"‘), a

-» =

closed (r l)—cell. Since S”

—

,._1( t) D S” e,., z c3w,, where w, is a

— —
=

(q + l)—chain in S ,_1( t ). The supportl | w,| of w, is a compact set

” —

which doesn’t meet the compact set e ,1( I ); let 3, be the distance between
these sets, so that e, > 0. By uniform continuity, there is a 6, > 0 such that2
points in I less than 6, apart have images under (1) less than 5, apart. Let I,
’

be an open interval centered att oflength< 8,. Let e,( t) qb( I, X 1"‘ ), an =

open r—ce1l; then every point of e,( t ) has distance < 5, from e,_,( t), so that
e,.( t) doesn’t meet | w,| andz ow, in S” ,( t ).
,
= -

Now since I is compact and covered by the open intervals 1,, there is a p >
0 such that every closed interval of length< p is contained in some 1,. Choose
m > 0 so that 1/M < p, and consider the closed intervals

llfais asingular q—simplex, define its support | 0| to be o(Aq). For a q—chain c =

21/,0,-,
define [c| U,-] ml.
=

Man/in J. Greenbergand John R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3-355 8—7(H)
ISBN 0-8053—3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company. Inc.. Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part oflhis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system. ortransmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the publisher.

106
The _]ordan—Brouwer Separation Theorem 107

10 =[0,1/m], I, =
[1/m, 2/m], . . .
, I,,,_, =
[(m -1)/m,1]

Let er, 1- be the image of X 1”‘. Then there is a chain wj in S " e,) 1- such -

that z =
ow]-. By induction on j, we are reduced to proving the following
sublemma.
Sublemma. Let], J2 be closed subintervals of I such thatJ1 (7 J2
,
=
{t }.
Let e’ gb(J1 X 1"‘), e” ¢>(J2 X 1''‘). Suppose there are (q + 1)—chains
= =

w’, w" in S ” e’, S ”— e” respectively such that ow’ 2 6w”. Then there
~ = =

is also a (q + 1)—chain w in S” (e’ U e") such thatz ow.

—
=

Proof: LetX= S” e,_,( t ), X, S" e’,X2 S” e”,A =X, F) X2

—
= —
= -

= S" —

(e’ U e”). Since X,, X2 are open, (X, X,, X2) is an exact triad.
Moreover, since e’ U e” is contractibleand S is not, A is non—empty; thus "

the triad is exact for reduced homology also. By inductive assumption,

Hq+1(X) 0. Since 2 bounds in X, and X2, Corollary (17.8) tells us thatz
=

bounds in A. I

(18.2) Corollary. S cannot be disconnected by

”
removing a closed cell.
For if S ” —

e, were disconnected, H3*(S" ~

e,) 0, contradiction. I
#

(18.3) Theorem. Let s, be a subspace ofS” which is a homeomorph ofS’.

Then rs n. Ifr= n, then s,, S”. Ifr< n, then =

H215" ~s.>= : R

0
q=n—r—l
otherwise

be the images ofE,*, E,‘, s,._1 the image ofE;’ F) Ef.

Proof: Letef, e,"
In case r =
s,, # S". Let X
It assumes S" ,4, X, S” ef, = —
= —

X2 S” e,', A S" s,. For r 75 n, s, and S” have different homology,

= - = —

So that A # ()5. (We also have this for r n by assumption.) By (18.1), =

H if (X1) 0 H (X2) for all q. By the Mayer—Vietoris sequence,

= =
3
Hf+1(X) H;*(A)
% all q

B)’ decreasing induction on r, we get

H;t(S"*Sr)H2 H:+r(S" ——S0)
Now it is easy to see that S ” —

so =
S”-{two points} is homotopically
equivalent to S "1. Thus
108 Singular Homology Theory

R q + r =
n —
1
Ht(S" —

s,> =

0 otherwise

For r = n we get Hf1(S" —

,,) R, which is absurd. Thus s,, #

= S” cannot
occur. It follows at once that for r > n there is no s, inside S
”
(nor any e,
either, for that matter!). I

(18.4) Remark. For r 1, and s, is called a knot. One is usually

=

interested in s, C R3. Regard R3 as S 3 minus a point P. Let us compute

H 3‘ (R3 s1): We have the commutative diagram
-

~
H;*(S3 s,) H;*(s3) H;*(s3, S3
—
~ ~ —

s,) —»

T T I
~
H;*(R3 —s1)-r H;*(R3) H;*(R3, R3 ~ —

s.) a

By excision the third vertical arrow is an isomorphism, and since the

reduced homology of a 3—space is O, we get

Hf(R3 '31) '=”Hq+1(-93,53 “S1)

By(18.3) and(15.5),we get

H f;(R3 —

s1) =

[ R

0
q= 1,2
otherwise

In particular, the homology of the complement is the same for all knots.
However, the fimdamental group of the complement is definitely not the
same, and is an important invariant of the way the knot is imbedded (see
Crowell and Fox [16]).

(18.5) Corollary. Ifr S n, then removing an s,from S” disconnects S” if

andonly ifr= n 1. —

Once again, we just look at Hff(S” ,). —

I
In case n —
1 =
r we can say much more.

(18.6) Jordan—Brouwer Separation Theorem. For any s,,_1 inside S ",

S” -

s,,_1 consists of two connected components, both having s,,_, as

frontier.
Proof: Since H3*(S” -

,,_,) is isomorphic to R, S” —

,,_, has exactly 2

components K1, K2. These are open subsets of S ”, so the frontier of each
The Jordan-Brouwer Separation Theorem 109

component is contained in s,,_1. Conversely, letx E s,,_, and let U be any

,

open neighborhood of x in S ”. We must show U meets both K1 and K2.

Choose any yl E K1, yz E K2. We can choose a setA such that

xEACUfls,,_1
and s,,_1 —A is a closed (n 1)—cell e,,_1. By (18.1), H3‘(S” ,,-1) 0, so
— — =

5" e,,,, is connected, in fact arcwise—connected. Let 0' be a closed arc in

—

S" ,,_1 from y, to yz. Since y, and y2 are in distinct components of

—

5" s,,_,, 0 crosses s,,_1, and in fact, a F) s,,_1 C A. Since <7 D s,,,, is a
—

closed subset of a, there is a first point x1 and a last point x2 of 0 F) s,,_1

=

a F) A. Now all points of the part 0'; of 0' from y, to x, lie in K, (except x1)
and U meets 0'1 in a non—empty open subset of 0,, so U meets K1; similarly
U meets K2.

(18.7) Corollary. Let n 2 2, s,,_, a homeomorph ofS”“ in R”. Then

R" —

s,,_, has two connected components, both having s,,_1 as frontier.

(Regard R” as S” minus a point.) The bounded component of R" "-1 is —

called the inside of s,,_,, the unbounded component (including the point at
infinity) the outside. Note that the case n 1 is quite different!
=

For n 2, Corollary (18.7) is the famous Jordan Curve Theorem. Trying

=

to prove this “intuitively obvious” fact is a good way to learn the difference
between mathematicsand drawing. For n 2, there is also a stronger result:
=

Any homeomorphism of S‘ onto a subspace of the plane extends to a

homeomorphism of the plane onto itself. This theorem is due to Schoenflies,
and is the key to the triangulabilityof compact surfaces (Ahlfors and Sario
[2], p. 105). Schoenflies’ Theorem implies thatthe inside and outside of an s1
are open 2—cells. For n = 3 this statement is false, as is shown by the
Alexander horned sphere (Hocking and Young [32], p. 176). Recently,
Mazur [39] and Brown [9] have shown that a “nicely embedded” s,,_, C R”
has inside and outside which are open n—cells.
Some other famous separation theorems on S ” are those of Borsuk
(Hocking and Young [32], Section 6-17) and Phragmen-Brouwer ([32],
Section 8-8). The source of most separation theorems on S ” is the
Alexander Duality Theorem (Section 27).

(18.8) Corollary. Let n 2 2 andf:E" -' R” a one—to—one map. Thenfis a

homeomorphism of E" onto f(E"); ifs,,_, f(S”"), then fmaps the
=

interior of E onto the inside of s,,_,.

"

Proof: Let e,, f(E ”). Consider R" as S” minus a point. Then S” e,, is
= -

Connected (18.2), in fact pathwise connected; since n 2 2, R" e,, is also

-

Path connected (any path through the point at infinity can be moved slightly
50 as to avoid that point). R" —

en is unbounded, so is contained in the

110 Singular Homology Theory

outside B of s,,_,. Hence e,, D R" —

B =
,,_1 U A, where A is the inside.
Now

en
The Jordan-Brouwer Separation Theorem 111

image of S X
’
{0}. Show the inclusion S " -

,’k
—+ S" —~
s, induces an
isomorphism in homology.
(18.17) Exercise. We denote the homotopy classes of maps W X by —’

[W,X_]. Amap f:X Yinduces f#:[ W,X] [ W, Y], f#(g) =fg. Use
-* -*

the idea of support to prove if f IX —»Y induces f#:[ W, X] —~

[W, Y] which
is a set equivalence for all compact W, then f induces an isomorphism in
homology.
Surprisingly, there are examples where f is not a homotopy equivalence,
G. W. Whitehead [88], p. 228.

(18.18) Exercise. Let s] be knot in R3. Construct a map f: S2 V S‘

a -+

R3 s, inducing an isomorphism in homology. If S] is the standard circle,

—

construct a homotopy equivalencef. A picture of a possible f is drawn below.

(18.19) Remark. A parallel development of the results of this section can

be made using the Borsuk Separation Criterion [32] and a clever proof, due
to P. H. Doyle, of an analogue of 18.3 (see [85] p. 13 for the generic case).
 19. Spaces:
Construction of
Spherical Complexes

We now consider an important technique for constructing topological

spaces, and for spaces constructed in this way, we will derive formulas for
computing the homology modules. This method applies to all the familiar
spaces, such as projective spaces, compact surfaces, etc.
Suppose we are given a subspace A of a space X and a map f of A into a
space Y. In the disjoint union X 11 YofX and Y (withthe obvious topology),
identify each point x E A with its imageflx) E Y. The quotient space Z =

X Uf Y of X _lL Y by the equivalence relation these identifications determine

is called the adjunctionspace of the system X 3 A —f> Y. Clearly the quotient
map g: X LL Y Z sends Y homeomorphicallyonto a subspace of Z; we will
—>

identify Y with this subspace. If f: X Z is the restriction of g to X, then

—+

with our identification,

Construction of Spaces: Spherical Complexes 113

(19.3) Proposition. Given a collaredpair (X, A) and a map f:A Y, —>

where Y is Hausdorfi’. Let Z X UfY. Then (Z, Y) is a collaredpair; in

=

fact, ifB is a collaring ofA, then Y Uf(B ) is a collaringofY Moreover, f

maps X A homeomorphically onto Z
—
Y. —

A map of pairs f:(X, A) —*

(Y, B) such that X A is —

mapped
homeomorphically to Y —
B is called a relative homeomorphism.

Proof. Sinceg"(Z —

Y) = X —

A, which is Y, Z Yis
open in Xll —

open, hence Y is closed, and fmaps X f A homeomorphicallyonto Z Y. —

Let B be a collaring of A in X. Since B ll Y is open in X ll Y and saturated

under the equivalence relation, Y U]"(B ) is open in Z. LetD:B X I B be a -*

map such that D(a, t ) a for all a EA,D(b, 0) b for all b E B, D(b, 1) E
= =

A for all b E B. Define a map D on (Y U]’(B )) X I by

z ifzE Y,
D(z,t)=
fa) (b, 1 )) ifz =f(b) with b E B —
A.

D is continuous because it is obtained by passage to the quotient from a

continuous map on (B L Y ) X I, and D exhibits Y as a strong deformation
retract of Y Uf(B). Suppose z E Z Y, z =]’(x). Let U, V be disjoint
-

opens inX such thatx E U andA C V. Then the disjoint Z—opens Y U]"(V)
and ]’(U ) separate Y from 2. Thus condition (3) holds.
To prove Z Hausdorff, given distinct points 2, z2, there are three cases.
,

Case 1. Both points are in Z Y. Since Z—

Y is open and homeomor-
—

phic to X —

A, which is open in X Haudorff, we can separate the points.

Case 2. One point is in Y, the other outside Y. This case follows from
condition (3).

Case 3. Both points are in Y. Let Y1, Y2 be disjoint Y—opens which

Separate Z1 and 22. Let r:B A be a retraction, and let B, r"(f”‘(Y,-)),i=
-> =

1, 2. Then B, is open in X, and Y, Uf(B,) and Y2 U]’(B2) are disjoint Z-

Opens which separate 2, and 22. I

(19.4) Exercise. Conversely, suppose Y is a closed subspace of a

Hausdorff space Z and f: E Z is a map which takes S"" into Y and
" ->

Sends the open n—cell E homeomorphicallyonto Z Y Then Z is obtained

” —

from Y by adjoining an n—cell via ]’| S ’’_l. (Use the fact that is a closed
mapping-)
114 Singular Homology Theory

Definition. Start with a finite discrete set of points, and successively

attach cells, possibly of varying dimensions, but finite in number. We get a
compact Hausdorff space, and any space which can be obtained in this way
will be called a spherical complex. We will obtain some explicit inductive
formulas (1916-1918) for the homology of a spherical complex.
Some examples:

(19.5) Letfmap S”" onto a point Y. Then Z W S”.

(19.6) Let Y: S"Tl, f:S”—1 —" Ythe identity. ThenZ= E".

(19.7) Let Y= S‘, f:S° Ya constant map on point P. ThenZ consists

—>

of two circles with the point P in common. Carrying out this operation (r 1) -

times (with the same point P) gives the r—leaved rose G, (17.12).

(19.8) Let Y= G2, denoting the two loops by (1 and fl. Regard E2 as 12, S‘
as the perimeter of the square. The diagram describes a map f which attaches
a 2—cell to G2:

Then Z is homeomorphic to a torus (use 19.4 and the restriction to a square

of the canonical map of the plane onto the torus).

(19.9) Every graph (17.12) is obtained from a finite set by attaching 1-

cells.

We have already defined real projective n—space P” as the quotient space

of S” obtained by identifying antipodal points. We now define complex
projective n—space CP” analogously: in complex (n + l)—space C"+1,
consider the subspace defined by | 2] 1 (where if z
=
(20, z,,), we
=
. . .
,

define [z[ 2 I z0| 2 +

=
. +| z,,| 2); clearly this space is just S2”*‘. We
. .

identify 2 2’ on S 2”“ if z’ cz, where c is a complex numberof absolute

~ =

value 1; the resulting quotient space is called CP"; note that the fibres of the
map f:S2”” CP” are circles. (Forn 1, CP' ~ S2, and fis the Hopf
—* =

map (Hu [33], p. 66).) We claim:

(19.10) Proposition. CP" (resp. P”) is obtainedfrom CP""‘ (resp. P"“)

Construction of Spaces: Spherical Complexes 115

by attaching a 2n—cell (resp. an n—cell) via the canonical map f :S 2"" —>

CP”‘ (resp.f:S"" ->

P”"‘).
Proof We give the proof for CP” and leave P" as an exercise. In the
diagram
S2n—l C E211

CPlI—l
116 Singular Homology Theory

is homeomorphism of S 3 whose p—th power is the identity. This gives an

a
operation of Z/p on S 3 which is properly discontinuous (5.10). The quotient
space by this action is denoted L (p, q ). It is also a compact connected 3-
dimensional manifold which can be shown to be a spherical complex (Artin
[3], p. 162) or 21.27. From this its homology can be determined (we know
that its fundamental group is Z/p). These “lens spaces” are an important
source of examples, e.g., L(7, 1) and L(7, 2) are homotopically equivalent
but nonhomeomorphic(see Hilton and Wylie [30], p. 225). A conjecture of
Poincare, as yet unproved, states that a compact 3—dimensional manifold
homotopically equivalent to the 3—sphere must be homeomorphic to S 3. (The
same statement for S” instead of S has been proved by Smale [51] and
3

subsequently by Stallings [54a] and Newman [Annals of Math. 1966, pp.

555—57l] when n 2 5.)
(19.13) Using the division ring H of quaternions instead of C,
Exercise.
construct quatemionic projective space HP”. Show that it is a compact 4n-
dimensional manifold, a quotient space of S 4”” with fibres 3—spheres, and
that HP” is obtained from HP”" by adjoining a 4n—cell. HP’ ~ S 4 and we
get another Hopf map S 7 S 4 with fibres S 3. (One can also construct 8n-
—+

dimensional manifolds using the Cayley numbers and obtain for n 1 the =

Hopf fibration S '5

S with fibres 7—spheres; see Steenrod [55], pp. 105-
8 —’

110.)
Suppose now Z is the adjunction space of a system X D A -f* Y, and
}”:X Z is the canonical extension ofJ’. Thenfinduces a homomorphism of
-*

the homology sequence of the pair (X, A) into that of the pair (Z, Y ).

(19.14) Theorem. Assume (X, A) is a collared pair. Then

Hq(f): H,,(X, A) —+
Hq(Z, Y)
is an isomorphism for all q.
Proof Let B be a collaring of A in X. Consider the commutative diagram

1'
H.,(X,A) —"
Hq(X> 3)
11] If.
H,(z, Y)—»H,(z, Y U]”(B))
J
where the horizontal homomorphisms are induced by inclusions and the
Construction of Spaces: Spherical Complexes ll7

vertical ones by
118 Singular Homology Theory

Hq(En’ Sn—l) _,H;#‘1(Sn—l)

l lH.,_r(f)
H,,(z, Y) ——»H;*_,(Y)
we can replace the relative homology modules in the sequence for the pair
(Z, Y) and obtain the exact sequence

a
Hq(Y) ~
H,,(z) ~
Hf_,(S””‘) Hm) H,‘,*_,(Y)—*Hf,*_,(Z)_.
Since H 3‘ _,(S”" ) is zero except for q =
n, this sequence yields the following
formulas.

Corollary. We have
(19.16) H;‘(Z)%Hf(Y) f0rq¢nandq#r1-1
(19.17) H,‘f__,(Z)EH,*,‘_1(Y)/ImageH,,_1(f)
(19.18) an exact sequence

0 —»
H,‘f(Y) ~
Hf‘,*(Z) 1 Kernel H,,_1(f) ~ 0

(19.19) Remark. If Kernel H,,_,(f) is a free module, this exact

sequence splits and we can write
HTf(Z)%HZ‘(Y) @KerH.,—1(f)
(“Splits” means there is a homomorphism Ker H,,_, (f) H ,’f(Z) which is a
—*

right inverse to 1/1.) This happens forR Z or R a field, for example, since
= =

Ker H,,_ ,(f) is then a free R—module.

(19.20) Corollary. Assume R is a Noetherian ring. If Z is a spherical

complex, then Hq(Z) is a finitely generated R—modulefor every q. If n is the
highest dimension of a cell used in constructing Z, then Hq(Z) 0 for q > =

n.
This follows from the previous formulas by induction on the number of
cells attached. I

If we take
Construction of Spaces: Spherical Complexes 119

where Q is the circle of radius 1/i with center the origin, i > 0, and Q): the
origin, we get a compact Hausdorff space which is not a spherical complex,
since H0(Z) is not finitely generated.

(1921) Theorem. The homology ofcomplex projective space is given by

0 q > 2n orq odd,
Hq(CP”) %

R q even such that 0 S q _<_ 2n.

For n 0 it is the homology of a point. Use induction on n. We get

Proof. =

CP” from CP"" by attaching a 2n—cell. By (19.16) we need only consider q

= 2n and q 2n —1.By(19.l7),H2,,_,(CP") 0, since H2,,_,CP"“') 0.
= = =

By (19.18), H2,,(CP") Ker H2,,_,(f), where f:S2”"‘

= CP”'1 is the —*

canonical map. Since H2,,_,(f) is the zero homomorphism, we do get

H2,,(CP”) % R. I

(19.22) Exercise. Compute the homology of quatemionic projective space

(1913).
(19.23) Theorem. Let f:S” P" be the canonical map. Ifn is even,
—+

H,,(f) =0. Ifn odd,

is there are isomorphisms I-I,,(P”)E R ’=” H,,(S") such
that H,,(f) is multiplication by 2, i. e.,

><2
R——»R

1 Hn(f)
I
H,,(S”) H,,(P")
"—'-' commutes.

Proof. P” is obtained from P”“ by attaching E” via the canonical

map j":S"" —> P”_'. Hence ]":(E", S”") (P”, P”“) induces iso-
-*

morphisms in homology (19.14). Consider the ladder obtained from

fi(SIz’ Sn-—1)__,(P..‘ Pn—l)

0 _’ I£i(Sn)£Hn(SlI9Sn‘])EH1—l(S,I_1) _’ O

(19.24) lf, ‘)3 f3

jr at
0=H,,(P”")—>H,,(P”)—>H,,(P",
1>"*1)~ H,,_,(P"")—>H,,_,(P”)—v0.
120 Singular Homology Theory

The zeros are by (15.5) for the top row, (19.20) and induction on n for the
bottom left, and (15.5) for the bottom right. The vertical maps are induced
by f. The top line is split exact for algebraic reasons, but to compute f2 we
need a splitting compatible with induced maps. The idea is that collapsing
S "1 C S " to a point produces S ” V S”, each sphere mapped homeomor-
phically to P”/P” "1 Exact sequences formalize the notion. By the long exact
.

sequence of triples ( 14.6), excision (15.3) and the direct sum lemma ( 14.13),
we have a direct sum decomposition

Hn(S”,EI) H..(S”,E.7)
\ /
(19.25) % H,,(s'', 5"“) '=~

_ _
/ \ _
construction of Spaces: Spherical Complexes 121

By naturality (14.5), 6(KI) =

t,,_, in the top row of (19.24). Hence a
generator for ker 8 is (K+, ~K’). By exactnessj(Ln) m(K+, —K“) for
=

some m E R. Evaluating in the upper right corner of (19.25) (and tacitly

identifying the groups mapped isomorphically) yields mK+ K + or m 1.
= =

(b)f2(K”)=(‘17’n-
fim7r=HU?MK)=HU?%XK)=t%VHHWXK)
(—1)”f2(K+), using (19.26) and (16.4).
=

Combining(a),(b) we have f2j (i,,) (1 + (—1)”)n. When n is even, f2j (1,1)

=

= 0. Since j’ is monic, H,,( f) =fi is the zero map. When n is odd, we obtain
8’ 0 since f2 is epic and f3 H,,_,(f) 0. Hence j’ is an isomorphism
= = =

and HAP”) E R generated by (J")"‘n- Then Hn(f)(ln) fi Ln =

(J")_‘f2J' tn
=

=uirw. I

(19.27) Theorem. The homology of real projective space is given by

0 q>n,
HUN); R2 qeven such that 1 <qSn,
" R/2 qoddsuch that 1 Sqfin —

1,
R q=0andq=rzzfnisodd
(where R2 is the submodule of R annihilated by multiplication by 2).
Thus the homology with coefficients in the field of rational numbers looks
quite different from the homology with coefficients in a field of characteristic
2.

Proof By induction on n, n =
0, 1 being trivial (Pl % S‘ ). From (19.16)
We have Hq(P”) E Hq(P”") for q S n —

2, and Hq(P") 0 for q > n by

=

(19.20). By (19.18) we have an exact sequence

H"—l(f)
0_+HPl(P )—’HII—l(S11-] )
n B’
Hn-l(P n—l )_’ Hn~l(P )6 n
122 Singular Homology Theory

2 q=0,
Hq(P2)% z/2 q=1,
0 qZ2,
Z q=0,
Z/2 q= 1,
Hq(P3)=~= 0 q=2,
Z q=3,
0 qZ4
and so on. For R =
Z/2 we get

Z/2 q I/\ 71,

Hq(P") %

0 q>n.
(19.29) Theorem. The homology of the torus T is

R q=0andq=2,
Hq(T)E R><R q=l,
0 q>2.
Proof. T is obtained from Y =
G2 by attaching a 2—cell via the map
indicated as

where the sides marked a, b are mapped onto the loops a, b of G2 (for we
know that the unit square I 2 maps onto T by

¢):(x,y ) _,
(e2TIi.\" e2fli_1')
with the identifications indicated). Now H,(G2) is the free R—module
generated by the homology classes 01, [3 of the loops <;b-a, qb-b (17.12), and
the adjoining map f :S' G2 sends the generator of H, (S') onto cv + [3 a
—> —

B 0, so thatH1 (f) is the zero—homomorphism. The theorem then follows

=

from (19.16—19.18) compare (17.13). I

Construction of Spaces: Spherical Complexes 123

(19.30) Example. Consider the double toms

We can think of this as follows. Cut out a small open 2—ce1l from each of two
copies of the toms, then paste these together along the circles which are the
frontiers of those open 2—cel1s. Now the torus with the open 2—ce1l removed
can be described by

identifying sides of the pentagon as indicated, the loop cl being the frontier of
the cut—out cell. In pasting another copy, the c’s will cancel and we are left
with

Thus we can describe the double torus precisely as obtained from G4 by

attaching a 2—ce1l via the map of the perimeter of an octagon described by the
expression a1b1a,"b,"a2b2a2"b2".More generally, attaching a 2—ce1l to Gzg
Via the map of the perimeter of a 4g—gon described by the expression
aibiaflbfl .agbga;‘bg“ gives the g—f0ld torus
..
124 Singular Homology Theory

R q=0andq=2,
Hq<Tg>% R23 q=1,
0 q>2.
The numberg is called the genus of
 Construction of Spaces: Spherical Complexes 125

Show that it is homeomorphic to the space U2 (construct both spaces by

pasting two triangles along a side in two different ways).
(1933) Exercise. Show that if the torus is attached to the projective plane
(in the same way that we attached two tori to construct the double torus), the
resulting surface is homeomorphic to U3.
(19.34) Note. It is a nontrivial theorem that every compact connected 2-
dimensional manifold is homeomorphic to eitherS 2, one of the Tg’s or one of
the U,,’s (see Ahlfors and Sario [2]; the proof uses triangulability and the
Jordan—Schoenflies Theorem). Obviously no two of these are homeomorphic
(look at their homology groups), so a complete classificationof these surfaces
is obtained. No such classification is known in dimension 3, and Markov
proved it is impossible in dimensions 2 4 because the resulting classification
of 171 would solve the word problem for groups, contradicting the theorem of
Novikov—Boone (see Massey [67], p. 144).

(19.35) Example. If a point is removed from a spherical complex, the

resulting space has finitely many path components (do induction on the
number of cells attached). Hence the compact path—connected space drawn
below is not a spherical complex:

We can apply Theorem (19.14) in

many other cases besides the case of
adjoining an n—cell. Suppose (X, A)
is a collared pair. Let P be a point
f:A —*P the constant map. Then the adjunction space of the system
X D A -Z P is just the quotient space X/A obtained by identifying the
SubspaceA to a single point. By (19.14), we have the exact sequence
—>
Hq(P) -*
Hq(X/A) ->
Hq(X,A) —>
H;"_,(P) —*
.

Since the augmented homology of a point is zero, we obtain the following

result.

(19.36) Proposition. If (X A) is a collared pair, then the space X/A

Obtainedfrom X by collapsing A to a point is a Hausdorffspace in which
126 Singular Homology Theory

the distinguished point has a contractible open neighborhood. Moreover,

there is a canonical isomorphism

H;*(X/A) s Hq(X, A) all q

so that we obtain an exact sequence

—>
Hq(A) ->
Hq(X) —>
Hq(X/A) ->
H;‘_1(A) Hf_,(X) ->.
->

(19.37) Example cf. (15.24). Let X be a Hausdorff space. In the space

XX 1, identify the closed subspace X X 0 to one point andX X 1 to another.
The quotient space SX under these identifications is called the (unreduced)
suspension of X. For example, S(S”) z S "*1. Applying the previous
proposition twice, we obtain

Hq*l(X) q > 09
Hq(SX) 2
R q = O.

(19.38) Example cf. (17.17). Let (X, x), ( Y, y) be pointed Hausdorff

spaces in which the points x, y have contractible open neighborhoods (e.g.,
manifolds). Then the pair (X J1. y ) is collared. The quotient space obtained
by identifying x and y is called the wedge or bouquet X v Y of X and Y at
these points. Using the preceding proposition, we obtain

Hq(XvY)% {Hq(X)
R c+d—1
C-BHq(Y) q >

q :
0,
0,
where X has c path components and Y has d.
(19.39) Example. Suppose a Hausdorff space Z is the union of two closed
subspaces X and Y, and suppose that (X, A ) is a collared pair, where A =

XF) Y. Then Z X UfY, where f:A

= Yis the inclusion map, and(19.14,
-*

19.36) give the exact sequence

->Hq(Y)-*Hq(XUY)—>Hq(X/XflY)—~H;’_1(Y)-*.
Contrast this with Van Kampen’s theoremfor rr,(X U Y ) (4.12). There is no
general result for 1rq(X U Y) for q > 0, at present.
(19.40) Exercise. Show that a product of spheres is a spherical complex.
Suggestion: Let j§,:(E ", S "”‘) (S ", pt ) be the relative homeomorphism in
—>
Construction of Spaces: Spherical Complexes 127

(19,5).Thenjf,><f,,, maps 6(E” X E“) S’’"' X E’"

= U E” X S’””1 to
X E is
5" v S ’" and E ” homeomorphic
’"
to E ”"”’; call a homeomorphism qb.
Then S " X S ”' ishomeomorphic to Z E "+’" Um, Xfmm S V S obtained
= ” ’”

by adjoining an (n + m)—cell to S V S via (f,, X f,,,)¢. Generalize to k—fold

" ”’

products by induction on k.
( 19.41) Exercise. Use the topologists sine curve, exercise prior to (10.13)
and Theorem (10.13) to construct an example of a relative homeomorphism
(X, A) (X/A, pt ) which does not induce an isomorphism in homology.
-’

The next two exercises use (19.23) to derive some facts about maps of
spheres.
(19.42) Exercise. If f:S" S" satisfies f(-x) =f(x) for all
->
x E S”,
then degf is even, in particular, if n is even then degf 0. =

A partial converse of (19.42) is true; if degf is even then f( —x) =

f (x) for
some x E S ”. The proof will have to wait for (26.13).

(19.43) Exercise. If f:S” S" has odd degree, then f(-x)

-> =
—f(x) for
somex E S ". Suggestion: suppose not and consider
/1(x) (f(x) +f(‘x)/lf(x)+f(“x)|-
=

Use(19.42).
Remark. A theorem of Borsuk asserts that f( —x) =
-f (x)for all x E S ”

implies degfis odd (26.25). The partial converse to (19.42) can be proved
using (26.25) and a construction similar to (19.43).
(19.44) Exercise. Show Pk is not a retract of P" if either 11 is odd and
H E
k even, or it even and n k odd. Could this be done using results only
-

for R Z/2Z?
=

Remark. Pk is never a retract of P" but more structure than (19.27) is

needed. Let P Z be the space obtained by collapsing P’‘ C P " to a point. The
l 160mot opy
type of P fi is intimately related to the vector field problem for S ",
9], [65].
 20. Betti Numbers and
Euler Characteristic

If we take homology with integer coefiicients, for certain spaces, such as

spherical complexes (19.20), the homology groups will be finitely generated.
If A is a finitely generated Abeliangroup, a basic theorem (see Lang [35], p.
45) states that the elements of finite order inA form the torsion subgroup T
and that the quotient group A/T is free Abelian. The minimal number of
generators of A/ T is called the rank ofA. The rank of Hq(X; Z ) is called the
q—th Betti number liq of the space X, and we also define the Euler
characteristic X (X) by the formula

x(X)= §(-Iva,
when this sum is finite. These numbers are of course topological invariants.
(20.1) Example: For S", (30 :
B" Q
1, all other Bq =
0, and we get
0 it odd
X (S") =

2 it even

(20.2) Example: For the r—leaved rose G,, fig =

1, [31 =
r, all other [Sq 0,
=

and we get

X(Gr)=1—r
(20.3) Example: For CP" (19.21), we have [3q= 0 forq odd or q > 2n, Bq
= 1 for q even such that O S q 5 2n. Hence
Marvin J. Greenbergand John R. Harpcr. AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0-8053-3558-7(H)
ISBN 0—8053-3S57—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by_ BenJa‘min_/Cummings Publishing Company, lnc.. Advanced Book Program. All rights
_ , _

reserved. No pan ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form
grebgjtglysrggfns,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording. or otherwise. without the prior permission

128
Betti Numbers and Euler Characteristic 129

x(CP")=n+l
(20.4) Example: For P" (19.23), we have [30 =
1, [in = 1 ifn is odd, and
fiq 0 in all other cases. Thus
=

1 n even
x(1’") =

0 n odd

(20.5) Example:
For the g—fold torus TL, (19.27), [30 [32 = =
1, [31 =
2g,
andBq=0q> Thus
2.

x(Tg)=2~2g
(20.6) Example: For the surfaces Uh (19.22),fio =
1, [3, = h —

1, Bq = 0
for q 2 2. Thus

X(Uh):2_h
We can also define in a similar manner the relative Betti numbers and
relative Euler characteristic X (X, A) for a pair (X, A).

(20.7) Lemma. When these numbers are defined,

X(X)=X(A)+X(X,/1)
Proof: Using the exact homology sequence, we are reduced to a purely
algebraic lemma.
(20.8) Lemma. Given an exact sequence of finitely generated Abelian
groups

1‘ i 1;-
O—>A,—3A2—+2...—~IA,—+0
then

rankA1—rankA2 + . . .
+ (—1)’+‘ rank A,= 0
Proof: By induction on r: The cases r =
1, 2 are trivial. For r =
3, let A,-
be the quotient group of A, by its torsion subgroup. We get induced
homomorphisms l1, l2, hence an induced sequence of free Abelian groups
ll ?'2
0-A,-> A2-v A3->0
_ _ _
130 Singular Homology Theory

which is not in general exact (takeA, =

2Z, A2 = Z ). However, we have the
following facts.
(20.9) Sublemnta. i, is a monomorphism, 72 is an epimorphism. and
Kernel 72/ Image 1', is a torsion group.

Proof: Exercise.
Hence rank/11 = rank (Kernel 72). Now the exact sequence of free Abelian
groups

0 -*
Kerneliz —>/-12 -*}l3 -+ 0

splits, so that 212 % 213 63 Kernel i2, whence rank /-12 rank /-13 + =

rank (Kernel i2). Since rank A, rank 171,- by definition, the lemma is proved
=

for r 3.
=

For r > 3, consider the two exact sequences

0—>A,-+A2—>Imi2-*0
0->Imi2->A3->...-+A,—>0
Since each sequence contains fewer than r terms, we are done by
induction.

(20.10) Corollary. IfZ is obtainedfrom Y by attaching an n—cell, and

X (Y) is defined, then

x(Z)=x(Y) +(—1)”
Proof: By (19.14), Hq(Z, Y) % Hq(E”, S"“) for all q, so by the lemma,
we need only compute x(Z, Y) x(E”, S ”"). Applying the lemma again,
=

X(En,Srz—I)=l +(__1)rz-l]:(__1)ri‘ I

(20.11) Corollary. LetXbe a sphericalcomplex, obtainedfrom aopoints

by attaching ozq q—cellsfor q 1; n (in any order). Then
=
. . .
,

x (X) =
%<—1>‘Ia.,
This follows from (20.10) by induction on 23:1,].
(20.12) Exercise. The q-th Betti numberof X is equal to the dimension of
the vector space Hq(X; Q) over the rational numbers. ( Show that if 2,, zfi . . .
,
Betti Numbers and Euler Characteristic 131

arecycles with integer coefficients whose homology classes form a basis for
Hq(X; Z ) modulo torsion, then the homology classes of these same cycles
form a basis of Hq(X; Q).)
(20.13) Remark. Consider the following special case of (20.11). Take a
regular polyhedron in 3—space, (homeomorphicto S 2 ). Divide its surface into
triangles (or quadrilaterals, etc.) so that if two of them meet, they meet in a
common edge or a common vertex. Let F be the number of faces, E the
number of edges, V the number of vertices. Then always

V-E+F=2.

This is an old theoremof Euler. See Proofs and Refutations by I. Lakatos for
the fascinatinghistory of this formula and its implications for understanding
mathematicaldiscovery.

(20.14) Exercise. If X, Y are spherical complexes, then so is X X Y.

Moreover,

X(X>< Y)=X(X)X(Y)-
Thus for example
x(S2><S2)=4,
)((P2 X P2)=1,
etc. Numerical results like these suffice to deduce that certain spaces are
homotopically inequivalent, e.g., S 2 X S 2 and S 4.

(20.15) Exercise. If X, Y are connected n—dimensional manifolds having

well—defined Euler characteristics, then )((X + Y) is defined (see 19.39),
and

x(X)+x(Y) nodd,
x(X+Y)=
x(X)+x(Y)-2 rzeven.

(Let X Y be the space obtained from the disjoint union X -11. Y by

*

identifying a small closed n-cell in X with one in Y. By Mayer-Vietoris,

X(X *Y) x(X) + x(Y)—1.NowX* Yis obtained fromX + Yby
=

attaching an n—cell so (20.10) applies.)

1.”. Singular Homology Theory

(20.16) Note. If R is any principal ideal domain (PID), the results on

Abelian groups we have quoted generalize to modules over R (Lang [35],
Chapter XV, Section 2). Thus we can define the Euler characteristic
x(X; R) by
X (X; R) =
}q2(—1)4 rankR Hq(X; R)
and all the results on Euler characteristic generalize.

(20.17) Example: For P" (19.18) we have

0 11 odd
X(P "; Z/2) =

1 n even

(20.18) Example: For the surfaces U,, (19.28) we have

x(U,,; Z/2) = 2 -
lz

(20.19) Remark. These examples suggest that the Euler characteristic

x(X;R) may be independent of the PID R. this is in fact true, provided thatX
is a spherical complex; for the same proof as before shows that

x(X:R)= Z‘. (—1)4a,,

for all R. Actually the independence of R holds for arbitrary spaces, as

follows from the Universal Coefficient Theorem (see 29.12).

(20.20) Note on Euler characteristic: The Euler characteristic of X is a

very powerful invariant which has many applications outside of topology, for
example:
(1) We have seen that only the odd—dimensional spheres admit non-
vanishing vector fields (16.5). These are the spheres of Euler characteristic
zero. Now one can define the notion of vector field on any dzfiferential
manifold X (Bishop and Crittenden [7]; differentiabilityis needed in order to
be able to talk about tangent vectors). ForX compact connected, there exists
a non-vanishing vector field if and only if x(X) 0 (Steenrod [55], p. 201).
=

Thus for compact surfaces, only the torus and Klein bottle have them
(construct them explicitly-exercise).
If X is odd—dimensional compact, it always admits one (see (26.10)).
Differential—geometric techniques show that if X is non-compact, it always
admits one.
Betti Numbers and Euler Characteristic 133

(2) A more general kind of Euler characteristic plays the key role in the
Riemann—Roch Theorem for non-singular projective algebraic varieties (see
Hirzebruch [31]).

(20.21) Exercise. Calculate the homology of the two—skeleton of the n-

simplex. Suggestion; use (20.11). Generalize to k—skeletons of An.
 21. Construction of Spaces:
Cell Complexes and
more AdjunctionSpaces
(21.1) We consider now a special class of spherical complexes calledfinite
cell complexes. These are compact Hausdorff spaces Z such that Z has a
finite collection of closed subsets cf (were q 0, 1,.
=
represents the
. .
,

dimension, and j ranges over some index set Jq) with the following proper-
ties: Let

Z"= U {cfl allj€ JP, allps q},

Z ‘I =
empty set,
and put

ff= cjf) Z4".

Then we require

(1) the only time cl,-’—ff»'meets c,‘l—f7z's whenp =

q and 1' =j;
(2) Z =
UqZ";
(3) for each cf, there is a map <15} :E‘7 Z which sends S4" onto fl‘? and
->

maps E ‘I S "" homeomorphically onto c J9 ff (S " is the empty set).

—
—

The sets cf —f7 are therefore open q—cells for q > 0 and their disjoint union
o\;er all q, j is Z (note thatis empty, so c? is closed O—cell. The map
q.‘>~ is called the characteristic map of C7; clearly Z is obtained from
(Z —'c:-7) U
Construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and more AdjunctionSpaces 135

(21.2) Examples: All the spherical complexes considered in Section 19

are finite cell complexes. Thus for n > 0

P"=c°Uc‘Uc2...Uc"
CP”=c°Uc2Uc4...Uc2”
HP"=c°Uc4U ...Uc4"
S” c°Uc"
E" c°Uc””Uc” n22

Y;,=c°Ucl U...Uc§gUc2
U,,=c°Uc{ U...Uc},Uc2
(Of course, these are not disjoint unions!)
(21.3) Example: Consider S 2 as obtained from its north pole by attaching
a 2—cell via the constant map of S 1 onto the north pole. Let x be a point other
than the north pole, and attach a 1—cell to S 2 via the constant map of S 0 on x.
The resulting spherical complex Z is not a finite cell complex because the
frontier f2 of its c2 consists of x and the north pole, hence c2 f2 is not an
—

open 2—cell.
One advantage of finite cell complexes over spherical complexes is that we
can prove the following nice result:

(21.4) Theorem. Let X be afinite cell complex, E 1-)’ X 0 61-fold Covering

space, d > 0 (i.e., all the fibres p"(x) have d points). Then E has a
structure offinite cell complex for which the map p is cellular. Moreover

X(E ) =
dX(X)
(We say p is cellular ifp maps the q—skeleton of E into the q—skeleton of X,
for all q 2 0.)
Proof: Given any point e € E, letx =p (e). Thenx € c" —fl for uniquely
determined q,j; Lety =
(<z>j’)"‘(x),so thaty € E“ — S"’{.
Since E‘? is con-
tractible, the lifting theorem (6.1) tells us there is a unique map 1,//J‘7:E" E
-—>

Such that (1) 1//j1( y ) e, (2)p 1/1]

= =
J7. Clearlyp maps ¢j7(E" Sq“) one-
—

t0—one onto cf -17; since p is open, 111;’ maps E " S 4*‘ homeomorphically
—

Onto its image.

If we fix x and let e vary in the fibrep"(x),we get d such maps and we
136 Singular Homology Theory

shall denote them by 1,/ 7_, where the index 1' runs from 1 to d. It is clear that
,

the entire system of maps 1//‘fjj $3)/' depends only on gbf, not on the point
, . . .

x.
Let cj7J~ be the image of E "
under 111?). Clearly these closed subsets give a
representation of E as a finite cell complex for which p is a cellular map.
Moreover, for each q, the numberof sets cfl_,~ is d times the numberof sets cf.
Hence (20.11), x(E) dx(X). = I

Note. The formula x(E ) dx(X) can be proved without assuming thatXis
=

a finite cell compex, but the proof requires spectral sequences. (See Spanier
[52], Chapter 9.)
(21.5) Note. In the theory of Rie ann surfaces, one is usually concerned
with branched covering spaces E X: Roughly, over an open U C X,
-*

p "(U ) U is a covering space, but over X—U (the branch locus) there may
-r

be ramification. For example, consider the map of the extended complex

plane S 2 onto itself defined locally by z 22. The branch locus consists of
—>

the two points 0, °°, and outside this set we have a 2-fold (unramified)
covering space. Thus formula (21.4) no longer holds for branched covering
spaces; however one can subtract a correction term from the right side which
is a function of the “ramification indices” to get a correct formula (for the
speical case X S2, see Springer [54], p. 275).
=

(21.6) Note. A subspace X of a Euclidean space R” is called a(f1nite)

polyhedron if it can be represented as a finite union of geometric simplexes
such that the intersection of two such simplexes is either empty or an iterated
face of each. (For example, two geometric 2-simplexes which meet must
meet in a common edge or a common vertex.) Any such representation is
called a triangulation ofX Thus figure (b) is a triangulation, while (a) is not.
.

(a) (b)

A space X is called (finitely) triangulable (sometimes called a finite

simplical complex, although this terminology is gradually being used only for
a purely algebraic notion) if it is homeomorphic to a (finite) polyhedron.
Clearly such spaces are finite cell complexes.
Construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and more AdjunctionSpaces 137

For triangulable spaces there is a systematic combinatorialprocedure for

calculating the homology groups. (See Wallace [59], Chap. IX.) One can
also compute explicitly the fundamental groups of the compact connected
surfaces (Ahlfors and Sario [2], p. 99). However, to triangulate even so
simple a surface as the torus requires at least 7 vertices, 21 edges, and 14
triangles, which seems unnaturallycomplicated. The triangulation approach
to homology is due to Poincare [45], who started the whole subject in 1895.
If X and Y are polyhedra, a map f :X Y is called simplicial (with
—*

respect given triangulations)

to if the restriction of fto any geometric simplex
s in X is an afline map of s onto a geometric simplex in Y. The great
importance polyhedra
of is that an arbitrary map can be approximated by a
simplicial map (on suitably
a fine triangulation) in the same homotopy class
(cf. any classical book).

(21.7) Note. To treat non—compact spaces, there are several types of

infinite complexes used. For homotopy questions the most useful type are the
C W—c0mpIexes of J. H. C. Whitehead [61]. The definition is the same as
(21.1) except that infinitely many cf are allowed, subject to an additional
requirement on the topology of Z: Asubset YofZ is closed if and only if
Y 0 cf is closed in cj’ for all q, j (where cf has the quotient topology from
E 4). One can prove that for any space X whatever, there is a C W—complex
Z and a map f :Z X such that (i) f induces a one—to—one correspondence
->

between the path components of Z and those of X, and (ii) for every
2 E Z, q > 0, the induced homomorphism

(f*)q?7Tq(Z,Z) “’
Trq(X,f(Z))
is an isomorphism. (Such maps f are called weak homotopy equivalences.)
This reduces the problem of detennining the homotopy groups of X to the
same problem for a C W-complex; for the latter, some powerful techniques
are available (see Spanier [52], Chapters 7 and 8).
(21.8) Note. Let X =
U,,X" be a cell complex with X” the n—skeleton.
Define C,, =
H,,(X", X”") forn Z 1, C0 =
H0(X°) and 6,,:C,, C,,_, as the
—*

Composition

H,,<X", X""> 3 H,.-,<X"“‘) ~

H,,-.(X"*',X“).
Then ¢9,,_,6,, = O and
138 Singular Homology Theory

Proof. Using (19.36) we have H,,(X”, X”"‘) % H;‘(X”/X”“) %

H;‘(S”V. .VS”) for n 2 1. Thus for all n, Hq(X", X""‘) is nonzero only
.

for q =
n. By (19.20), H,,(X”") 0 and H,,(X””) % H,,(X). We embed
=

this information in a diagram made by piecing together the long exact

sequences for the pairs (X", X ”") for all n.

0 “:' Hr1(X,1-I) 0 1-’ H11-l(Xfi-2)

l 6
.

3'
_.Hn+1(Xr1+l,XI1)~_H’1(X:1);/.H’1(XII,XI1 I)“ "¥1(Xr1 ])_.H’1_l(X/1 l,Xn 2)_.
,
_ 2 _

l "
1
H,,<X"““> —- 0 H21-l(X’I) ——- o

The path from O in the upper left corner to O in the lower right corner is part of
one long exact sequence. Define q§:H,,(X”+') ker 8,,/im 6,,“ by <1) =jk_‘.'
-'

Since k ‘1(X) is a coset of d'H,,+,(X”“ X"), qb is well defined. From

,

H,,(X"“) O we have j monic, hence gb is monic, Since H,,_,(X"'2) 0, we

= =

have ker 6,, ker 6 im j. Since k is epic, it follows that q.’> is epic, hence an
= =

isomorphism. I

(21.9) Note. On the uniqueness theorem for homology. A fundamental

discovery of Eilenberg and Steenrod [23] is the formulation of axioms for
homology functors, of which singular homology is an example. Abstractly,a
homology theory is a sequence {Hq} of functors from topological pairs and
maps of pairs to R—modules and homomorphisms along with natural trans-
formations {8,,| 8q:Hq(X, A) Hq_,(A)} such that
->

aq+]
 Construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and more AdjunctionSpaces 139

extending 77. In particular ifn is an isomorphism then Hg (X,A) % H, (X, A)

for allfinite CWpairs (X, A).
The proof is difficult, essentially induction over skeleta of the sort
not
encountered earlier. We refer to [23], p. 100 for details (in the language of
simplicial complexes [25], p. in the language of finite CW pairs).
or 86
Thus the different ways of constructing homology must give the same
values on finite CW complexes, though they may differ on more general
spaces.
There aretheories satisfying a), b), c) which are different from singular
homology because their values at points differ. One of these, bordism, due to
Thom [57] takes its intuitive basis in a more direct interpretation of the
bounding relation than is taken by the singular (or simplicial) construction.
Roughly one considers all maps f:(M, dM) (X, A) where M is an n-
-’

manifold (compact). Two such maps f and g are equivalent if there is an

(n + 1)—manifold Wwitha W= M_|L M(disjoint union) and F :(W, aW) ~

(X A‘) extending f ll. g. The set of equivalence classes ./l{,(X, A) can be

,

given the structure of an abelian group and turns out to satisfy a), b), c).
However¢1{(pt) consists of equivalence classes of manifolds. For example
1l2/(pt ) has two equivalence classes, S 2, p2. The reader is referred to Conner
and Floyd [15] and G. W. Whitehead [88].

(21.11) Chain complexes for homology theories. The role of chain

complexes in the theoretical understanding of homology theories has been
analyzedby Burdick, Conner, and Floyd and we quote their result.‘ Consider
a covariant functor L from finite CW pairs to chain complexes such that for
each pair (X, A) we have the chain complex {L,,(X, A), 6} and for each
map f:(X, A) (Y, B) we have a chain map L(f):L(X,A) L( Y, B). We
- —~

write L,,(X, <15) L,,(X). Suppose L satisfies

=

(1)0 "
Ln(A) —’
LAX) —’
Ln(X9 A) —* 0

is exactfor all pairs (X, A),

Ker d:L,,(X, A) ->
L,,_,(X, A)
Im a:Lr1+l(Xs
140 Singular Homology Theory

where Hp is singular theory and hq =

hq(pt ).
The proof will be accessible after the material on acyclic models in chapter
29.

Construction of spaces: More adjunctionspaces. We consider adjunction

spaces for some cases where a space larger than a cell is attached. This
material is not essential to subsequent developments, but does provide
interesting examples.
We continue with the assumptions in force at the beginning of chapter 19.
The construction of continuous maps is based on the principle stated in the
proof of (10.13) (piecing together maps defined on closed subsets) and the
following
(21.12) Extension Principle. LetX be attached to Y by f :A Y. Given -’

g:X Z and lz:Y Z such thatg(a) hf(a) for all a E A, there exists a
-* -* =

unique continuous k:X UfY Z such that

—-

g_1L}z
X_1LY —>z

I /
XU Y
k

commutes. The proof is straightforward, or see Dugundji [20], p. 129.

Mapping Cones. After analyzing spaces, we have the problem of analyz-

ing maps. An important tool is the mapping cone. Recall
CX=XXI/X><{0}
is the cone on X. The image of X X {0} in CX is the vertex. Points in CX
are written (x, I ) withx € X, t E I. We regard X as the subspaceX X {1} in
CX. The pair (CX, X) is collared, for example U X X x(§, 1) is a collaring
=

of X. Motivation for arguments using CX is often provided by figure 4,

vertex

X
Figure 4. CX
construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and more Adjnnction Spaces 141

Given f:X ~
Y, we obtain]’:CX —»
CY, ]"(x, r) =
(f(x), t).
(21.13) Lemma. The vertex is a strong deformation retract of CX.

Proof. The homotopy H:CX>< I -+ CXis given by H(x, t, s) =

(x, ts). I

(2.1 14) Proposition. f:X

.
—* Yis null—l1omotopic zfand only iffextends to
F :CX —* Y.

Proof If f extends, then it factors through a contractible space, hence is

nuIl—homotopic. Conversely, let F:X X I Y be a null—homotopy with
->

F( ,1) =1’. Then F extends to a well—defined map F:CX Y, since F (x, 0)

-

is constant. I

(21.15) Definition.The mapping cone Cf of f :X Y is the adjunction -*

space CX Uf
Y. Y is embedded as a closed subset of Cf, we write the
embedding e:Y C]; and CX X is an open subset, Dugundji [20], p. 128.
-> —

From (21.14) we have

(21.16) ef:X -+
Cfis nuIl—lzomotopic.
Given a commutative diagram

f
X-—~Y

al I/3
Xv—"—ly«
the extension principle (21.12) provides a unique 7 :Cf —>
Cf’ such that
6
Y—-Cf CX--Cf

fll lv évl Iv
Y’——-,~Cf’
6
CX’—~Cf’

commute.

Motivation for arguments using Cf is often provided by figure 5.

142 Singular Homology Theory

CX

Figure 5. Cf

(21.17) Proposition. f:X —* Yis null—/zomotopt'cifan only ifYis a retract

0fCf-
Proof. If f is nu1l—homotopic, we have an extension F :CX Y. Then —>

F _U_ id:CX_lL Y Y provides a retraction by (21.12). Conversely, given a

—*

retraction r“.Cf Y we have f ref null-homotopic by (21.16).

-4 = I

As an application of (21.17) we obtain P"_‘ is not a retract of P”,

(compare exercize (19.44)).
Proof. P" %Cf where f :S"”‘ P"" is the canonical map. By exercise
-*

(16.13), f is not null—homotopic. I

Again, S‘ V S‘ is not a retract ofS’ X S’.
Proof. The torus is a mapping cone
f
S‘ —~S‘ VS‘ —> S‘ X S‘.

By the Van Kampen theorem, (4.12),1r,(S 1 V S 1) is free on two genera-

tors a, b and the homotopy class of f is the commutator [a, b] 75 1. I

Remark. Later applications of (21.17) will show certain maps are not
null—homotopic by arguing that the cup product structure of the cohomology
of Cf is incompatible with a retraction to Y.
The problem of extending maps to mapping cones has a useful fomiulation.

(21.18) Proposition. Letf:X Y,g :Y—- Z. Therzgextends to /2 :Cf—’ Z

->

such that heg zfand only ifgfis null—homotopic.

=

Proof The necessity follows from (21.16). Conversely, if gf is null-

homotopic, then Z is a retract of Cgf and the retraction Cgf Z composed -*

with the canonical map Cf Cgf gives /2,

-+
Construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and more Adjnnction Spaces 143

f e
X—‘*Y—~Cf
l lgl
X——~Z = Cgf. I
gf
Remark. h depends on the null-homotopy, and in general is not unique,
even up tohomotopy. The further analysis will not concern us, but is a
standard part of general homotopy theory.

We next look at homological properties of Cf. Since CX is contractible,

(19.15) yields a long exact sequence
Hq(f) H
L(9)
(21.19) —»H;*(X) ——~
H;*(Y) Hj,*(Cf)—~H;i,(X)->...
which is functorial for (strictly) commuting diagrams

In practice, however, we often just have commutativity up to homotopy,

f'a=Bf.
(21.20) Proposition. Iff'a= Bf then there exists y:Cf -*
Cf’, an
extension of e'B, such that

H(f)
‘I
—*Hq(X) —.
Hq(Y) ——--Hq(Cf)——>Hq_,(X) ~
. ..

Hq(a)
144 Singular Homology Theory

Proof 7 exists, since e ’B f 3 e ’f'a Z *. We describe 7/ more explicitly,

LetH:X>< I Y’ be a homotopy such thatH(
—+
0) =f’oz and H( ,1) [if
,
=

Then we can define 7 by

(a(x),2t) OS tS%,
(x,t)i——>
e'H(x,2t—1) %St£l,
€(y) i-—> €'l3(y),
and picture y in figure 6.

6?

___i___X/[—3»*
H
I
f

Figure 6.

Our result will follow when we show

f
(CX, X) —'
(Cfl Y)
or 7

(CX',X') _—j (Cffl Y’)

f
is a homotopy commutative diagram of pairs, since (21._19) arises from the
Barratt—Whitehead lemma applied to the excisions f, f’ and (a, y) will
induce a map of ladders. The required homotopy K :(CX X I, X X I )—~
(Cf’, Y’) is given by
2t s+1
(oz(x), OSIS ,
s+1 2
K(x,t,s)=
s+1
e'H(x,2t—s—1) SISI.
Construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and more AdjunctionSpaces 145

Then K (x, z, 0) =
yf(x, 2) and K (x, z, 1 ) =f'&(x, z). I

Remark. It may be the case thatHq(7) 75 Hq(y ’) for different extensions 7/

# 7 '.

An important property of mapping cones is their homotopy invariance.

(21.21) Proposition. Iff, g :X -> Y are homotopic, then Cfand Cg are
homotopy equivalent.

Proof We first construct maps 0:Cf Cg and g0:Cg Cf LetH :X X I

-' —*

« Ybe a homotopy such thatH( 0) =g andH( 1) =1". LetH(x,t)=

, ,

H(x, 1 t). Then the formulas

—

(x, 2t ) O5 tS 5,
19(x, t ) =

H(x,2t—1) §srs1,
0! Y = id

and similarlyfor ip with H replacing H, give well-defined maps. We construct

ahomotopy 1M9 2 id(rel Y). Note

(x,4t) 05:51,
¢0(x,t)= H(x,4t—1) an‘SIS;

H(x,2t—1) §St I/\

Then the required homotopy K :Cf>< I —>
Cf can be seen from the picture
146 Singular Homology Theory

Specifically, K is given by

4t 3s+l
x, OSIS ,
3s+l 4

3s+1 s+l
K(x,t,s)= H(x,3s+2—4t) 4
SIS
2 ,

s+l
H(x,2t—l) 2
Stfil,

K|Y=id.
Similarly for 0://. I

Remark. The homotopy equivalences provided by (21.21) have some

nonobvious consequences. For example, the space made by identifying 3
sides of an (equilateral) triangle according to the edge equation aaa” is the
mapping cone of map f :S ‘ S 1 and f ’= id. But the mapping cone of id is
->

the disc, hence this space (called the dunce cap ) has the homotopy type of a
point. Another example is shown in figure 7. Twotori are interlocked so their
surfaces are mutually tangent along the subspaces S 1 V S '. The resulting
space has the homotopy type of (S X S ‘)V S 2. (Prove this: consider the
‘

attaching map of one torus on the other and make use of the argument
following 21.17.)

Figure 7.
Construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and more AdjunctionSpaces 147

Some manifolds‘. Let M, M’ be manifolds with homeomorphic bound-

aries, and /z:8M a homeomorphism. The adjunction space W
8M ’
-' =

W(/z, M, M’) M U,,M’ can be proved to be a manifold. One uses the

=

collaring property (19.2) and invariance of domain to construct the local

euclidean structure at the points where M is joined to M ’. Naturally the first
case to consider is M M’ = E". =

(21.22) Proposition (Alexander trick). Let /1:S”“ S ”_‘ be a homeo—

—>

morphism. Then W= E" U,,E” is homeomorphic to S".

Proof. Regarding E” as the cone on S"", we have /Az:E” E", a —*

homeomorphismextending h. Let p:E” _ll E S" be the usual identifica-

" ->

tion of S” in terms of its hemispheres. Then p(izJL z'd):E"JLE” s" —~

extends by (21.12) to ¢>:W S”. is apparent

It -> that (1) a continuous,
is
injective map of a compact space to a Hausdorff space, hence a homeo—
morphism. I

Remark. It is not necessarily the case that W is smoothlyequivalent to

S". The first examples were given by Milnor [83], igniting a significant
development in topology.
Lens spaces (19.12). Let M E2 X S‘. It turns out that L(p, q) %
=

M U,, M for certain homeomorphisms of 6M S I X S '. We construct the

=

homeomorphisms and do some calculations. Write points in S 1 as e’‘’.

(21.23) Definition. The twists A, ,u:S' X S‘ X S‘ are given by
>\(ei6, eh,-5) (ei(0+<,b)’ eicb)’
=

‘u(ei0, eigb) (eff), ei(9+¢.)).

:

There is no way to distinguish geometrically the factors of S 1 X S 1. But if we

regard S ' X S‘ 6(E2 X S 1), then meaningful distinctions can be made.
=

We shall do this only when E 2 X S‘ C R3 is embedded in the standard (i.e.

unknotted) way. In this case the circle q!) O is called a meridian M and
= the
circle 6 0 a longitude L. The meridian is homotopically trivial in E 2 X S ‘
=

while the longitude represents a generator of H1 The effect of the twists on M

.

and L is shown in figure 8. (We have actually distorted the images of M, L by

a homeomorphism of R3.)

1Acknowledgement. This discussion is based on the exposition of Rolfsen [85], to which the
reader is referred for further, interesting material.
143 Singular Homology Theory

Figure 8.

Of course MM =
,u.l L = id.

We now consider homology and take R Z for the remainder of this

=

section. The circles M, L determine a basis, m, l for H,(S‘ X S’). More

precisely, pick generators of H,(M ), H,(L) and take their images in
H1 (S ' X S 1). This amounts to assigning orientations (i.e., directions) to
each circle. In terms of this basis, we have

(21-24) (0 1)
Hr(>\)= <1 1)
1 1
, H1(.u)=
1 0
,

H3)» l=(‘§>-
The inverse homeomorphisms are given by }\"(e“’, e""’) =
(e’'“’‘‘’’), e"”) and
similarly for ,u"‘. We have

(21.25) H1<A">=
Construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and more AdjunctionSpaces 149

det =
product of the four matrices (21.24), (21.25), [89].1 The
1 is a
interchange map i :S‘ X S‘ S‘ X S‘, i(x,y ) (y, x) switches m with]
- =

and has matrix

O 1
H,(z )=
,

I O
.

Summarizing,

(21.26) IfA is any 2 X 2 matrix with integer entries and det A = i 1,

there is a homeomorphism h ofS’ X S’ with H, (h) A. =

It turns out that the topological type of E 2 X S ’ U,, E 2 X S‘ depends only

on h(M ). See Rolfsen [85] for this and further details.

(21.27) Definition. Let (p, q) be co—prime integers and h as homeo-

morphism of6(E2 X S‘) such that H,(h)(m ) qm -i-pl in H1(S’ X S‘).
=

The adjunction space L (p, q) E2 X S‘ U,, E2 X S1 is a lens space.

=

It is not obvious that this description is the same as (19.12). See M. Cohen
[78] for details. The image h(M ) is called a (p, q) torus knot. There are
topological relations among the L (p, q). If ir qi’ mod p, then L (p, q) is
E

homeomorphic to L (p, r). This can be proved by cutting and pasting, see
Hilton and Wylie [30] or Rolfsen [85]. Furthermore L(1, q) E S3 and
L(0, 1) % S2 X S‘. The former derives from the decomposition S 2 %
a(E2 >< E2) E2 x S’ u S‘ x E2 (note the switch of positions for E2),
=

while the latter follows from S2 X S’ E3” X S‘ U E; X S‘. We

=

normalize, O < q <p.

(21.28) Proposition. The integral homology ofL (p, q) is given by H3 %

Z, H2 0, H, % Z/pl, H0 % Z.
=

Proof. Using (19.15) we have (and abbreviatingL(p, q) = L ) H3(L ) E

H2(S‘ X S ‘) and an exact sequence

I
——

Let S =
150 Singular Homology Theory

H1(E2 X S‘)
H1(J/ \
0—*H2(L)—>H1(S‘XS‘) GB H1(L)—~0
construction of Spaces: Cell Complexes and more AdjunctionSpaces 151

New manifolds Q E 2 X S 1 Uh X are obtained from homeomorphisms

=

h;S 1 X S 1 6X. This process is called surgery and its elaboration has led to
->

a deep understanding of manifolds.

In figure 9 we have this set up for a trefoil knot K.

(21.30) Exercise. Show that Jand C in fig. 9 satisfy [J] + [C] 0 in

=

H1(X). Suggestion: Each under—crossing contributes —[C ] and the windings

each contribute -1-[C ].
Let Q E2 X S‘ U,, Xwhere h is a homeomorphism such that h(M ) J,
= =

M a meridian ofE2 X S‘. Q is the Poincaré homology 3—sphere.

(21.31) Proposition. Hq(Q) % Hq(S3).

Proof Combine exercises (21.29) and (21.30) with the argument in
(21.28). I

Remark. Using the Seifert, Van Kampen theorem (4.12),the fundamental

group of Q is 1r1(S3 K ) withthe additional relation represented by J. Then
—

rr1( Q) turns out to be a finite group of order 120 known as the binary
icosahedral group. Thus Q is not homeomorphic to S 3 The space Q can also
.

be obtained from a properly discontinuous action of the b.i. group on S 3. See

F. Klein [81] for the fascinating and extensive interconnections of various
parts of mathematics through this group.
 Part III
ORIENTATION AND
DUAL/TYON MAN/FOLDS
 Introduction to Part III

Manifolds are the main geometric topic of part III. A new theoretical tool,
cohomology, is introduced. Cup and cap products are introduced by means of
the Alexander—Whitney map. The cup product endows cohomology with
more algebraic structure than was availablefor homology in chapter 19. The
cap product from cohomology to homology is used for the duality theorems.
The first topic is orientability of manifolds. This discussion illustrates a
new use of homology as a means of piecing together “local information” to
obtain a grasp on a global property. Orientation is a global property of a
manifold M which manifests itself locally in distinctions between “left—
handedness” and “right—handedness”. This distinction can be described in
terms of choosing generators for certain
homology modules. The presence of
an orientation manifests itself as a coherent system of such choices.
Our treatment of cohomology is divided between this part and part IV.
Here we develop material analogous to homology and prove one of the
universal coefficient theorems. This theorem is often useful for calculations.
Next, products are introduced. We delay a more theoretical treatment of
products to part IV. Enough material is developed to prove the duality
theorems for manifolds.
Our proof of Poincare duality follows Milnor [41] (see also [84]). This
argument uses Mayer—Vietoris sequences to effect passage from local infor-
mation to global information.
The Alexander duality theorem of chapter 27 brings to fruition the ideas
nascent in chapter 18. The Lefshetz duality theorem of chapter 28 completes
the triumvirate of duality theorems.

155
 22. Orientation of Manifolds

Throughout this section, X will be an n—dimensional manifold, n 2 1.

(22.1) Lemma. For any point x E X,

H,,(X, X —

x) E R

Proof: Let U be an open neighborhood of x homeomorphic to the open

unit ball in R" (i.e., a “coordinate neighborhood” of x). Excising the closed
subset X U of the open X x, we get
— —

H,,(U, U —

x) 1'» H,,(X, X —

x)
Since U is contractible, the exact homology sequence of the pair (U, U —

x)
gives
H..(U, U—x) 1" H7f—i(U— 96)
But U —

x is homotopically equivalent to S "'1, so H 3,5 ,(U —

x) -3- R. I

Consider the special case n 2, R Z. Then there are two possible

= =

elements of H2(X, X x) E H,(U x) which can generate this infinite

— —

cyclic group, namely the ones corresponding to loops winding once around x
in opposite directions. Choosing one of these generators corresponds
intuitively to “choosing an orientation about the point x.”
For n > 2, one has to determine the possible generators of H,,_1(U x) % —

H,,_,(S”"). Regard S ”"' as the frontier of the geometric simplex A". One
can then show the generators are idb", where 6” is the identity singular
Simplex on A” (see Wallace [59], p. 178), and (22.40).
Marvin]. Greenbergand John R. Harper, Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3—3558—7(H)
ISBN 0-805 3—3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company, Inc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
.

reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form
:’}'1"ebY
158 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Definition. A local R—orientation ofX atx is a generator ofthe R—module

H,,(X, X x).
—

To define the notion of an orientation of X globally, our intuition tells us

that we should have orientations of X given at each point such thatthese local
orientations “match up.” This need not be possible, as is shown by the open
Mobius band: In the space

S={(s,t)ER2[OSsS1,0<t<1}
identify (0, t) with (1, l t). (The quotient space is a 2—dimensional
—

manifold.) See (28.17). However, we can always get “matching orienta-

tions” throughout a neighborhood of a given point x, in the following sense:

(22.2) Continuation Lemma. Given an element ax E H,,(X, X x). Then —

there is an open neighborhood Uofx and a E H,,(X,X U ) such that ax

—
=

j,f'(oz), where
J'.5"IH,,(X, X‘ U) "*
H,.(X, X— x)
is the canonical homomorphism induced by inclusion.

Proof: Leta be a relative cycle representing ax. Then the support I 6a] of
6a is a compact subset ofX contained inX— x, so that U= X —

I 6a] is an
open neighborhood of x. Take a E H,,(X, X —

U) to be the homology class

ofa relative to X —
U. I

This lemma tells us we can obtain elements at). E H,,(X, X y ) for y near
—

x (i.e., fory E U) from ax by setting at, =jyU(oz). We think of these elements

as “matchingup” because they all come from one and the same element a E
H,,(X, X U). Call 01 a continuation of ax in U. We must show one more
—

point.
(22.3) Coherence Lemma. Ifozx generates H,,(X, X x), then Uand a
—

can be chosen such that oz), generates H,,(X, X y ) for all y E U.

—

This follows at once from a stron_ger result:

(22.4) Locally Constant Lemma. Every neighborhood W ofx contains a

neighborhood U ofx such thatfor every y E U, j)9’ is an isomorphism(hence
ax has a unique continuation in U).

Proof: Let V be a coordinate neighborhood of x contained in W (V is

homeomorphic to E "), and let U be a smaller open set corresponding to an
Open ball of radius < 1. Then we have the commutative diagram (for anyy E
U)
Orientation of Manifolds 159

Hn(X,X— U)‘: Hn(V: V‘ U): H3‘—i(V‘ U)

160 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

1"’ :S,,2, —* V— U

to be a homotopy equivalence (the case d =

1, n = 2 is illustrated);

Sn*l

Hence H,,_1(1') =
H,,_1(1' ’)H,,_,(1"’)" is an isomorphism.
Defirzition. Given a subspace U C X. An element a E H,,(X, X U) —

such that j(a) generates H,,(X, X y ) for eachy E U will be called a local
—

R-orierztation of X along U.

(22.6) Notation. If VC U are subspaces ofX,

J'9IH,.(X,X‘ U) "
H,,(X,X‘ V)
denotes the homomorphism induced by inclusion. If at is a local R-orientation
along U, thenj ’,i(a) is one along V, since for any y E V,
J'yV[J”:l(<I)] =J'l/(<1)-
We define a global R-orientation of X :Suppose we are given
now
(i) a family of open subspaces U, which cover X.
(ii) for each 1', a local orientation 01,~ E H,,(X,X U,«) of X along (1,. —

Call this an R-orientation system if the following compatibilitycondition

holds: For anyx E X, ifx E U, (W U,-», then

(iii) ll/‘(ail =
.)lcj['(ai')
In this case a local R-orientation is unambiguouslydefined at each point x by

(iv) (Ix =J'§”(0<,-) X 5 U,-

Given another R-orientation system (Vk, Bk). We say it defines the same
R-orientation if
Orientation of Manifolds 161

(V) ax: Bx allx EX

Then a global R—orientation ofX is by definition an equivalence class of R-

orientation systems, the equivalence relation being (V).
We say X is R—orientable (resp. orientable) if an R—orientation system
(resp. a Z—orientation system) exists.
(22.7) Proposition. (a) An open submanifold Vofan R—orientableX is R-
orientable. (b) X is R—orientable if and only if all its connected components
are.

Proof: (a) Let (U,-, oz,~) be an R—orientation system for X. For any x E V,
let fix E H,,( V, V x) correspond to ax via the excision isomorphism
—

Hn(V: V*X) 2’ Hn(X,X—x)

By (22.4), there is an neighborhood VX of x such that V‘. C VF) U, for
open
some i and such that BX has a unique continuation to a local R—orientation
Bx of V along Vx; we can further choose V_\. so small that X V is -

contained in the interior of X Vx. Then for any y E VX, the diagram
—

Hn(V,V‘y):’Hn(X.X‘y)

1 1 \ HI1(‘X’X— U,-)
/
Hn(V, V‘ Vx) 3" Hn(X,X’ V.V)
shows that the local R—orientation of V at y induced by BX equals
162 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

consisting of the single setX and ax a generator of H,,(S”), we see that S is ”

R—orientable.

(22.11) Example: X = R " is homeomorphic to S "

minus a point, so, by
(22.7) X is R—orientable.
(22.12) Proposition. Every manifold has a unique Z/2—orientation.
For each x, ax must be the unique non—zero element of H,,(X X x; Z/2). ,
—

We can choose an open neighborhood U, of x in which ax has a unique

continuation. Clearly these continuations are compatible. I

(22.13) Remark. It can actually be shown thatifX is orientable, thenXis

R—orientable for all coefficient rings R. This follows from the universal
coefficient theorem which tells how to determine Hq(X, A; R) from
H,,(X,A',-.Z),and R (see Section 29).
(22.14) Theorem. Let X be a connected non—orientable manifold. Then
a 2-fold connected covering space E 9->X such thatE is orientable.
there is

(22.15) Corollary. Every simply connected manifold is orientable (more

generally, every connected manifold whose fundamentalgroup contains so
subgroup of index 2 is orientable).
Proofof theorem: Define E as the set of pairs (x, ax), where x E X and ax
is one of the two generators of H,,(X, X x; Z ). Set p (x, ax)
—

x. =

Consider pairs (U, (IU), where U is open inX and org is a local orientation
of X along U. Let

<U9 aU ) Z
{(xa a,\‘)ix E U9 ax
Orientation of Manifolds 163

we do have a 2—fold covering space.

For eachx E X, choose open neighborhoods V D U as on p. 159 for which
an 0: V exists; set 01,, j (‘X01 V). Use the isomorphism
=

Hf~1((V,f1V >_ (UJXU >):H:—1(V_U)

to locally orient E along (U, oq; ). This shows E is orientable.
Suppose E were not connected. Then for each component C, p] C:C X -*

is a covering space which must be a homeomorphism (since the fibres of E

have only 2 points). Hence C is nonorientable, contradicting(22.7(b)). I

Proof to Corollary. The corollary follows from the fact thatp*7r1 (E, eo)
has index 2 in -rrl (X, x0). I

(22.16) Examples: ForX P2, we have E

= = S2. IfX is the Klein bottle
U2, we have E = the torus T1. For let q :12 ->
U2 be the map given by the
identifications (19.32)

Piecing together two such withthe second turned upside down gives the torus
b b

Precisely, definep :T, —*

U2 by
q(2s,t) OSSS Ni.
P(e 211is,e217i()=
q(2s—l,l—t) 2_<_sSl
Show more generally that forX =
U,,, we have E =
T,,_,, lz > 1 (19.32).
(22.17) Note. One may ask, conversely, whether each orientable manifold
164 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

E is a 2—sheeted covering of a non—orientable X.

The answer is no, for by (21.4), )((E ) would then be even (whenE andX
are finite cell complexes), but E CP2" is an example where )((E ) is odd
=

(20.3 and 22.31).

(22.18) It is useful to construct another covering space analogous to E,
containing E as an open subspace when R Z: Let X 0 be the set of all
=

(x, ax), withx E X, ax E H,,(X,X x). We do not assume a_, is a generator.

—

Set p(x, a,.) x. For any open U C X, define< U, av > exactly as before.
=

These sets form a basis for a topology on X0 such that p:X° X is a —'

covering space. The fibre p“(x) is in one—to—one correspondence with

H,,(X, X x). X0 is called the R—orz'entatz'on sheaf0fX.
~

Suppose now R Z. Define a function v on X 0 with values in the non-

=

negative integers as follows: Given (x, ax), a,. is an integer multiple of a

generator of H,,(X, X x); the absolute value of that multiple is independent
—

of the generator chosen, and this number we call v(x, ax).

(22.19) Lemma. Forq > 0,1/_1(q )is open in X0 and v"‘(q ) Xis a 2- ~*

fold covering space.

This follows at once from (22.4).
Note that z/’ 1(0) is also open, but 1/“(0) X is a homeomorphism. X°,
->

being the disjoint union of the 1/"(q)’s, is never connected. I/"(l) is our
previous E.
(22.20) Exercise. For general rings R, define an equivalence relation a ~

b if a ub, where u is an element of R having a multiplicative inverse. The

=

set of equivalence classes can be called_“R modulo units.” Define a map

1/:X° “R modulo units” and verify the lemma. If 1 denotes the class
—’

containing 1, 2/ "(l) is a covering space of X such that each fibre is in one—to-

one correspondence withthe multiplicative group of units in R. ForR Z/ 2, =

1/“(l) X is a homeomorphism, and X0 X>< Z/2.

—* =

(22.21) Remark. For any subspaceA C X, a (continuous!) map s:A X0 —*

such thatps inclusion A X is called asection 0verA. Forx E A, let s’(x)

= —*

E H,,(X, X x) denote the second coordinate of s(x), i.e.,

—

S(X) =
(X, S'(x))
Let TA denote the set of all sections over A. If s1 s2 E
, FA, then
x —*
(x, si(x) + s§(x)) x E A

defines another section over A, denoted sl + s2. If s E PA, A E R, then

Orientation of Manifolds 165

x ->
(x, }\s’(x)) x E A

defines a section over A denoted As. These operations make FA into an R-

module. The zero element of this module is the section

x-’(x,0) xEA

Sections over all of X are called global sections.

Note thatthere exists a global section s mappingX into 2/“( 1) if and only
if X is R—orientable, and, in fact, the different R—orientations of X are in one-
to—one correspondence with such sections (this is an exercise in the defini-
tions of all these notions). More generally, for any A C X we say X is R-
orientable along A if there is a section over A mapping A into z/'1(1).

(22) Proposition. X is R—orientable along A if and only if there is a

homeomorphism <;b:p“‘(A) A X R (R given the discrete topology) such
—>

that the diagram

p*‘(/1)?» A><R
\/
is commutative. If this is the case, PA is isomorphic to the module of all
continuous maps A R; ifA has k connected components k < 00, then FA
—~

§ R‘.

Proof: Given a section s:A 1/ "(l). For eachx E A, s’(x) is a generator

-*

ofH,,(X, X —

x). If(x, ax) Ep"(A),then there is a unique )3. E R such that

Oz, =
}\_(s’(x). Define Q5 by

¢>(x, ax) =
(x, AX) x E A

If U is an open neighborhood of x on which ax has a unique continuation cry,

then qb maps (U, (XU )one-to—one onto U X XX, hence is a homeomorphism.
Conversely, given q), we recover s by s(x) ¢>“(x, 1), x E A.= I

(22.23) Remark. There is a canonical homomorphism

j,,:H,,(X, X —

A) - FA

defined by jA(a)(x) (x,j§‘(oz)),x E A (see (22.6)). (We must verify the

=

Continuity of j ,,(oz): Let a be a relative cycle representing at. If U =

166 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

X —| 6a] then U is open and contains A, and ifau E H,,(X,X U) is the

,
—

homology class of a relative toX U, then au induces oz under the inclusion

—

of X U intoX A. Now givenx E A, consider open neighborhoods Vof x

— -

such that V C U and such that jf(a) has a unique continuation ay over V
(22.4). Since au induces an/,jA(a) maps V F) A into ( V, ay ), but sets ofthe
latter type form a basis of neighborhoods of (x, j§.'(a)) in X0.)
If B C A, we have the commutative diagram

j/4
H,,(X, X —

A) - PA

-A
J3 "

H,,(X,X—B) j- PB
J3

where the right vertical arrow r is defined by restricting sections overA to the
subset B.

(22.24) Theorem. Suppose A C X is closed. Then

(i) Hq(X,X-A)=0forq > 11
(ii) j A is a monomorphism, and its image is the submodule PA of
sections with compact support, i.e.,

jA:HIz(XaX~
Orientation of Manifolds 167

Proof: Apply (22.22). I

(22.27) Corollary. If A is a compact subspace of R” with k connected

components, then k equals the (n 1)“ Betti numberofthe complement ofA
—

in R” (assume n 2 2).

Proof: R", being orientable, is orientable along A, and H,,(R”, R” —

A)
3 n-1(R” —A)- I

(22.28) Corollary. LetXbe a compact connected manifold. Assume that

for any a ?5 O, a ER and any unit u E R, ua a implies u 1 (this holds,
= =

for example, when R is an integral domain). Then

R IfX is R—orientable
Hr1(X) E
0 otherwise

Proof: If X is R—orientable, apply (22.22). Suppose there is a global

section s E PX, s # 0. Then 2/(s(X)) is a constant in R modulo units, i.e.,
there is a E R, a ¢ 0, such that s'(x) is a times a generator ofH,,(X, X x) -

for all x E X, where s(x) (x, s'(x)). The hypothesis on R implies that
=

s'(x)/a is a we1l—defined generator. The mapx (x, s'(x)/a) is a sectionX

-’ -4

u"(1), so that X is R—orientable. I

(22.29) We see that an R—orientation of a compact connected manifold X is

determined by a generator of FX, or a generator { of the top homology
module H,,(X); 4’ is called thefundamental class of the R-orientation. The
local R—orientation at each point x is then j(§ ).

(22.30) Corollary. IfX is a compact connected manifold then

H,,(X; Z/2) = Z/2

Use (2212). I

(22.31) Remark. Comparing with our previous calculations of homology

%T0ups, we have the following table:
168 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Orientable Non—Orientable

S” allnZl U,, allhzl

Tg allg Z l P" 11 even

P" n odd

CP” all 11

HP” all n

Proof of Theorem (22.24):

Step 0. A empty. Obvious.

Step 1. If the theorem holds for the closed subsets A1, A2 and A 1 F) A2,
then it holds forA A, U A2.=

We use the relative Mayer-Vietoris sequence (17.10) for the triad

(X,X—A,,X—A2).ItgivesHq(X,X-A)= Oforq > n and forq n we =

have the commutative diagram

0"H,,(X,X*A)"Hn(X,X*A1)©1{,,(X,X‘A2)—'H,,(X,X—A1F)/12)

./‘A g I J‘A,®J'/12 E I J./IIFWAZ

0 ~
FLA __. FCAI ca l‘cA2 _.

(V1,—V2) V1+’2 rc(AI HA2)

and chasing around the diagram shows j A an isomorphism.

Step 2.
A is compact, connected, and contained in a coordinate neighbor-
hood which is evenly covered by p. By excision, we may replace X by E ”.

Case 1. A is a rectangular parallelepiped (of dimension S n).

Then(i) follows from Hq(E", E" A) 3 H2‘. ,(E” A) 3 H;‘.,_(S"_1),
- —

and (ii) follows from (22.5) and (22.22), since A is connected and E” is R-
orientable.

Case 2. A is a finite union of rectangular parallelepipeds A ,, ,A,,, such . . .

that each wall of each A) is parallel to a coordinate hyperplane in R”. By case

1 We may assume m > 1.
Orientation of Manifolds 169

We argue by induction on m. LetA A1 U... UA,,,,1.ThenA’ F) A,,,

’
=

is a set of the same type, union of at most m 1 such parallelepipeds (of

—

lower dimension, perhaps, but no matter), so the inductive hypothesis applies

to A’ and A’ F) Am. By step 1, the theorem holds for A.

Case 3. A compact C U evenly covered coordinate patch.

Given s E I‘ A. We may assume s mapsA into one sheet over U (otherwise
compactness of A and normality of U give in disjoint opens coveringA such
that it is true for each U, (W A). Then s extends to s* E I‘ U (the inverse top
on that sheet). For each point x E A, choose a rectangular parallelepiped of
dimension 11 containing x in its interior, having its walls parallel to the
coordinate hyperplanes, and contained in U. Let A’ be the union of all these
parallelepipeds, a finite union since A is compact. By case 2 and the
commutative diagram
j.
H,,(X,X—A’)-:1: FA’ 3s*|A’

J};
H,,(X,X—A) a FA 33

we see that s is in the image of jA. Thus j,, is onto.

Given or E Hq(X, X A), where q 2 n. Ifq n, assume jA(oz) 0. We
— = =

want a = 0. Letz be a relative cycle representing a. Then X I dz] is an —

open V D A. Leta’ be the homology class ofz in Hq(X, X V). Ifq n, — =

since jj./(oz ’) =jj;‘(a) 0 for allx E A, (22.4) tells us there is an open V’.
=

A C V’ C V, such that j;/(oz ’) 0 for allx E V’. ConstructA’ as above so

=

thatA C A’ C V’ H U. Then
.1./I4/'(<1') = 0

by case 2, so (1 =jj'(j,',/-(oz ’)) = 0

Step 3. A compact.
Then A is a finite union of compact sets A ,, .A,,, each of which is. .

Contained in a coordinate neighborhood evenly covered by p. Use induction

0n m and steps 1 and 2.

Step 4. A C U, U open with compact closure U. Then the theorem is true

for U and A.
We use the exact homology sequence (14.6) for the triple
(X,UU(X—U),(U—A)U(X—U)).
Note that by excision,
Hq(U,U-A)-*Hq(UU(X-U),(U—A)U(X-U))
170 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Forq > n, we get

Hq+,(X,UU(X—U))—’Hq(U,U—A)—»Hq(X,(U—A)U (X— U))

The first and third modules are 0 by step 3 applied to the manifold X and
the compact subsets U U andA U (U U ), hence the middle term is 0.
- —

For q =
n we have the commutative diagram

0->H,,(U,U—A)-H,,(X,(U—A)U(X—(7))-+H,,(X, U U (X— (7))

JA
0—>I‘cA —’1 I‘(AU(U—U)) —’» r(U—U)
where the monomorphism i is defined as follows:
Let s € FCA be zero outside a compact K C A. Then

z'(s)| A =
s

i (s) = 0 outside K

(we identify U° with p"(U)). From this diagram we see that j,, is an
isomorphism.

Step 5. General case.

Given s E FCA zero outside compactK C A. There is an open U D K such
that U is compact (cover K with finitely many coordinate neighborhoods).
Consider A’ A 0 U, s’
=
s|A’. By step 4, applied to j,,:, and the
=

commutative diagram

Hn(Us U —A,) H
Hrz(XsX —
Orientation of Manifolds 171

(22.32) Remark. Orientability is a property which is not invariant under

homotopy equivalence: For example, the open Mobius band is homo-
topically equivalent to a circle (28.17).
(22.33) Exercise. Let f:X Y be an m—fo1d covering space, whereX and
—~

Y are n—dimensional compact connected oriented manifolds. Let R Z. For =

any x E X, choose a neighborhood U which is mapped homeomorphically

onto a neighborhood V of y f (x) by f Then f induces an isomorphism
=

H,.(X,X—x) “'
Hn(Us U‘x)‘* H,,(V, V—y)r Hn(Y> Y—y)
f is said to be 0rientatz'0n—preserving if for each x, this isomorphism takes the
local orientation at x onto the local orientation at y.
Let (X, Q’ Y be the fundamental homology classes for the orientations. Then
H,,( f)( 4’ X) is a multiple of 4’ Y; this multiple is called the degree of f. Then f
is orientation—preserving if and only if its degree is positive; in that case,
degree (f) m. Use the diagram
=

Hn(X,X—f"(y))§ (‘B Hn(X,X—X)"Hn(Y,Y*y)

x€f“‘(y)
H,.(X) ————> H,.(Y)
Hn(f)
(22.34) Note. In this section, we have had a glimpse of some techniques of
sheaf theory. For a more extended view, see Swan [56].

(22.35) Note. Another approach to orientabilityof a manifoldX is through

the action of its loop space on the “topological tangent bundle” ofX. See E.
F adell [24].

(22.36) Exercise. Prove that every connected manifoldXis homogeneous,

i.e., given x, x’ E X, there is a homeomorphism (/5 of X onto itself such that
<Z5(x) x’. (Hint: First do the case X E ”, and show that qb can be chosen to
= =

be the identity on a thinshell 1 e S I y| <1. Then do the case wherex and

—

X’ both lie in a coordinate neighborhood U (take (15 to be the identity outside

U). In the general case, join x to x’ by a path, cover the path with finitely
many coordinate neighborhoods, and use the previous case to go fromx to x’
in finitely many steps.)

(22.37) Exercise. Given n—dimensional connected manifolds X, Y, 11 Z 2.

Choose points x € X, y E Y. Let c (resp. d) be a closed n—cell centered atx
(resp. y ) and contained in a coordinate neighborhood U of x (resp. Vof y );
172 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

let c 21 be the interiors ofc, d, and lets, t be their respective frontiers (so thats
and t are homeomorphs of S "-1). In the disjoint union X —
e ii Y [1, —

identify s and I by means of a specific homeomorphism h. Show that the

resulting space is a connected n—dimensional manifold X + Y. To show that
the addition just defined depends only on X and Y, up to homeomorphism, is
a very difficult problem, related to the Annulus Conjecture [36]. This has
recently been proved in dimensions ré 4 by Kirby and Siebenmann(see Bull.
Amer. Math. Soc. (1969), 742-749 and Annals of Math. 89 (1970),
575-582).
(22.38) Exercise. Show that the addition just defined on the homeo-
morphism classes of connected n—dimensional manifolds is commutative,
associative, and has as identity element the class of S ”. Thus these classes
form a monoid, and the classes of compact manifolds form a submonoid. In
the case n = 2 this submonoid is generated by the classes of T, and U,
subject to the single relation T, + U, Ug [e.g., Tg T, + T, +
= = + T,. . .

(g times), U, U,+ + U, (h times)].

=
. . .

For some partial generaliztions of this result to higher dimensions, see

Sma1e[51a] and Wall [58a, 73].
(22.39) Exercise. Prove Z/nZ orientabilityfor some integer n 9* 2 (or 1)
implies Z—orientability.
(22.40) Exercise. Define an equivalence relation on orthonormal frames
in R” by declaring two frames equivalent if the matrix expressing one in
terms of the other has determinant +1. Use (15.4) to set up an explicit
correspondence between generators of H,,(R", R” {O}) and equivalence
—

classes of frames.

(22.41) Let M"" C R” be embedded such that each x E M has a closed

neighborhood U in R" such that (U, U F) M) and (E”, E”") are
homeomorphic pairs. This is called a locally flat embedding. Prove that an
orientation of M is equivalent to assigning a continuous normal direction v:M
- S ”“. Show if 1/ is a local homeomorphism and M is closed, then u induces
an isomorphism H(z/):H,,_,(M; Z‘) H,,a,(S""; Z).
->

(22.42) Exercise. An embeddingM”“‘ C N” is 2—sided ifM separates a

neighborhood U of M in N into 2 components (it is not required that N M -

be separated). Otherwise, for connected M, the embedding is 1-sided.

Construct 3-manifolds by identifying opposite faces of a cube to exhibit 1'
sided embeddings of a torus or 2—sided embedding of a Klein bottle. A space
formed by identifying opposite faces of a cube is a 3—manifold if and only if its
Euler characteristic is 0 (proof in Seifert and Threllfall §60).
Orientation of Manifolds 173

(22.43) Exercise. If M"_‘ C N" is a locally flat submanifold of an

orientable N, then M is orientable if and only if the embedding is 2—sided.

(22.44) Exercise. Show by example that a manifold which bounds need

not be orientable. Suggestion: What is the boundary of the Mobius band
X I C’

(22.45) Exercise. LetM be a closed n—manifold. If S "*1 is the boundary of

a coordinate disc U, prove M is orientable if and only if the inclusion S
'7"
-*

M int U induces 0 in homology.

—

(22.46) Exercise. Let M ” be an orientable closed manifold covered by

coordinate discs {U,| 1 S i S k} such that for each i, U, U, is
—

homeomorphic to S”", and suppose given {ail a, E H,,(M, M U,~)} —

forming an R—orientation. Use relative Mayer—Vietoris sequences to con-

struct a generator { E H,,(M ) mapping to or, for all 1'.

(22.47) Exercise. Prove the connected sum (22.37) of closed orientable

manifolds M, N is orientable. Given orientations of M and N and an
orientation reversing homeomorphism used in the construction of M + N,
prove that the connected sum has an orientation compatible with the
orientation of M, N.

(22.48) Exercise. Let /1 be a homeomorphism of a torus andA H 1 (H ) a

=

2 X 2 matrix of integers. Prove h is orientation preserving if and only if detA

=
+1.

(22.49) Exercise. Prove a manifold with a compatible topological group

structure is orientable.

(22.50) Exercise. Define a closed orientable n—manifold to be spherical if

there exists f: S” M such thatH (f)§5 k§M for some k # 0. Prove that
-* =

ifM is spherical, then rr1(M ) is finite, provided 11 > 1.

 23. Singular Cohomology

The cohomology modules of a topological space were not recognized until

quite late in the development of algebraic topology (1930), when Lefschetz
formulated a simplified treatment of the duality theorems for manifolds.
Cohomology is dual to homology in two senses: (1) There is a bilinearpairing
of chains and cochains; (2) H q is a contrafunctor, i.e., a mapX Y induces —'

a homomorphism H"(Y) H‘’(X) in the opposite direction.

-’

Definition. The module S"(X) of all singular cochairzs on X is

HomR(Sq(X),R) S q(X)*. Thus a singular cochain of dimension q is an R-
=

linear homomorphism c:Sq(X) R. If we denote the value of this homo-

-+

morphism on a chain z by [z, c], we then have the identities

[z,+z2,c]= [z,,c]+[z2,c],
[2, c1+ C2] =
|z, c,] + [2, C2],
[1/z, c] =
v[z, c] =
lz, vcl, v E R

so that[ ]is abilinearpairing.

,

Note: A q—cochain is uniquely determined by its values on the singular q-

simplexes, and those values can be assigned arbitrarily. Thus S "(X) is
isomorphic to the direct product of as many copies of R as there are singular
q—simplexes in X.
(23.0) Remark. Let S(X) be the singular complex for R Z. Then =

R 69 S(X) is canonically isomorphic (1 6-) 0 0) to the free R—module 011

-e

Marvin J. Greenbergand John R. Harper. AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3-35 58—7(H)
ISBN 0-805 3—3557-9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., Advanced Book Program. All rigllls
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any {Om
0k:by any means. electronic. mechanical, photocopying.recording, orothcrwise, withoutthe prior permission Of
1 e publisher.

174
Singular Cohomology 175

singular simplices (E9 is over Z), and HomR(R €BS(X), R) E HomZ(S(X),R)

by a canonical isomorphism.
(23.1) Example. Take the special case where R is the field R of real
numbers and X is Euclidean 3—space. A 0—cochain, since it is uniquely
determined by its effect on the singular 0—simplexes, is given by an artibrary
function ¢>:X R; call it c°(q5).
-+

For q =
I, suppose we are given a vector field 1/ on X. We assign a 1-
cochain c‘(z2) to 2/ as follows: Let 0' be a singular l—simplex. If 0 is
differentiable, define

io,c‘<v>J=fn‘(z»>
where the right side is the line integral over the path 0 of the differential 1-
form 0 ‘(z2) z/,dx + zzzdy + 1/3dz associated to 2/ (12 1, 1/2, v3); otherwise
= =

define the left side to be zero.

For q =
2, associate to 2/ the differential 2—form
Q2(v)= 2/, dy dz +2/2 dz dx+ I/3 dx dy
Define a 2—cochain c2(z/) on differentiable singular 2—simplexes 0 by

[<T,C2(I/)1 =fQ2(I/)
where the right side is the surface integral of the normal component of v.
For q 3, start with a continuous function ¢ and associate the differential
=

3.—formQ.3(q>) gb dx dy dz. Define a 3—cochain c3(q>) on differentiable

=

singular 3—simplexes (T by

to, c3(<z>)] =[n3<¢>>

Where the right side is the mass integral of the density Q5 over the region.

(23-2) Remark. Since Wq is a functor from topological spaces to R-

modules and Homk ( ,R ) is a contrafunctor on the category of R-modules,
the Composed functor S " is a contrafunctor from topological spaces to R-
m0dules. More explicitly, if f ;X Y is any map, then S "(f ):S‘1(Y)
-> -'

Sq(X) is defined by the formula

176 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

[2, S"(f)C] =
lSq(.f)Z9 6']
for any q—chain z, q—cochain c. In casez is a singular q—simplex 0, the formula
becomes

[0, S”(f)C] =
[f° 0, C]
In other words, S"(f) is the transpose S,,(f) of Sq(f).
’

(23.3) Proposition. There is a unique homomorphism 8:S"(X) —>

S"+‘(X) satisfying
[62, c] =
[2, 8c]
for all (q + 1)—chains z and q—cochains c. Iff :X —’ Y is any map, then

3S"(f) S"+'(f)3
=

Moreover,
88 = 0

Proof: Set 8 = ‘6. I

We call 8 the coboundary operator.

(23.l)(continued). In our classical example, we can interpret the

coboundary as follows: Assume ¢> is a differentiable function on 3—space, and
2/ a differentiable Vector field. If oq is a differentiable singular simplex of
dimension q, we have by definition

(1) [01, 3C°(¢)] =

<Z>(01(Ex)) ‘

¢>(01(Eo))

<2) [a2,6c‘<v>1= law)

(3) [a3,6c2<v>1=£n2<v>
<4) 1o4,8c3<¢>>1= LQ3(<z>)

On the other hand, we can associate to the function gb its gradient veCt0’
field Vqb (so that Q ‘(V¢>) d¢>); then=
Singular Cohomology 177

/:flQl(V¢) 2:
¢(°'1(E1))_ ¢(0'1(E0))

Hence

3c°(¢) =
c‘(V<z>)
So on these cochains, 6 corresponds to taking the gradient.
We can associate to the vector field 2/ its curl V X 1/ (so that Q2(\7 X 2/)
= dQ1(v)). By Stokes’ Theorem,

[Q2(VXv)=L7Q‘(v)
Hence

8c‘(z/) c2(V = X 12)

So on these 1—cochains, 8 corresponds to taking the curl.
We can also assign to 22 its divergence V v, which is a differentiable
-

function satisfying Q3(V 1/) dQ2(z/). By Gauss’ Theorem

' =

[3 n3(v '1/)=j:73.Q2(z/)
Hence

302(12): c3(V z/) '

and on these cochains, 8 corresponds to taking the divergence.

In all cases, if we stick to the language of differential forms, 8 corresponds
to taking the exterior derivative d. Since d0 3 0 for any 3~fom1 on 3—space,
=

We see from (4) that 8c3(<z>) = 0 (General Stokes’ Theorem).

(For more details, see Spivak [53].)
We define the modules of cocycles and coboundaries by

Z"(X) = Kernel 8:S"(X) -*

S"+‘(X)
B"(X) =
Image 8:S"“(X) -
S‘7(X)
and the cohomology module H"(X; R ) by
H"(X) =
Z4(X)/B"(X)
178 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Iff;X Y is any map, then by (23.3), S"(f) respects cocycles and

-*

coboundaries, hence induces by passage to the quotient a homomorphism

H"(f)IH"(Y) ‘*
H"(X)
This makes H" into a contrafunctor (H‘7(gf) H”(f)H"( g =
)), so that the
cohomology modules are topological invariants.
(23.1) (continued). For X Euclidean 3—space, we have described certain
=

cohomology classes by differential forms. The cocycles correspond to closed

forms (ones whose exterior derivative is zero), while the coboundaries are the
exact forms (forms of type dw). But for (1 positive it is classical that a q—form
(on R3!) is closed if and only if it is exact (e.g., curl 12 0 iffzz grad (1) for
= =

some (15, div z/ = 0 iff 1/ curl u for some u). This corresponds to the fact that
=

H"(R3) =0 for q positive.

(23.4) Note. One can define exterior differentiation of differential forms on

any differentiable manifold X. Taking the closed q—forms modulo the exact
ones apparently gives another kind of q cohomology vector space for X. It
”‘

is a fundamental theorem of de Rham that when X is paracompact, this

vector space is canonically isomorphic to H “(X; R) (see [17, 68]).

(23.5) Example: LetX be an open set in the complex plane C, ¢:X C a ~

function which is holomorphic (analytic) in X. For every singular 1—simplex

01 in X, define the value of a l—cochain c‘(¢v) on 0, by

i0lsc1(¢)i:f "1
qbdz

This l—cochain is actually a 1—cocycle, for by Cauchy’s Theorem

[02, 6c‘(a>)1 =
<23 dz = 0
832

singular 2—simplex 02 in X. Considerations such as these generalize

for every
to anycomplex analytic manifold, and the analogue of de Rham’s Theorem,
due toDolbeault, can be proved (Dolbeault [18]).
Suppose we start with a pair (X, A). We define
S“’(X, A)
HomR(Sq(X)/Sq(A),R )
=

and define the coboundary 8:S"'(X, A) 34+‘ (X, A) to be the transpose of

-4
Singular Cohomology 179

the boundary operator 6:Sq+1(X)/Sq+,(A) -+ S q(X)/Sq(A). Then we define

H”(X, A) = Kernel 8 on S“’(X, A)/Image 8 on S""’(X, A)

We can interpret this more explicitly as follows: We have an exact
sequence of chain complexes

0 ~
Sq(A) 1» S,,(X) 3 Sq(X)/Sq(A) ~ 0

Applying the functor HomR ( R) gives ,

another sequence

I II‘
0 ~
S‘‘?(X,A) 1’ S‘?(X) ~
S‘?(A) ~ 0

(23.6) Lemma. This sequence is exact.

Proof. First show that‘i is onto. Let S q(X A) be the submodule of S q(X)
,

generated by all the singular simplexes whose support is not contained in A.

Then

Sq(X) =
Sq(A) EB Sq(X, A).
Hence any linear functional on S q(A) can be extended to S ,,(X) by setting it
equal to zero on S q(X A). The remaining steps do not depend on special
,

properties of S(X) but follow formally. An f :Sq(X) R such that fl 0 -+ =

extends to a well—defined J-”:Sq(X, A) R such that fp f. hence Ker’ 1' C

-> =

im ‘p. The other steps are left for the reader. I

In particular, ‘p maps S"’(X, A) isomorphically onto the annihiliator

S"(X, A) of Sq(A), a submodule of Sq(X); if we identify S4 (X, A) with
S “(X A) in this way, the coboundary becomes the restriction of the previous
,

coboundary operator on S q (X). The relative cocycles Z “(X A) are then all ,

cochains which annihilate Sq(A) and 134 (X), i.e., Z 4 (X, A) is the armihilator
of Bq(X, A). Clearly the realtive coboundaries B7(X, A) are contained in the
annihilator of Zq(X, A), but the reverse inclusion is not generally valid. In
any case, we do get a canonical homomorphism

(23.7) oz:H"(X,A) -
Hq(X,A)*.
Put another way, we have a bilinearpairing (called the Kroneckerproduct)

(23.8) Hq(X,A)><H"(X,A)-*R
given by the formula
180 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

[2, E] =
[2, C]-
(23.9) Proposition. If R is a principal ideal domain (PID) then oz is an
epimorphism.
R = Z and R =
a field are the main examples of PID’s we have in mind.
Proof. We have Hq(X, A) Zq(X, A)/Bq(X, A), where Z, p (Zq),
= =

Bq p (B4) are submodules of the free module S q(X)/Sq(A). Since R is a

_

PID, Bq is a free module for all q (Lang [35], p. 387). Hence the exact
sequence

(23.10) 0 ~
Zq(X,A) L Sq(X)/Sq(A) Q Bq_-,(X,A) ~ 0

splits (there is a_ homomorphism h such that 6h identity, so that =

S q(X)/S q(A) hBq,1 69=

Zq).
By the same argument as in the lemma above,
the dual sequence obtained by applying the functor HomR ( R) is also exact. ,

Thus we have a diagram

0 -+
Z"(X,A) —>
Sq(X,A)
1 1 t,-

O -
Hq(X, A)* —>
Zq(X, A)*
1 1

O O

with exact rows and columns, and from this the suijectivity of a follows. I

(23.1 1) We see thatthe kernal of a is the quotient module A"(X,A)/B‘? (X,A),

where A” (X, A) is the annihilator of Zq(X, A). Let us denote this kernel
by E “(X A). Any map f :(X, A) (Y, B ) induces a commutative diagram
,
-+

0 -+
Eq(X, A) —*
H"(X, A) -*
Hq(X, A)*
I TH"(f) 1‘H‘,(/>
0 -+
E"(Y,B ) -
H"(Y,B)-+ Hq(Y, B )*
so that if E"(f) denotes the restriction of H"(f) to E"(Y, B ), we see that
E 4 becomes a contrafunctor.

(23.12) We now define the connecting homomorphism

Singular Cohomology 181

8:H"(A) ~
Hq“(X, A).
Consider the exact commutative diagram

ti
0 -+
S"(X,A) -*
S"(X) —*S"(A) -+ 0

18 16 16

O -+
S"+‘(X,A) S“+'(X) —+ —>
Sq“(A) -* 0.

Let c becochain on X such that ’i(c) is a cocycle on A, representing a

a
cohomology class c. Since ’i(8c) 0, 8c is a relative (q +1)—c0cycle
=

representing a cohomology class 8c E H ‘’“(X A). This class is easily seen ,

to be independent of the choice of c, so we define

8?: = 87.
(23.13) Theorem. The singular cohomology modules have thefollowing
properties:
(1) Contrafunctoriality.
(2) Commutative diagrams

H‘7(A) is H‘1+‘(X,A)
H"(f)T TH"“(f)
H<I(B)—6» H‘1“(Y,B).
(3) Exact cohomology sequence

0-+H°(X,A) ~ - - -
->H"(X)->Hq(A) -8» H‘1“(X,A)-" ~
'-

(4) Homotopy invariant

f=g=> H"(f)=H"(g)-
(5) Excision
U C A’ => H‘1(X, A) ~
H"(X —

U, A —

U) an isomorphism.
(6) For a single point P
182 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

R q=0,
H"(P)%
0 q>O.
Proof. (l)—(3) are exercises. (4) follows since homotopic maps induce
chain homotopic maps of the singular complex (11.4), (13.13), hence chain
homotopic maps of the co—chain complex (change in indices reversed) which
induce the same map in cohomology. (5) follows by the same argument using
(15.23) to obtain the chain homotopy equivalence of S(X U, A U) C — —

S(X, A). Alternatively, consider the diagram.

0 ~
E”(X, A) ~
H‘1(X, A) 4
H,,(X, A)* 4 0

E"(f)=E"(g)T T T’H.,(f)=’Hq(g)
0 4
E‘7(Y, B) 4
H"(Y, B) a
Hq(Y,B)* -» 0.

(5) follows from the excision theorem in homology theory (15.1), (23.15),
the above commutative diagam with (X, A) in place of (Y, B) and
(X U, A U) in place of (X, A) and the five lemma (19.15). (6) follows
— —

from the homology of a point, the fact that E "(P) O for all q (23.12), and
=

the canonical isomorphism R* % R. I

(23.l3.1) Note. Properties (l)—(6) are the axioms of Eilenberg—Steenrod

for a cohomology theory. They proved that for triangulable pairs of spaces,
there is a unique cohomology theory up to isomorphism. This does not hold
for arbitrary spaces (topologist’s sine curve). One can use this axiomatic
characterizationto prove the de Rham Theorem (23.4) (see Schwartz [48]).

(23.14) Remark. From the basic properties, many others can be deduced.
We list some below and leave the verification as an exercise.
(7) Define augmented cohomology modules for X nonempty by
H°#(X) = Cokernel H°(P) -+
H°(X)
where X -* P is the constant map on a point P. For A nonempty, set

H°#(X, A) =
H°(X,A).
Then the augmented cohomology sequence is exact.
(8) Exact cohomology sequence for a triple (X ’, X, A)
-4
H"(X’,X) —»
H‘?(X',A) 4
H"(X,A) 4
Singular Cohomology 183

(9) Mayer-Vietoris exact sequence for an exact triad

-->
H"(X1 U X2) ->
H"(X,) EBH"(X2) —’
H"(X, 0 X2) —~> ---.

(10) Relative Mayer-Vietoris Sequence.

(11) X contractible implies H "#(X) 0 for all q. =

(23.15) Exercise. If (Xk) is the family of path components of X, there is a

canonical isomorphism for all q

Hq<X) ~
HHq(Xk)
k

(direct product, not direct sum). If X is nonempty path—connected,

H °(X) =
R,
H°(X, A) = 0 (A nonempty).
(Note: These statements do not follow from basic properties (1)—(6), since
they are false for Cech—Alexander cohomology.)
(23.16) By the same arguments used in homology theory,
6:H"#(S”") H"+'(E", S”") isomorphism,
-*

R q =
n,
Hq#(Sr1) §

0 otherwise.

(23.17) Remark. The cohomology analogues of formulas (19.l6—19.l8)

can beproved by the same arguments. Thus if Z is obtained from Y by
attaching an n—cell via f:S”’1 Y, we have -*

(1) H"(Z) -'

Hq(Y) an isomorphism forq # n, q ¢ n —

1,
(2) H”"(Z) E Kernel H”“(f),

(3) an exact sequence

0 —»
CokernelH”“(f) ~
H”(Z ) —~
H"(Y) ~ 0.

We return to the map in (23.11)

184 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

a:H"(X, A) -*
H,,(X, A)*.
Example.The projective plane is obtained by attaching a 2—ce1l to S ‘ by a
mapfiS‘ S‘ of degree 2. Using (23.17) we have H2(P2; Z) % Z/2Z_
~*

Since H2(P2; Z) 0 we have H2(P2; Z)* O and Ker a 75 0.

= =

Our approach to this problem is based on the method of derivedfunctors.

The idea is to study the effect of HomR( ; N ) on short exact sequences of R-
modules

O->A’—>A—~A"—~0

where N is a fixed R—module. We follow the treatment in Cartan—Eilenberg

[77] but limit the discussion to elementary considerations.
(23.18) Definition. A resolution of an R—module M is a chain complex
{Cq, dq} and an epimorphism e:C0 —>M such that im dq ker Br, and im 60
=

= ker Recall that our

5. definition of chain complex required each Cq to be
a free R—module.

Examples. If R is a field (M a vector space) we can take C0 M and C, =

= 0 for all q 2 1. If R is the integers Z(M is an abelian group) there is a free

abelian group F and an epimorphism s:F M with ker 5 a free abelian
—>

group. Then a resolution (or presentation) of M is given by C0 F, C1 = =

ker s, Cq 0, q 2 2. The situation is similar forR a p.i.d., since in this case

=

submodules of free R—modules are free [35].

There is nothing unique about resolutions but they behave pleasantly with
respect to maps.

(23.19) Proposition. Let C, C’ be resolutions ofM, M’. Given f: M -*

M’, there is a chain map {£4}, )2 : Cg C}, such that s'f0 =f£
—>

fo
C0.-——~ C’
8

M
18'
M’

and any two such chain maps are chain homotopic.

Proof We construct f; by induction on q. Since 5’ is epic, imfs C im 8',
Singular Cohomology 185

hence fo exists because C0 is free. Given a chain map up to fq_,:Cq_1 —>

5-1, we have c3,',_, fq_,6q =f,,_26q_1(9q 0. Hence imj;,,6q C ker6(’,_,

= =

m d;,. l'henj¢,:Cq C,', such that6% =jf1_,6q exists since Cq is free. Given
-*

two chain maps f,g:C C’, we construct a chain homotopy by induction on

->

q. For q O,
=
£'(jB go) 0. Since im 6; ker e’ and C0 is free, D0:C0
— = =

—~
Ci exists such that 6’, D0 =f0 go. For the inductive step we have
-

I,/Drrlaq (fa-1 _gtI D4464-1)at1 ar,z(f;z g4)’ HenCeaiz(/1‘: _g</

=
-1
_
: _ .

Dq_16q) 0. Since ker 6;, im c3f,+1 and Cq is free, we have Dq:Cq

= =
3+1 —*

such that dj,t1Dq + Drldq =12 —gq. I

Remark. The hypothesis on C can be weakened to 6q_16q O, i.e., C is a =

complex, and we never used freeness of Cf]. In this form (23.19) is one of the
fundamental lemmas of homological algebra.

(23.20) Proposition. Any two resolutions of M are chain homotopy

equivalent.
Proof.Let C, C’ be resolutions ofM and f: C —’
C’,g:C’ C be chain
->

maps covering id:M M. Then gf, id:C

-‘ C —*
are chain homotopic and
similarly for fg. I

We can define derived functors of HomR( N). We write

now ,

HomR( ,N ) H =
( ) for the moment, to simplify notation. Let C be a
resolution ofM. Form the co—chain complex C* {H(Cq ), (3,’,";., :H(Cq)
= -*

H (CqJ_l)}. Then the derived functors are the homologies of C*. More
precisely
(23.21) Definition. The q—th derivedfunctor Ext§( , N) of HomR( N) ,

is given by

Ext7\»(M, N) =
ker{a(;l‘+l:H(Cq) H (Cq+1)l
T’

im{a;;<:H(C,,-,) H(C,,)}
'

As things stand, we have a function depending on the choice of resolutions

and we have not checked functoriality. We list the steps, leaving their
verification for an exercise. Note Ext‘;§(M, N) is an R—module.

Step 1. A chain map f:C -' C’ of resolutions of M, M’ induces a well-

defined homomorphism (note the variance)

Ext§(M’, N) ~
Ext‘,$(M, N).
Step 2. Chain homotopic maps in step 1 induce the same map.
l86 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Step 3. Up to canonical isomorphism, Ext?;(M, N) is independent of

resolutions.
Step 4. f: M M’ induces well—defined homomorphisms
—>

Est‘1g(M, N)
f":Ext‘}7z(M', N) —>

such that ( gf)“ =f”g‘7 and (id)" id. Thus Ext"R( ,N) is a
=

contra—functo;.
a
(2322) Remark. Application of H( ) to C, -5 CO 3 M 0 produces a

0 H(M) 51: H(C0) 6-: H(C,) which is exact, i.e., 5* is monic and ker
—*

6?‘ im 5*. The verification is routine.

=

Hence ker 6}‘ can be identified with HomR(M, N) and we use the Ext
notation only for q 2 1. For the case of abelian groups, we obtain Ext‘? 0 =

for q 2 2 since there are resolutions with C q O for q 2 2. The usual

=

notation then is Ext (M, N) deleting q and Z. The Ext notation arises
because Ext (M, N) also classifies short exact sequences (extensions) of
abelian groups

O->N-+E~+M—*0.

See MacLane [38].

(23.23) Exercise. The biadditivity of HomR( ) implies Ext§( ) is

, ,

biadditive. For abelian groups G, Ext (Z, G )= 0, Ext (Z/nZ, G ) -2 G/nG. If

G is finitely generated thenExt (G, Q ) 0. Ext (Q, Z ) is uncountable.
=

To study the effect of HomR( N ) on short exact sequences, we mimic the

,

construction of connecting homomorphisms in the topological case. An

important feature is the presence of a short exact sequence of singular
complexes for the pair (X, A)

0 —>
S(A) —*
S(X) —>
S(X, A) -> 0.

In our algebraic context we use the construction of a “direct sum” of

resolutions to achieve the same set-up.

(23.24) Construction. Given a short exact sequence of R—modules

O - A’ -3 A 1» A” 0 and resolutions C’, C” of A’, A” set Cq
—~
C}, 39 =

_C,,”. The projection e:C0 A has the form e(x,y )= is’(X) +]'( y ) for some
--

JIC5’ A such that iffi s",

—~ =
Singular Cohomology 187

Amp. 0

Note a (nonunique) ]'

exists since C Q,’ is free and j is epic. The boundary
operator 6q:Cq Cq_1 had the form c9q(x, y ) (dflx + e, 6,’]’y ) for some
—> =
,

eq:C,',' C,',-,. In particular, since we require 56, O, we must have is’e1 +

-+ =

]'6i' 0. This equation can be solved for a (nonunique) e, because imjd, C

=

im is’, by exactness at A, s’ is eipic and C '1’ is free. Translating the

requirement 6q_,c9q 0 yields 0 6,}-,eq + eq_,6,’,’ which can be solved
= =

inductively for eq. The verification that s is epic and im a, ker 6,1,1 is an =

exercise the reader should perform. We call {Cq, aq}

a normal extension of C’
and C" and refer to U, eq} as the data of the normal extension.

(23.25) Lemma. The inclusion C’ -*

C, x ->
(x, 0) andprojection (x,y )
—*
y are chain maps and

O—~C;,—>C0-+C{,’—*0
8'1 at ls"
0—~A’—i+A 1¥A"—»0
commutes. Thus 0 -> C’ -* C -> C” —* 0 is a short exact sequence of
resolutions.

Proof. Immediate from the definitions. I

Note, as in the topological case, C is not necessarily split as a chain

Complex, but is split as R—modules.
(23.26) Lemma. ApplicationofHomR( , N) to a normalextensionyields
a short exact sequence

0 ~
(C")* —» C* —»
(c')* ~ 0.

Proof. The only nonformal part is the epimorphism on the right, which
follows from the R—splitting C -+ C’. I
188 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

(23.27) Proposition. Let 0 A’ LA LA" 0 be a short exact sequence.

-> —>

There is a natural homomorphism 8:Ext7;(A’, N) Ext‘};+‘(A”, N) and a

-*

natural long exact sequence

0 —>
HomR(A", N) —'
HomR(A, N) —*

§>Ext7;(A”,N)—*Exti;(A,N) —*
Ext';§(A', N) g Ext§+'(A”,N)-*.
Naturality refers to maps of short exact sequences.
Proof. By (23.20) normal extensions may be used to compute
Ext‘,’{(A, N). The connecting homomorphism is constructed as in the
topological case and the proof of exactness of the long exact sequence
follows the topological arguments. The noncanonical construction of normal
extensions introduces a complication for naturality not present in the
topological case.
Sub lemma. Let

0~AiAiA”~0
(1/1 oz‘ o/'1
O—~B’—~B—>B"—~0

be a commutative diagram with exact rows. Let

0—*C’-*C—~C”—>O

with data {J73 eq} and

O—>D'—>D—>D"-+0

with data {I}, 1;} be normal extensions over the rows. Given chain maps
F’:C' D ', F”:C” D over at’, at", there is a chain map F:C D over
—> —+
”
—~

01 such that

0~o~c~c~~o

Fll
Singular Cohomology 189

commutes. Furthermore any two such triples ( F’, F, F”),(G ', G, G”) are
chain homotopic via a chain homotopy F 1 G compatible with given chain
homotopies F’ 2 G, F” 3 G.
Proofof Sublemma. The requiredF has the form
F(x,y)= (F7 +>\qy,Fq"y)
for some }\,,:C 2,’ —*
Dfz. The condition thatF be a chain map translates to
i’s’>\0 + I_cF()’ =
ct}
and

04%,, +fqF;' F[,_,e,, + >\q_,6j,’

=

and these are solved inductively for {A4}. The part concerning chain homo-
topies is proved similarly. I

Naturality of (23.27) follows by diagram chasing. I

We apply the theory to the problem of ker oz. Until further notice, we
restrict ourselves to abelian groups (R Z). =

(23.28) Universal Coefficient Theorem. There is a natural short exact

sequence

0 *
Ext(H,,—1(X,A; Z), G) "
H”(X,A; G) gH0m(Hn(X9 A; Z), G) " 0

which splits (the splitting is not necessarilynatural).

Write S,,
Proof. S,,(X_,,,_ H" Hn(X, A; Z), B,,,
= = Z,, for boundaries and
cycles. We have natural short exact sequences

0—>B,,—~Z,,—>H,,—>0,
0-Z,,—+S,,—->B,,_1—>0,

and the second splits (not necessarilynaturally). Form the diagram

190 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

H0m(Sn+;, G)
t a;.F+i I’,
/
/

0 —*
Hom(H,,, G) ->
Hom(Z,,, G) ,-’>/ Hom(B,,,G)—> Ext(H,,,G) —> O
/
1
Singular Cohomology 191

with the desired exact sequence along the bottom. Naturality is a con-
sequence (23.27) and the naturality of the constructions in the proof. In
of
particular, the epimorphism from F 0 is natural and does not require splitting
for its construction. Splitting occurs because a splitting B,,_, S,, splits the —*

left column giving a map Hom(H,,, G) F ,. Composing with the projection

-+

F1 —> H ” splits the universal coefficient sequence. I

Remark. IfR is a p.i.d., (23.28) extends to express H"(X, A; N) in terms

ofH*(X, A; R ) and HomR( N), ExtR( N), where N is an R—module. For
, ,

more general R an exact sequence is replaced by a more elaborate algebraic

device~spectral sequence.
(23.29) Remark. We can compute the cohomology of familiar spaces
using (23.28) provided we assume R is a PID. Thus for the r—leaved rose G,,

R q =
0,
H4<G,)%H.,(G.)*% R’ q=1.
0 q > 1.

For the g—fold torus 7;”,

R q = 0 and q =
2,
Hq(Tg) g Hq(Tg)* 2 R23 q =
1,
0 q > 2.

For complex projective space

R q even and S n,
Hq(CP ”) %

0 otherwise.

Next consider the nonorientable compact surfaces U ,,. Let p be the charac-
teristic of the domain R. There are two cases:

Case 1. p = 2. Then 2R =
O, R 2 =
R, all the homology modules are free,
and we get

R q = O and q =
2,
H‘I<U.>%H.,<U,.)*e R” q=1,
0 q > 2.
192 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Case 2. p ¢ 2. Then using (23.28) gives

R q=O,
RIz—1 q:1,
Hq<U,.>%
R/2 q=2,
0 q>2.
Similarly, for real projective space, if R has characteristic 2,

R qSn,
H"(P")%
0 q>n.
(23.30) Exercise. Map P2 S 2 by pinching the bottom cell to a point.
—>

Compute the induced map on integral and mod 2 cohomology. Use the
results to show the splitting in (23.28) is not natural.

(23.31) Exercise. Adapt the proof of (23.28) to show Hq(X; F) and

H "(X; F ) are dual vector spaces, where F is a field.

(23.32) Exercise. IfX is a spherical complex withH q(X; F ) 0 for all q =

> 0 where F Q forF Z/pl, asp runs over all primes, then Hq(X; Z) O.
= = =

Suggestion: Recall (19.20).

(23.33) Exercise. If f :X —+
Y, a map of spherical complexes, induces an
isomorphism H(f):H,,(X;F) Hq(Y; F) for all q > 0 and F as in (23.32),
->

then f induces an isomorphism of integral homology and cohomology.

Suggestion: Consider Cf, the mapping cone. An alternative argument uses
naturality (23.28).
in
The next series of exercises develops some properties of Bockstein
homomorphisms. Corresponding to the short exact sequence 0 Z —"* Z —* **

Z/nZ 0 we have short exact sequences of chain complexes

—+

0 ~
S(X) 14 S(X) —» Z/nZ ca S(X) « 0.

(23.34) Exercise. Obtain natural long exact sequences

—>Hq(X; 2) L’. Hq(X;Z ) —.
I-Iq(X;Z/nZ) E>Hq_,(X;Z) ~
Singular Cohomology 193

by the process of constructing connecting homomorphisms.

(23.35) Exercise. Generalize (23.34) to any short exact sequence of
abelian groups 0 A B C 0 and examine compatibilityof the maps
-* - —> -*

induced by commutative diagrams of short exact sequences.

(23.36) Exercise. Prove that the composition of Bocksteins associated

with 0 ~ Z/nZ 4‘ Z/nzl ~ Z/nZ ~ 0 is 0.

(23.37) Exercise. Prove B:H""(P"; Z/2Z) H”(P”:Z/2Z) is—>

an
isomorphism if n is even and the 0 map if n is odd. Prove
fi=H2(L(p. 4); Z/pl) H1(L(p, q):ZpZ) H

is an isomorphism where L(p, q) is the lens space (21.28).

(23.38) Exercise. Prove the covering projection S 2" P2” induces 0 in —+

homology or cohomology with any finitely generated abelian group for

coefiicients. Recall (16.13) this map is not null—homotopic.

The next series of exercises develops a special case of an important

theorem relating cohomology with homotopy classes of maps. We assume
spaces X are finite connected CW complexes with X
0
point and X 1 a =

bouquet of circles. The general theory of CW complexes shows that any

finite connected CW complex is homotopy equivalent to one of this form,
[66]. The set of homotopy classes of maps f :X Y is denoted [X Y].
-*
,

(23.39) Theorem. There is natural isomorphism <D:[X, S‘]

a —+

H‘(X; 7r1S1)givenby<I>(f)=H’(f)(z) where 1 E H’(S‘; 1r,S') corre-

sponds to the identity in the following sequence of isomorphisms from
(23.28), (12.1).
H‘(S ‘; 77151) E H0m(H:(S‘; Z ), W13’)
%Hom(1r,S',1r]S').
Step I. (1) factors

[X,-5"] le H‘(X; 7r,S 1)

‘I1 %

Hom(7r,X, ms‘) 3 Hom(H,(X;Z),1r,S‘)

Where ‘I’(f) =f*, the induced map of 17,.

194 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Step 2. Give [X, S1] the structure of an abelian group so that ‘I’ is a
homomorphism;
a) Let m:S1 X S‘ -> S1 be complex multiplication and c:S‘ S1 ->

conjugation. Then m*:1T1S X 1r1S’‘

7r1S is addition of homotopy
—>
1

classes, and c,,. is multiplication by -1. The latter fact uses m(l X c)A 0 =

where 0 maps e” -> eff’ (1, 0), and A is the diagonal.

=

b) Givenf,g:X -* S1 definef-1-g:X S1byf+g= m(fXg)A.

—+

Show + is well defined on homotopy classes, associative, commutative and

02X S1 x e’° is the unit. Show cf= —fin [X, S‘]. Show ‘I’ is a natural
—> -*

homomorphism with respect to this structure.

Step 3. To prove ‘I’ is monic, consider ‘I’( f) = 0 and use the lifting
theorem (6.1).

Step 4. To prove ‘I’ is epic, we use the hypothesis on X for the first time.
Using (4.12) show X 2 C X induces an isomorphism in Tr, by induction over
the skeleta. The cell decompositionX2 (S1 V. V S‘) U e2 U U e2
=
. . . . .

gives a presentation 1 —+R F

—~
17, —+
l, and we regardX2 as a mapping
-+

cone. Using facts from (21.17) obtain h:X2 S 1 such that h*

-+
<25 for a =

prescribed <13. To extend h over X, rr,-S

use
I
0 for
= i Z 2 and induction on the
cells.

(23.40) Exercise. Assume R is a PID and that Hq_, is finitely generated.

Let Tq_1 be the torsion submodule of H,_,. If Hg is also finitely generated
and Fq is the quotient module of H, by its torsion submodule, then
H" =
Fq C-B Tq_1 (non—canonica1ly)
 24. Cup and Cap Products

A key feature of cohomology which distinguishes it from homology is the

existence of a natural multiplication called cup product making the direct
sum of all the cohomology modules into a graded R—algebra. (Historically,
however, multiplication was first defined on the direct sum of the homology
groups of a manifold in terms of the intersection of cycles, but the definition is
more difficult. See Lefschetz [37], Chap. 4.) This cohomology ring then
operates on the direct sum of the homology modules by means of the cap
product; this product can then be used to exhibit the duality theorems on
manifolds.
Let

S'(X)= §0S"(X)
q_

We first define a cup product in S '(X). We require it to be bilinearand also

require thatc U d € S”+"(X)ifc E S"(X), d E S"(X). To define c (9 d, it
sufficies to specify [0, c (9 d] for any singular (p + q)—simplex (7. To do this,
consider the affine maps

}\p:Ap —>
Ap+q
pq:Aq _’
A1I+q
givenby }\p= (E0...Ep),pq=(EpEp+1...Ep+q).Set
[0, c U d] =
[a>\p, c][<7pq, d]
Marvin J. Greenbergand John R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3-355 8—7( H)
ISBN 0-805 3-355'I»9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benj amin/ Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
311‘ atnly
by means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of
E pu isher.

I95
196 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

where the right side is the product of two scalars in R. (Thus we let c operate
on the “front” p—face of 0, and let a’ operate on the “back” q—face, then
multiply the resuls.) If c Z‘. pcp’ d Z qdq are arbitrary elements of S '(X),
= =

we have by definition

cUd=ZcpUdq P9‘?

(24.1) Proposition. The cup product in S (X) is bilinear,associative, and

°

has as identity element the 0—cochain 1 defined by [x, 1] 1 for every point =

x in X

Proof: Easy. (Note: previously 1 was denoted 6# (10.7).) I

(24.2) Proposition. The coboundary operator is a derivation of the

graded ring S '(X), i. e.,
6(cUd)=6cUd+(—l)”cU8d
for c E S"(X), d E S"(X).

Proof: For any (p + q + 1)—simplex 0, we have

[0, 8c U d ] =
[6(o}\p+1), c][op q, d]
p+l
E(—1)‘[(0>\p+1)"’,cllapq,d1
i=0
I V

P
=
g(—1>‘{a<‘)xp,c1{opq,d1
+ (—1)”+1[o>\p, c][opq, d]
[0, c U 8d ] =
[a>\p, c][6(0pq+1), d]
p+q+l
=

1‘ :1)
(-1-)i_p[o'>\p9 c][(apq+l)(i—p)9 d]
=
I0)», Clivpqtdl
Cup and Cap Products 197

p+q+1
+(—1>P__2
z—p+1
(—1)"[a>\,,, c][0(i)pq9d]
If we multiply this last by (-1 )1’ and add to the first, the term [a)\p, c][opq, d]
,

occurs with opposite signs and cancels, while the remaining terms add up
to

p+q+l
E (—1)"[o<">>\,,,c][o<">pq, d] =
[0, 6(c u d )1 I
[=0

(24.3) Corollary. The direct sum Z'(X) of the cocycle modules is a

subring of S (X) and the direct sum B '(X) of the coboundary modules is a
'

two—sided ideal in Z '(X), hence by passage of the cup product to the

quotient, the direct sum H '(X) of the cohomology modules becomes a
graded R~algebra.
Proof: Immediate (note that 1 is a cocyle, since 6#6 =
0). I

betf ‘X Ybea map. Then f induces homomorphisms S "( f ):S"(Y)

-> ->

S"(X) for all q, hence a homomorphism S '0‘): S '(Y) S (X) defined by '
->

S'<f>(§c,,) =
A:-7S"(f)(c,,)
Similarly we have a module homomorphism H (f):H (Y ) ' '
-> H '(X).

(24.4) Proposition. S’( f) and H'(f) are ring homomorphisms.

Proof: For c E sP( Y), d E s4( Y), and any (p + q)—simpleX a,

[0, S”‘“"(f)(c U d )l =
[fin c U d]
=
[(f<r)>\p, cH(.f0)pqa d 1
=[f(a>\,,),cl[f(apq), d]
=
[0, S”(f)(c) U S"(f)(d )1 I

(24.5) Corollary. S’ and H are contrafunctors from

'
the category of
topological spaces to the category of graded R—algebras.
I98 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

(24.6) Example: Let X be a single point P. Then as R—module, H '(P) =

H °(P ) =
R, a generator being the cohomology class 1 of the cocycle 1. Since
1 U 1 =
1, we see that H '(P) is ring—isomorphic to R.
(24.7) Note. The ring S '(X) does not in general have any good commuta-
tivity properties. For example, take X to be the unit interval A 1, and define 0-
cochains c, d by

1 x=E0,
[Inc]:
0 otherwise,

1 x=E1,
[x,d]=
0 otherwise.

If 81 is the identity l—simplex, we have

[81, c U d ] =
1,
[8 ,, d U c] = 0.

However,

(24.8) Theorem H'(X) is skew—commutative, i.e.,

a U b =
(—1)1"’b U a

for a E H”(X), b E H"(X). In particular, zfa = b andp is odd, a U a =

0,
provided R has characteristic # 2.
Proof.'' proof of this theorem is surprisingly complicated, and will
The
involve some new ideas, enumerated in the following six steps.
1. Let 11' 171, be any permutation of the integers [0, 1,
=
p ]. Regard 1r . . .
,

as an affine map Ap A], by sending the vertexE ,- into E,,( ,-). Then for any
—~

singularp—simplex 0 in a space X, 0 composed with 17 will be a new singular

p-simplex. Extending by linearity gives an endomorphism z 217 of S p(X) -’

(pemutation operator).
2. Ifio, .iq areq + 1 integers between0 andp, let(z'0 iq) denote the
. .
, . . .

affine map Aq AP sending ->

Cup and Cap Products 199

simplex o in a space X, o(i0 i,,) will be a singular q-simplex. (The special

. . .

case (0. j ljjj + 1 p) is called the j"‘ degeneracy operator of

. .
—

. . .

dimension p.) The submodule of Sq(X) generated by all singular simplexes

o(z'0 iq) will be denoted C(o) q.
. . .

3. Clearly the boundary operator sends C(o) 4 into C(o)q_,. Hence the
sequence of these submodules forms an algebraic chain complex, denoted
C(o), and we can consider its homology modules HqC( 0) obtained by taking
the kernel of 6 on C(o) q modulo the image of 6 on C(o)q+,.

(24.9) Lemma. C(o) is an acycliccomplex, i.e.,

HqC(a) = 0 all q > 0

Proof: Define an operator 0:C(o) q -*

C(o) 4+, on the basis elements by

O(o(i0 . . . z;,)) =
o(0i0 . . . iq)
This is just 0 composed withthe join of E 0 to (£0 . . . z'q)(l5.l0). Hence for q
> 0 and any 2 E C(o)q, we have

6(0z) =
z —

0(dz)
so that ifz is a cycle, 2 =
¢9(0z). I

4. For any p, let 0}, be the permutation of [0, 1, p ] which reverses the . . .
,

order: 0p( 1’ ) p 1'. Define an endomorphism 0 of the graded module S .(X)

= —

by
0(2) =
(-1) %P<P+1>z0,,
for any 2 E Sp(X). For brevity let sp (—) %(”+" be the sign of 0p. We =

have put in this sign because of the following lemma:

(24.10) Lemma. 06 = 60.

Proof: If 0 is a singularp—simplex, then

a0(s) =
s,,a(o0,) =
s,,§0(—1)P"a(p . .
.?... 0)
While

6l(6o) =
p_1':Q0(—l)’o(p . .
.2. .0) .
200 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Thus we must show

£p(_1)p_i €p—1(_1)i
=

which is easy. I

It follows from (24.10) that 0 induces by passage to the quotient an

endomorphism of H_(X). We wish to show that this endomorphism is the
identity. In fact, we get the following:
(24.11) Lemma. 0 on S. (X) is chain homotopic to the identity, i.e., there
isan endomorphism J of S. (X) raising degrees by 1 such that

Id—0=z9J+J6

Proof: One can, if one likes, write out explicitly the complicated expres-
sion for J. Instead we use step 5, the technique of acyliccarriers. Note first
that for any p—simplex 0, both (Id )(o) and 0(0) are in C(o)p (C “carries”
both Id and 0). Moreover, 0 Id on S 0 X). We can therefore apply the
=

following algebraic lemma to Id 0. —

I

5. Let <i>:S_(X) S _(Y) be a chain homomorphism (meaning (,1) preserves

-*

dimension of chains and commutes with boundary operators; more generally,

S _(X) and S _(Y ) can be replaced by any algebraic chain complexes).
Assume ¢ 0 on S0(X). Assume (1) has an acyclic carrier C (meaning thatto
=

each singular simplex o is associated an acyclic subcomplex C(a) of S _(Y )

such that ¢>(o) E C(o), and such that for any face 0‘ “of 0, C(a) D C(o(”))-

(24.12) Lemma. (1.5 is chain homotopic to zero.

Proof: We construct] :Sp(X) S,,+1(Y) by induction. Set J 0 for p
-* = =

0. For p positive, assume J defined in dimensions less thanp so as to satisfy

gb J6 + c9J and such that for a simplex r of dimension less thanp, J (r)€
=

C(r). It then suffices to define ’J(U) and verify these conditions when 0 is a
simplex of dimension p. Now
J0aU,~C(a“’) C C(a)
(1)06 C(o)
so ¢>o' —

J6a€C(a). But this chain is a cycle:

d(¢>o' J00)
— =
(1)60 —
(U60 =
((1) —
6] )6o
Cup and Cap Products 201

but since ct) = 6] + 6] in dimension p —

1,
(<1) —
6] )6a=J66a= 0
Since p > 0 and C(0) is acyclic, there exists z€C(a)p+1 such that

62 =
(150 —

J60

So we set Jo =
z and conclude the induction. I

6. We return finally to the cohomology modules. The transpose 0’ of 0 is

an endomorphism of S (X) given by
'

[2, 0'0] =
[02, c]
0’ commutes withthe coboundary operator, hence induces an endomorphism
of H '(X) which must be the identity (just transpose (24.11)). One verifies
easily the formulas
0p+q>‘ :
9110;?
0p+qpq =
>‘q 04
For c E S”(X), d E S"(X), we compute 0’(c U d):

[0, 0’(c U d )] ll
[l9o',cUd]
=
sp+q[o'0p+q, c U d]
8p+q[a0p+q>‘p> c][a0p+q pg:
202 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

so that

0’(c U d ) =
(—1)P"0’d U 0’c

Since 0' induces the identity on cohomology, the cohomology classes a, b of

c, d (respectively) satisfy

aUb=(—1)1"1bUa I

(24.13) Note. The technique of acyclic carrier (and its generalization

acyclic models) is extremely useful. For example, it is the key to showing
that different homology theories are isomorphic (Hilton and Wylie [30], pp.
321-329). See also Section 29, Appendix (29—23A).
(24.14) Remark. In the classical example (23.1) of Euclidean 3—space and
cochains given by differentiable functions (1) and differentiable vector fields 12,
we have the multiplication dw of a vector field by a function, or the vector
product 1/ X w of two vector fields; equivalently we have the wedge product of
differential forms, since

0’(¢W)= ¢>Q‘(I/)
Q2(1/X w)= n‘(u) A n1(w)
This product does not correspond to the cup product on the cochain level,
e.g., c2(v X W) 75 cl (:2) U c’(w ) in general; but the two products do
correspond on the level of cohomology (see Goldberg [26], Appendix B).

(24.15) Example: H ‘(S") is the graded R—algebra generated by one

element a of degree 11 subject to the single relation (12 O. =

(24.16) Example: To determine the cohomology algebra of the torus T, we

need to exhibit explicitly a generator of its second homology module-
Examining the argument in (19.25), we see that H2(T) was determined Via
the isomorphisms

H2(T) ~
H2(T, 02) ~
H2(E2, S‘) 9 Has‘)
Thus it suffices to exhibit a relative 2-cycle on (E 2, S‘) whose boundaI'Y
represents a generator of H1(S1). From the diagram
Cup and Cap Products 203

we see that

Z =
(A0/113:) —

(A0303!)
is such cycle. If (b: I 2 T is the quotient mapping, then S 2(¢)(z) is a 2-
a -+

cycle on T whose homology class { generates H 2(T ).

We know (23.29) that H1(T) E R 63 R when R is a PID. Leta be the
homology class of the loop a ¢>(A0A1), fl the class of b ¢>(A 0B0), so that
= =

01, B are generators of H 1(T). Let a*, 3* be the dual basis of H ‘( T), so that

[as 01*] = 1: [3, 3*],

[01, /3*] = 0 =
[3, 0*]-
Then

lf, 01* U 3*] =

[01, 01*“/3» 5*] “

U3» 01*ll% 3*]

= 1 + 0 = I

lC,a*U01*l=[C,3*UB*l=0+0=0-
Now the isomorphism H 2(T) R is given by sending a class y€H2(T)
->

onto [{, y]€R. follows that

It a* U 3* generates H 2(T). Thus H '(T) is the
graded R—algebra generated by two elements 01*, 13* of degree 1 subject to the
relations

(a=z<)2 = 0 :
(B*)2’ asxefiae =
_l3=t<a*_
(24.17) Exercise. By making explicit a generator of H 2 as above, deter-
mine the cohomology algebras of all the compact surfaces 1;, Uh with
Coefficients in a PID R (19.30—l9.31).

(24.18) Note. One of the most remarkable applications of cup products in

204 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

topology is the Hopf invariant. We have discussed the Hopf maps S 3 S 2, —*

S 7
S 4, S 15
-+ S 8 obtained by regarding the image spheres as projective
-’

one—space with coefficients in C, H, and the Cayley numbers (respectively)

(19.13). Consider more generally any n and any map
f:S2n4l _, Sn.

Take R Z now. Choose generators §€H2"‘1(S2""),n€H"(S") of the

=

top dimensional cohomology groups (this amounts to choosing orientations).

Let y be a cocycle representing 11. Since 11 Un =
0, y U y is a coboundary;
sayy U y = 811. Also, since

H”(f)(n)€H”(S2"“)=7 0
(n at least 2), there is
an (n l)—cochainx on S2"_1 such that S'(f)( y )
—
=

8x. Nowx U S'(f)( y ) and S’ (f)(u) are both (211 1)—cochains on S2”"‘, —

and their difference is actually a cocycle:

3(xUS'(f)(y)—S‘(f)(u))=3(xU3x)'S'(f)(yUy)
=3xU3x—S'(f)(y)US'(f)(y)=0
Hence the cohomology class of this cocycle is a multiple yg’ of Q’, for a
uniquely determined integer 3/. It can be shown that 7 is independent of all the
choices we made (except that changing the orientation on S 2"” changes the
sign of y), and this integer is the Hopf invariant of f. It turns out to depend
only on the homotopy class of f, and the assignment f y( f) induces a -'

homomorphism
Y I 7T2n—l(Sn) —* Z

such that
(i) 71 odd 9 y = 0
(ii) n even 2€Image(y)
%> ‘

(iii) ifn 2, 4, 8 and fis the Hopf map, then )/(f) 1 (see Hilton and
= =

Wylie [30], pp. 379-387, for the proofs). Work of Adem and Frank
Adams settles the converse question: Up to homotopy, the Hopf maps are the
only ones of Hopf invariant 1. This implies the purely algebraic theorem that
C, H, and the Cayley numbers are the only non—trivial division algebras over
R! (For a slick treatment of these results using “extraordinary” cohomologYa
see [6], p. 136-7, after (29.37) see [87].)

We next introduce the adjoint operation, the cap product. For each p, 4
this will be a bilinearpairing
Cup and Cap Products 205

fl:Sp+,,(X)X S1’(X) -'

Sq(X)
For cESP(X), zESp+q(X), 2 F) c will be the unique q—chain such that
(24.19) [zflc,d]=[z,cUd]
for all q—cochains d. Explicitly, for any singular (p +q )—simplex 0, set

0 (7 c =
[o}\p, c]opq
and extend to arbitrary (p + q )—chains by linearity. Then (24.19) follows
from the bilinearityof the Kronecker product and the definition of the cup
product. Using a further extension by linearity, we get a pairing
fl:S.(X)>< S'(X) —>
S.(X).
Remark. There are several variants of the definition of cap product, for
example 0 F) c =
(—1)""[o}\p, c]opq or [opp, c]a>\q. In addition some authors
write the evaluation pairing with homology on the right. The end result is
considerable Variation in signs appearing in formulas relating different kinds
of products. A systematic approach to all this is offered by J. F. Adams [62].

(24.20) Proposition. This pairing makes S_(X) a right unitary S ‘(X)-

module.

Proof Exercise. In paiticularz F) (c U d) =

(z F) c) F) d. I

(24.21) Proposition. Forz E Sp+q(X), c E S"(X), we have

6(z (W c) =
(—1)”[(6z) (7 c —

z F) 6c].
Proof. It suffices to show that the Kronecker product of each side with an
arbitrary cochain gives the same Value; this follows from (24.20) and
(24.1). I

(24.22) Corollary. By passage to the quotient, the cap product induces a

bilinearpairing

n:Hp+q(X) >< HP(X) -

Hq(X).
(24.23) Exercise. Suppose X path—connected, so that 8#:H0(X) —' R is
an isomorphism. Then for any a E Hp(X), b E H” (X),
a#(a m b)= [a, b].
206 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

The cap product is functorial in the first variable and contrafunctorial in

the second.

(24.24) Propositon. For any map f :X ->

Y,

Hq(f)[a 0 H"(f)(b)l Hp+q(f)(a) 0 = b

a E HP+q(X), b E HP(Y).
Proof. One verifies the same formula on the chain—cochain level by taking
the Kronecker product of each side with an arbitrary q—cochain on Y and
using (23.3), (24.4) and (24.19). I

(24.25) Products in the relative case. All the previous results on cup and
cap products generalize to the relative case. Thus H (X, A) becomes a skew-
'

commutative graded R—algebra and H,(X, A) a right unitary H '(X, A}

module. These structures are functorial.

We will need a generalization of (24.25 ), namely cap products

(24.26) Hp+q(X,A)>< H‘’(X,A) -’
Hq(X)
(24.27) Hp+q(X,A)>< H"(X) ->
Hq(X,A)
induced by the previously defined cap product. Note first that if 0 is a
singular (p + q )-simplex on A, then 0'>\p is in Sp(A). Hence c E S"(X,A), w
E Sp+q_1(A) imply w 0 c 0. Thus ifz E Zp+q(X, A), c E Z"(X, A)
=

formula (24.21) shows that z F) c is actually a q-cycle on X (not just a

relative q—cycle), and we get the pairing (24.26). Similarly for (24.27).

(24.28) Exercise. Fix a class a E Hp+q(X, A). Then the diagram

H”(X,A) -*
H"(X)
lafl lafl
Hq(X) —’
Hq(X,A)
is commutative (where at) means cap product with a).
(24.29) Note. There are other cohomology operations such as the Steenrod
squares) that have important applications to homotopy theory (see Moshef
and Tangora [69]).

(24.30) Exercise. Calculate the cup product structure for orientable

Cup and Cap Products 207

surfaces by pinching homologically trivial embedded circles to points (e.g. 8

in (12.11)) to obtain a bouquet of tori. Use naturality to induct from known
results on tori.

(24.31) Exercise. Let f:S2"_‘ S" be as in (24.18). Form the mapping

—+

cone Cf, withi:S" Cf the inclusion. Show H"(Cf; Z) % Z for q 0, n, 2n

—+ =

and 0 otherwise.

(24.32) Exercise. Write the generators of the nonzero groups in (24.31) as

a, fl with H”(i)(a) 17 and 8(4) [3 where 11 and 4’ are defined in (24.18)
= =

and 6 is from (21.19). Prove or U or y(f)B. Hence by (21.21), -y(f) is a

=

homotopy invariant Suggestion: Find suitable representatives in the diagram

O‘_ S-(S2n—-1) ‘_
S-(E2n)._ S'(E2n’ S2n—1)_ O

1 Sm I I
0 ~
s'(s") ~——
S'(Cf) ~
S'(Cf, S") ~ 0
S'(i)
to calculate 3.
 25. Algebraic Limits

For the Alexander duality and Poincare duality theorems on manifolds,

the correct cohomology modules are not, in general, the singular coho-
mology modules but others obtained from them by passing to the limit. This
limiting process is a purely algebraic one which is extremely useful in many
other contexts.
Limits will be taken over a directed (filtering)set: This is a set I, together
with a partial order relation 1' S i’ defined for certain pairs of elements of I,
such that for any i, i’ E I, there is an 1'" E I such that i S i” and 2'’ S i”.

(25.1) Example: Let K be a subset of a set X, and let I be the set of those
subsets of X which contain K. Define VS V to mean V 3 V. Then for any
V, V, the set V F) V fulfills the directedness condition. (This is the example
of most interest in topology.)
(25.2) Example: Let I be the set of non-zero integers. Let 1' S i’ meani
divides 1''. Then for any i, i’, the least common multiple fulfills the condition.
(This example and its generalizations are of interest in number theory.)
(25.3) Example: Let I be the set of all covering spaces with base points
(E, e0; p) of a pointed space (X, xo), Define (E, e0; p) S (E ’, ef,;p’) when
there is a map f:(E ’, e5) (E, e0) such that pf p’. To satisfy the
-* =

directedness condition, take the fibre product, given by

E"¥{(e,e')€ EXE’|pe=p’e'}
96' (ea, 66)
=

P"(€, 6') P6 10'?’

= =

where E ”
has the topology induced as a subspace of E X E ’. (The analogue

Marvin J. Greenbergand John R. Harper, Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 0805 3» 35 5 8—7(Hl
ISBNo—so53.35s7—9(_1’b1‘l
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, lnc., Advanced Book Program, All rights
,

by
any.f°"“".
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in
electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission‘)
0}: anly rrriieans,
t e pub is er.

208
Algebraic Limits 209

of this example in algebraic geometry has been used to construct the 'etale
cohomolgy [5].)
(25 .4) Definition. Suppose (Ill,-),-Qis a family ofR—modules indexed by the
directed set I, and that for i S i’ we are given a homomorphism
¢i',i5Mi "
Mi’
such that
<l5z"',i'¢>z",z' =
¢i",i if is 1” 5 in

<p,~, - =
identity
Call this set—up a direct (inductive) system of modules. A direct (inductive)
limit of this system is a module M together with a family of homomorphisms

<l5i3Mi " M

indexed by I such that

¢>i'¢i',i =
<25,‘ if is 1.’

and such that this collection is universal with respect to the following
property. For any module N and any family of homomorphisms
¢i3M1‘ " N
satisfying
¢i'¢i',i =
‘pi if 1' S 1"

there is a unique homomorphism 1//:M -> N such that

T (pi =
W951‘
for all i.

it is clear from this universal property that any two inductive limits M, N are
lsomorphic by a unique isomorphismsatisfying condition 1‘ So we can safely .

talk about “the” inductive limit and denote it

210 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Iim M,

The unique homomorphism zp will also be denoted li_m ¢,~.

(25.5) Proposition. The inductive limit exists.
Proof: Let M ‘L be the direct sum of all the M-, with
Algebraic Limits 211

and limit. Construct the projective limit as a submodule of the direct product
of the M.
We will need later some basic lemmas about inductive limits.

(25.10) Lemma (Additivity). Suppose that for each i we have a direct

sum decomposition Ill, =
N,- 69 P,-, and thatfor i S i’, the homomorphism
¢,~v_,~ decomposes accordingly: ¢,»,,. i//,-:‘,- + p,-:,,-. Let N 1i_m M, P
= = =

li_m P,-, so that we get induced homomorphisms 1//:N M, p:P M such

-> —*

that
‘W/1': ¢il Ni: PP.‘ :
¢’il Pi
Then ¢/ 69 p:N ®P —+ M is an isomorphism.
Proof: We construct the inverse. Given x E M, choose x,- E M, such that
x =
q5,~(x,-)(25.7). Write x,- y,- + z, uniquely, withy,- E N,, z,- E P,-. Define
=

l9(x) (1//,y,.,p,~z,-) E N EB P. One verifies easilythat 0(x) is independent of the

=

choice of x,~ and that 0 is a homomorphism inverse to at 69 p. I

Secondly, there is an important case in which one need not look at all the
M,~‘s in order to obtain M. A subset J C I is called final (sometimes
“cofinal”)if J is a directed set under the induced ordering from I and if for
any i E I, there is aj E J such thati S j. We can then form the inductive limit
over the set J, and we get a canonical homomorphism

}\:li_r.n
212 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

0. SinceJis final, there isj’ €Jwith1" Sj’; then <1>j.J~)cj =

<;§j:‘,~(;5,..J-ac]. =
0 5
whence x’ =
<1>}.<pl-.,J-)c,- 0. =

Proof of sublemma: Go back to the construction of M (proof of (25 .5 ))_

Since (pix, 0, <1),-45¢, is a sum of elements
=

¢> 1:r'¢k',k)’k'.k ‘"

<15 EL)’/a,/<
where ykxk € Mk. By definition of (pf: we must have
(i) xi =
k,§_¢i,k)’i,k k§)’k',i Z

while for h # i,
(h) 0 =
k,§h¢)h,kyh,k k>;hyk.,, ~

Choose an index 1" greater than all k’ which occur. Apply <15,-.3,» to equation (i),
and qf>,-3,, to each equation (h) which is non—empty, and add; one gets

¢i‘,i-xi = 2 ¢i',k’¢l<',kyl<’,A ¢i',/<y1<'.k

_

all (A ,k)
,

which is zero by definition of inductive system. I

(25.13) Exercise. If <1),-5,-:M,-. M,-. is an isomorphism for all i S i’, then

-*

¢>,-:M,-*M is an isomorphism for all 1'.

Next we consider the compatibility of inductive limits with exact
sequences. Suppose we have three inductive systems over the same directed
set]. Suppose further. we have homomorphisms

Mlek _.
Ml, _.
M?k*
N P.‘

such that the sequence is exact and such that for i _<_ i’ the diagram

>‘i Pi
Mfr _.
Mi ..
MI§k*
<z>7“.zl <z>,~.,-J l<z>:*?!‘;
>\r' Pi’
M,-.* —*
M,’ -'
M,~**
is commutative. Passing to the limit gives homomorphisms
Algebraic Limits 213

M*_,M_.M**
X p

such that N1), =

qt),-}\,», pg), =
gb,**p,-, for all 1'.
(25.14) Lemma. The limit sequence is exact.

Proof: Given x* E M *, choose x,’-“ E A4,-* such that x* =

q§,?5c,*. Then
pAx* =
.**p,.>»-x:*=
= 0.
Given x E M such thatpx 0. Write x q5,~x,-. Since <;b,°-“*p,-x,~ 0, there is
= = =

an i’ withiS i’ such that0 =

,*.f“,—p,x,- p,~qf>,-.,,.x,~. By exactness at stage i’,
=

there is xfl‘ E iM,~* such that <p,-.‘,-x,- =

214 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

commutative for all 1' E If, all j E J.

(25.16) Exercise. zp and 0 are inverse isomorphisms.
(25.17) Exercise. Letx be any point in a Hausdorff space X. Then
Um Hn(X:X— U) *’
H,,(X,X —

X)
j.

x E U open

is an isomorphism.
Remark. The analogue of (25.14) for projective limits is false, i.e., a
projective limit of exact sequences need no longer be exact (see Eilenberg
and Steenrod [23], p. 225). It becomes true when we assume thatR is afield.

(25.18) Exercise. The analogues of (25.10, 25.11, and 25.16) hold for
projective limits.
 26. Poincare Duality

Throughout this section X will denote an n—dimensional manifold. If X is

R-orientable, we choose once and for all an R—orientation of X; otherwise, we
take R Z/ 2 and take the unique Z/2—orientation (22.12). For each compact
=

K C X, resticting the R—orientation (regarded as a section of the R-

orientation sheaf) to K and using the isomorphism H,,(X, X K) FK —
—>

gives afundamental class (K H,,(X,

E X K) (22.21 and 22.24).
—
This
notation will be used throughout this section.
If X is not compact, the duality theorem we are aiming for requires a
different cohomology theory, the singular cohomology with compact
supports. This is obtained from the ordinary singular cohomology as follows:
The compact subspaces of X form a directed system under inclusion (K S K ’

means K C K ’). The modules H" (X X K ) then form an inductive system

,
—

indexed by the compact subspaces (the homomorphism H" (X, X K ) —

-e

H"(X, X K’) is induced by inclusion). We define

—

HZ(X)= lim H"(X,X—K)

K compact

Of course if X is compact, Hc"(X) H "(X) (25.8). A cohomology class in

=

H‘§(X) is represented by a cochain which “vanishes” off some compact

subspace K, i.e., which annihilates all chains with support contained in
X —

K.

(26.1) Remark. Givena map f:X Y, then for any compact K C

—'

X, f (K ) is compact. However, f needn’t send X K into Y f (K ), so f — —

does not induce a homorphism of H2. We do get an induced homomorphism

if we assume f is proper, i.e., for any compact L C Y,' f ’(L) is compact.
Marvin J. Grcenberg and John R. H arper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3-35 5 8»7(H)
ISBN 0—805 3—3557—9( Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form
3‘; agly
by means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of
9 pu rsher.

215
216 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Then f maps X —

f "(L) into Y —

L, so there is an induced homomorphism

H”(Y, Y‘ L) "
H"(X,X‘f '(L)) —’
H‘!(X)
As L varies, these homormorphisms are compatible with those induced by
inclusion, hence passing to the limit gives an induced homomorphism
HZ(f):HZ(Y) H§’(X). IfX is a subspace of Yand fis the inclusion map,
—*

then f is not proper unless X is closed.

(26.2) Remark. If U is an open subspace of X, we can nevertheless define

a canonical homomorphism

H‘c’(U) —’
H2’(X)
(Note that this homomorphism goes in the opposite direction to the one in
(26. 1).) Namely, for any compactK C U, we have the inverse of the excision
isomorphism H "(U, U K ) H"(X, X K ). Since these are compatible
—
-’ —

with the inclusion homomorphisms, passing to the limit gives a unique

homomorphism making the diagram
Hi’-(U) “—‘
H?(X)

H"(U, U—K)-r H"(X,X—K)

commutative for all K.

(26.3) Example: Let U R” considered as S " minus a point x. The sets

=

S" K for compact K C U form a fundamental system of neighborhoods of

~

x which contains a final system of contractible neighborhoods; for the latter,

H"(S", S" —

K) 1‘ H‘'#(S’')
is an isomorphism (23.2l.7). Hence (25.11)
H2’(R") 3 H”#(5")
is an isomorphism. This isomorphism generalizes to the one—poir1t*
compactification of any manifold (see (27.4)).
Now for any compact K C X, consider the homomorphism from relative
cohomology to absolute homology
Poincare Duality 217

4jKfl;H"(X, X —

K) —'
H,,_q(X)
given by the cap product 7 —>
{K07 with 4’K(24.26). If K C K ’, the diagram
H 4 (X, X —

K )
Hn—q(X)
H 4 (X, X —
K ’
)
is commutative. Passing to the limit gives a homomorphism
DIH?(X) —'
Hn—q(X)
(Note that for q > n, D is the zero homomorphism.)
(26.4) Exercise. Let U be open in X, and give U the induced R—orientation.
Then the diagram

mmgmmm
I I
HWUBEAW
in commutative.

(26.5) Exercise. Let R Z. Let X, Y be compact connected oriented

=

manifolds, and let f :X -*Y be an m—fold covering space. Assume f is

orientation preserving. Then the diagram

mm3,4m
mad |m4n
Hq(Y) fig) Hn—q(Y)
is commutative (22.33 and 24.24).
(26.6) Poincare Duality Theorem. If X is an R—orierzted rz—dz'merzsional
manifold, the homomorphism
Dmm~m¢m
218 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

is an isomorphism (for all q ).

Proof The proof is in several steps. We will prove it simultaneously for
the open submanifolds of X.
Before detailing the steps, we outline what is going on (for c0mpactX). As
K enlarges to become all of X, the modules H" (X X K ) “see” more of the
,
—

cohomology of X. For example, take X to be the torus and K to be the

compact portion above the dashed line. A representative of the dual (in
algebraic sense) one dimensional homology is pictured.

A basic comparison in the proof is a composition of the form

H"(X,X—K)=>H‘/(W,
2
W—K)€Kn H,,—q(W)
where W is open and the inclusion (W, W K) (X, X K) is an—
—> —

excision. Thus, corresponding to cohomology of X seen by H" (X, X K ), —

there is homology of X whose support lies in W. Enlarging K by forming

unions produces corresponding enlargement of W. The technical tool is a
relative Mayer—Vietoris sequence for cohomology working in tandem with an
absolute Mayer—Vietoris sequence for homology. The key step is to check
compatibilityof cap products with these sequences. Then the proof amounts
to observing that one starts with an isomorphism (e. g. K point) and passes =

through compatible isomorphisms to reach the theorem.

Step 1. If the theorem holds for open sets U, V and B U H V, then the =

theorem holds for Y= U U V.

Let K (resp. L ) be compact in U (resp. V). We use the Mayer—Vietoris
sequences for the triad (Y, Y K, Y L ) (17.11 and 23.14). Consider the
— —

diagram

-—H”“(B,B-—KflL)-—H"(Y,Y—KUL)v—H"(U,U—K)H”(V,V— L) ~
H”(B,B— rm L) *

Ckrun (Au: 0 (km 3951.0 I Ckrrtn

‘—
H,.—.r:(B) ‘—
H..—q(Y) ‘— HIrq (U) 93 H,..,(V) '—
11(3)
n—q
"
Poincare Duality 219

The top row is the relative Mayer—Vietoris sequence for ( Y, Y— K, Y L)—

combined with excisions of the form (W, W S) C (Y, Y S). The bottom
— —

row is the Mayer—Vietoris sequence for (Y, U, V). Commutativity of the

right most 2 squares is naturality of the cap product map.
Sublemma. Thefollowing diagram commutes up to (—1)"+‘.
7
H"“(Y, Y—KF)L) <—H'1(Y, Y—KUL)
1 H2

Hq+1(Bs B —
K F) L) §KuL 0
cm I 0
F
IIn—q—l(-B) ‘—__
Hn—q(Y
220 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Furthermore
Ckrmfl 503 =
CK H 803 =
(_1)q+la(C1< (7 (13) Z
(_1)qHa(CI< max),
1': 4, 5.
On the other hand
CK (7 04 CKUL (7 (C + 3B0) CKUL O C 1‘ a(CKuL 0 DC)-
: =

Hence l‘(§KUL F) c) is represented by 6((K F) as) using (17.11) and

S(Y ) S(U ) S(B ). So going around the two ways give representatives
'— <—

in S(B) which are equal (up to sign) in S(X). But S(B) S(X) is -*

injective. I
Returning to the proof of step 1, we observe that every compact in Y has
the form K U L. Passing to the limit gives a sign—commutative diagram

*HZ“(B) “
H3(Y) ‘—
H‘Z(U) G3H2’(V) ‘—
H‘£(B)‘—
D D DC-DD D

‘—
Hn—q4l(B)‘_ Hrz~q(Y) ‘_
Hr:-q(U) @Hn~q(V) ‘_
H22-q(B) ‘-

in which the rows are exact and all vertical arrows except those involving Y
are given to be isomorphisms (25.10 and 25.14). by the five lemma (14.7),
the theorem is true for Y.

Step 2.Let ( U,«) be a system of open sets totally ordered by inclusion, and
let U be their union. If the theorem is true for all the U, then the theorem is
true for U.
This amounts to verifying the isomorphisms

lal,l:l_i_r£‘Hn—q(l]i) Hn—q(U):
_)

¢2I1i_r{1 H‘i(U.-) ”'

H‘Z(U)-
point is that for any compact K C U, we have K C U,- for some i
The
(coverKby finitely many Ufs; since the system is totally ordered, all the U,-’S
are contained in one U,). It follows that 11/, is an isomorphism (consider the
compact support of any chain). Similarly,the result on iterated limits (25.16)
implies that it/2 is an isomorphism.
Step 3. U is contained in a coordinate neighborhood. Regard U as a
subspace of R”.
Case 1. U is convex.
computing the
_

Then U is homeomorphic to E " (exercise). Now in

inductive limit
Poincare Duality 221

1imH‘1(E",
222 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

For example,
if n =
3, knowledge of ,B1 and the number of connected
components of X determines all the Betti numbers.
Of course (23.28) tells us about the torsion in the homology as well: If Tq is
the torsion subgroup of Hq(X; Z ), then

Warning: These formulas do not hold without the assumption of

orientability—considerP2, for example.
(26.10) Corollary. Assume R is a PID. IfX is odd—dimensional compact
R—orz'entable, then )((X; R ) O.=

(26.11) Corollary. If X is even—a'imensional compact orientable and the

dimension is not divisible by 4, then x(X) is even.

Proof: By (26.8), ifn 4k + 2, we must show 132,.“ even. According to

=

(20.12) and (23.31), this amounts to showing dim H 2’‘'“(X; Q) even. We

may assume X connected and identify H”(X; Q) with Q (26.7). Then the cup
product is a non—degerate skew—symmetric bilinearform on H 2" ”(X; Q)
(24.8 and 24.19). Since the determinant of an odd order skew—symmetric
matrix is zero, /32“, must be even. I

The conclusion of the corollary is false for 4k—dimensional manifolds

(consider CP2").
Note. We have tacitly been assuming that the Betti numbers of a compact
manifold are finite. See Appendix (26.17).

Note. If X is non—orientable, we have proved a Poincare duality theroem

for coefficients in Z/2. A stronger result is often needed, i.e., duality with
coefficients in the orientation sheaf (see Swan [56], Chap. XI).
We can apply Poincare duality to determine the cohomology algebras of
projective spaces. Consider for example the complex projective plane. Let C
E H4 be a fundamental class for some R—orientation. Let ‘y be a generator of
H 2 (23.25). Then § F) y generates H2. Since the Kronecker product H2 X H2
—' R is non-degenerate, we see that

[UW,vl=l€,7U7l
generates R. Hence 72 7 U y generates the module H 4. Thus y
=
generates
the R-algebra H '. A more general statement is possible.
Poincare Duality 223

(26.12) Proposition. If y generates the module H2(CP"), then y

generates the cohomology algebra H '(CP”).
Proof: By induction on n, using the fact that the inclusion CP””' -* CP”
inducesisomorphisms in dimensions .<_ 2n 2 (19.10). —
I

One says that H (CP") is the truncated polynomial algebra generated by

'

an element of degree 2 and height n + 1 (meaning 7”“ 0). =

(26.13) Exercise. Let R Z/2. Then H (P") is the truncated polynomial

=
'

algebra generated by an element of degree 1 and height n + 1.

(26.14) Exercise. R arbitrary. Then H (HP”) is the truncated polynomial
‘

algebra generated by an element of degree 4 and height n + 1.

As an application of (26.13) we have

(26.15) Borsuk—Ulam Theorem. Ifn > m 2 1, then there is no map

g:S" S which commutes with the antipodal maps.
-
’"

Proof2 Any such map would induce by passage to the quotient a map
f :P” P’" making the diagram
-e

s gs“
pi in
P”I>P’"
commutative (the vertical arrows are the double coverings).

Sublemma. There existsf’:P” —> S"’ such thatpf’ =f.

Proof: We use the lifting criterion (6.1). If m 1, it’s clear, since the only
=

homomorphism rr,(P”) rr,(P') is zero. Suppose m > 1. Consider the

-*

induced algebra homomorphism

H'(f)=H'(P’") H'(P”) "

(Coefficients Z/ 2). Let y,,,, y,, be generators of these algebras. Since

0= H'(f)(Y%+') H'(f)(Ym)"'+’
=
224 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

and n > m, we have y,, 7e H'(f)(y,,,). Hence H’(f)(y,,,) 0 (the only =

other element of H ‘ ).
Let i:P‘ P”, j :P‘
-> P’" be the inclusions obtained by setting all but
-*

the first two homogeneous coordinates equal to zero. Now H ‘( j) is an

isomorphism(induction on m, using the proof of 19.27), so H ‘( j )(y,,,) 75 0.
Hence H’(j) ¢ H'(fi),so thatfi is not homotopic toj. But i andj can be
regarded as generators of the fundamental group (P’ W S 1), so
f*17T1(P") "
7T1(P’")
is the zero homomorphism. Hence (6.1) applies again. I

Getting back to the theorem, we have pf’ p’ pg. If x E S", eitherg(x)

= =

f ’p’(x) or g(—x) f ’p'(x) f 'p'( -x). Thusf’p’ and g are two liftings offin’
= =

which agree at a point. By (5.1),f ‘p’ g. But g(x) ¢ g(—x) —g(x), while
= =

p’(x) p’(—x), contradiction.

= I

(26.16) Project. For an n—dimensional R—oriented manifold X, the cup

product
H”(X,X— K)>< H"(X, X— L) —'
H”+"(X, X- Kfl L)
induces by passage to the limit a cup product

H’§(X) X H2’(X) A
H’Z+"(X)
hence the direct sum HC'(X) becomes an R—algebra (without an identity
element unless X is compact) which is contravariantlyfunctorial with respect
to proper maps. Using the duality isomorphisms, we can transport this
multiplication to construct the homology algebra H. (X), 50 thatthe resulting
“intersection product” of a p—dimensional class and a q—dimensional class
has dimension p + q n. This algebra is not covariantly functorial with
—

respect to the naturally induced module homomorphisms H .(f ):H (X) .

"

H.( Y). (See Dold [64], p. 335ff. and p. 196.) A special case is treated in
chapter 31. ,

(26.17) Appendix: Absolute Neighborhood Retracts

If we identify the boundary of E to a point, we obtain a
"
space home0‘
morphic to S ", so that
Poincare Duality 225

f:U~S”—P
f(X-U)={P}
Proof: Choose a coordinate neighborhood V of x and a coordinate
neighborhood U C V of x such that U C V. Let g:U ~ E” be a
homeomorphism sending U ontoE ”, h:E” S the quotient map identifying -> "

the boundary to the point P. Then define f by

P x’EX—U
f(x’)=
hg(x') x’ E U I

(26.17.2) Lemma. If K is a compact subspace of X then there is an open

neighborhood V of K and an injective map of V into a Euclidean space.
Proof: For each x E K, choose Ux andfi. as in (26.l7.l). Let finitely
many of these open sets, say U,, (1,, cover K, and take V to be their
. . .
,

union. If f,, f, are

. .
the.
associated
, maps, define

f:X—»S"><S”><--~><S"
by f (x) (fi(x), ,fi(x)). Then the restriction of f to V is injective.
=
. . .

Moreover, the product of spheres is imbedded in Euclidean r(n + 1)-

space. I

(26.l7.3) Corollary. A compact manifold can be imbedded in a

Euclidean space.
Recall that a space X is called an AR absolute retract (or solid) if it
=

has the following universal property: For any normal space Y and any
map f :B X of a closed subspace B of Y into X, f extends to a map of Y
->

into X. Tietze’s extension theorem states that the closed unit interval is an
AR; since a cartesian product of AR’s is an AR, E " is an AR (see Dugundji
[20], Chap. VII, No. 5). If in the above definition we require only thatf
extend to an open neighborhood of B, then X is called an ANR absolute =

neighborhood retract. Clearly an open subspace of an ANR (a fortiori of an

AR) is an ANR.

(26.17.4) Theorem. Every compact manifold is an ANR.

(26.17.5) Corollary. Ifthe compact manifold X is imbedded in some
Euclidean space, then X is a retract of some open neighborhood.
Just apply the universal property to B = X and f =
identity.
226 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Proof of theorem: Since X can be covered by finitely many coordinate

neighborhoods, and each of them is an ANR, we are reduced to proving the
following lemma:
(26.17.6) Lemma. IfX, X2 are ANR’s open in Xsuch thatX=X1
,
U X2,
then X is an ANR.

Proof: GivenB closed C Ynormal,f:B X. LetA,- B —f‘(X1),i=

~> =

1, 2. Then A, 0 A2 is empty, and A1, A2 are closed. Since Y is normal, we

can separate A, and AZ by open sets Y1, Y2.
Let Y0 Y— (Y, U Y2),closed in Y, hence also normal. Let B,- Y, H B,
= =

i= 1,2,0. Then

f(B,) CX, z'= 1,2

f(Bo) C X10 X2
Since X] 0 X2 is an ANR, fl B0 can be extended to a map g0 on a
neighborhood U0 in Y0 (U0 is relatively open in Y0). Then U0 0 B B0, sof =

together withg0 defines a map g: U0 U B X (g is continuous because U0

—> =

(U0 U B) 0 Y0 is relatively closed in U0 U B).

We now apply normality to the disjoint closed sets B0 and Y0 U0: There
—

are disjoint relative open sets V, WC Y0 such that B0 C V, Y0 U0 C W.

—

Then U0 =
Y0 Wis closed and U0 C U0.
—

Theng(U0 U B,-) CX, i 1, 2, and U0 U B, is closed in Y,z'= 1, 2.

=

Since IQ isan ANR, g| U0 U B, extends to a map G,~:U,- IL on an open

->

neighborhood U,-, i= 1, 2. Now

U.’=U.~fl(U6UY.~)
Poincare Duality 227

isclosedinU’, UU’2=U,i=1,2,and
U(’,=U’,flU§
(exercise). Hence we can define a map F:U X to be G, on U}, i
—*
1, 2, =

and the definition is licit. Moreover, U contains the open neighborhood

(U1fl(VUYx)) U (U2 V‘ (VU Y2))

of B (exercise). I

(26.l7.7) Corollary. IfX is a compact manifold and A is the diagonal in

X X X, then there is an open neighborhood V of A such that the identity
map of V is homotopic in X X X to a retraction of Vonto A.

Proof: Imbed X in R”(26.17.3), and let U be an open neighborhood

having a retraction r: U X(26.l7.5). Let s distance fromXto R” U,
-> = —

and let V be the s—neighborhood of A in X X X Define .

F:XXXXI—*RN

F(x,x’,t)=(1—t)x+tx’.
Then F maps VX I into U (by definition of V). Let

G=r(F| VXI): VXI-'X

so that B(x, x’, 0) =
r(x) =
x, G(x, x’, 1) =
r(x’) = x’. Define
H: V X I —> XXX
by
H(xa x’) t ) :
(xs G(x7 x’: t ))'
Then H is the required homotopy. I

(26.l7.8) Theorem. Let the compact subspace K of a Euclidean space he

an ANR. Then Hq(K ) is a finitely generated module for all q.

Proof. Let r*.U K be a retraction of an open neighborhood U onto K.

—*

There is a finite cell complex C such thatKC C C U (see the proof of 22.24,
case 3), so thatK is a retract of C. Hence
228 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

Hq(r| C):Hq(C) —>

Hq(K)
is an epimorphism for all q. We know that Hq(C) is finitely generated. I

(26.17.9) Corollary. The homology modules of a compact manifold are

finitely generated.

(26.l7.10) Note. Theorems (26.l7.3) and (26.l7.4) can be generalized to

paracompact manifolds by transfinite induction [29]. Of course (26.17.9)
does not generalize. The imbedding theorem we have proved is very weak.
Whitney proved that every paracompactdifferentiable manifold of dimension
n can be imbedded (differentiably) in R2”. This is the best possible general
result, for we shall see, e.g., thatthe projective plane cannot be imbedded in
3—space (27.11). (See Lashof [36], for a survey of work on imbeddings.
Further developments are surveyed in S. Gitler, Immersions and
Embeddings of Manifolds, Proceedings of Symposia in Pure Mathematics
Vol. 22.

Manifolds are assumed to be connected and closed for the following

exercises.
(26.18) Exercise. Let dim M n. If M is orientable, then H,,-1(M; Z) is
=

torsion free. If M is nonorientable, then H,,(M; Z/kl) 0 if k is odd, the

=

torsion subgroup of H,, ,, (M; Z/2Z) is cyclic of order 2, and H, (M; Z/2Z) 75
0.

(26.19) Exercise. If M is an orientable 3—manifold with H1(M; Z) =

0,
then M has the homology of a 3—sphere.

(26.20) Exercise. If M is a nonorientable 3—manifold, then H, (M; Z) is

infinite.

(26.21) Exercise. Prove thatthe cup product pairing HP (M ) EB H " (M ) '*

H”(M ), p + q n and coefficients in a field, has the property thatfor a fixed

=

x €H”(M),x Uy= O forally €H"(M) only ifx= 0.

(26.22) Exercise. Prove that CP2" admits no orientation reversing

homotopy equivalence.

(26.23) Exercise. Note that (26.12) and (26.14) combined with exercise
(24.32) gives maps S 3 S 2, S 7 S 4 with Hopf invariant one. Prove that
-+ —>

for these maps

Poincare Duality 229

S2n—l S»
Sn

-1! I4
S21:-—l ——»
Sn

cannot commute even up to homotopy, where -1 means a map of degree -1.

Suggestion: Use (21.20).
(26.24) Exercise. Prove that a necessary condition for the lens space
L(p, q) to admit an orientation reversing homotopy equivalence is that -1 be
a quadratic residue mod p, i.e., there is an integer A such that -1 E }\2 mod p.
Suggestion: Consider the mod p Bockstein [3:H’ H 2 and use (26.21). A
->

refinement will appear in (31.10).

(26.25) Exercise. Prove a theorem of Borsuk: iff :S " S " commutes

-*

with the antipodal map thenfhas odd degree. Suggestion: Do the case n odd
first, then extend to n even using composition of the suspension Zf with
reflection of S "+1 through the equatorial S". Unlike (26.23) this is not a
homotopy—theoreticresult; indeedfa = afregardless, since homotopy theory
proves that homotopy classes of maps of S are classified by their degree.
"

(26.26) Exercise. An orientable n—manifold M is spherical if there exists

f:S” M such thatH(f)(S kg)" for some k #5 O. Prove that ifp,{ k, thenf
-> =

induces an isomorphism of mod p homology. Conclude that H,(M; Z) is

finite 1 S 1' < n.
 27. Alexander Duality

In this section X will be an R—oriented n—dimensional manifold, A a closed

subset. Let U X = A. We have seen that there is a canonical homo-
—

morphism
iIH2’(U) —’
HZ(X)
when cohomology with compact supports. We aim to imbed this
we use
homomorphism in a long exact cohomology sequence, and for this purpose
we must consider another cohomology theory for the subspace A.
Consider the family of all open neighborhoods Vof A, directed by reverse
inclusion ( VS V’ means V’ C V). The inclusion homomorphisms make the
modules H"(V) into an inductive system. We define

H"(A) = lim H‘1(V)

V

By passing the inclusion homomorphisms H ”(V) -> H ‘1 (A) to the limit We

get a canonical homomorphism
:c:H"(A) ~
H"(A)
If this is an isomorphism, A is said to be tautly imbedded in X.
(27.1) Proposition. IfA is an ANR, then K is an epimorphism; ifalso Xi-9
an ANR, then K is an isomorphism. (See Note below).

Proof: Let r:V -* A be a retraction of a neighborhood V of A onto A,

Marvin J. Grcenberg and John R. Harper, Algebraic Topology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 335 58—7(H)
ISBN 0—8053—3557—9(l’bk)
Copyright © 1981 by‘ Bcn_|a_mrn./Cummings Publishing Company, lnc., Advanced Book Program. All right5
_ _ _ _

reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission Of
the publisher.

230
Alexander Duality 231

i:A -> V the inclusion. Then H"(ri) identity shows that H‘7(i) is an
=

epimorphism, hence K is.

Suppose X is an ANR. Let U be any neighborhood of A. Let U’ be a
smaller neighborhood with a retraction r.U A. We will find an even
’
-

smaller neighborhood Vsuch that if i:A U ’, j :V-* U’ are the inclusions,

->

then there is a homotopy

’

i(Vl V) 21'
so that H‘1(j) =
Hq(r| V)H"(i). Thus we have a factorization

H"(f/) ——*

H;’(A)
H"(U’) mu/)
\ /
H"(/1)
so that any class in H "( U ) going to zero in H "(A) goes to zero in H "( V );
thus K is a monomorphism
One the closed subset(U’ X 0) U (A X I) U (U’ X 1) of U’ X 1, set

x ift=0 and x€ U’
F(x,t)= r(x) ift=l and x€ U’
x ifx€A

Since U is an ANR, F extends to a map of a neighborhood of this set into U

’ '

(see Note below). That neighborhood contains a set of type V>< I where V is ,

a neighborhood of A; this gives the desired homotopy.

Note. We need an extra hypothesis to know that U’ X I is normal, e.g., X
paracompact (see Topology by H. Schubert, Theorems 2 and 3, pp. 95-
6). I

(27.2) Remark. If A is not tautly imbedded, it can still be shown that

H"(A) depends only on A and not on the imbedding; it is in fact the
Alexander—Cech cohomology module of A (Spanier [52], Chap. 6). '

Let us now assume the manifold X to be compact, so that A is also. For

any open neighborhood V of A, K X V is compact and contained in U.
= —

The homomorphism

H"(V) ‘1Hv+*(X, V)2 H"+’(U, U— K)

is Compatible with change in V, so passing to the limit gives a connecting
homomorphism
232 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

8:FI‘?(A) a
Hz+‘(U)
(27.3) Theorem. Assume X is compact. Then the sequence

-~
Hz(U> 11 Hq<X>’¥H"<A) ‘5Hz”<U) ~ ~-

is exact, where A is closed and U = X —

A.

Proof: Given a class in H"(U, U— K), its image under H"( U, U— K)

~*
H"(X, X— K) H‘’(X) H‘7(X K) is zero; sinceX— Kis a
—> -’ —

neighborhood of A we see ji 0. The exactness of

=

H‘1(X,X—K)—> H‘?(X) a
H"(X—K)
implies that Kernel j Image i.
=

For any class in H"(X), its image under

H‘7(X) ~
H‘7(X) a
H‘7+’(X, X) =
H4+‘(U, U)
is zero,so 8/' 0. Conversely, any class in the kernel of 8 is represented by
=

an element of H"(V) sent to zero in H‘7+‘(X, V), for some V; but that
element is in the image of H"(X) H "(V), hence Kernel 6 Image j.
—> =

Similarly Kernel i Image 8.

= I

(27.4) Corollary. Let A be a compact ANR in a compact ANRX, U =

X A. Then the homomorphisms

—

H‘7(U, U -

K) 3 H"(X, X-K)I1c>1' H"(X,A)

for K compact C U induce by passage to the limit an isomorphism
H‘c’(U) 3* H"(X,/1)
Proof: Apply the 5—lemma to the diagram
*H""(/1)—* Hi’-(U)* H"(X)—’ H"(/1)"
I I 1 I I I I
~
H"”'(A) H"(X,A) H"(X) H"(A)
—- —» ~ ~

using (27.1) to identify H"(A) with H"(A) for all q. I

Now let {A € H,,(X, X A) be the fundamental class determined by theR‘

—

orientation of X. For any open neighborhood V of A, we have

Alexander Duality 233

H..(V, V“A) % Hn(X9X—A)

by excision; the pre—image of {A under this isomorphism will again be denoted
(A. Taking the cap product with {A gives a homomorphism
{A F) :H"(V) ->
H,,_q(V, V—A)%H,, q(X,X—A)
(24.27). These homomorphisms are compatible with changes in V (24.24),
hence passing to the limit gives a homomorphism
DA:H"(A) H,,_q(X, X A)
~ —

(Note that for q > 11 DA is the Zero homomorphism.)

(27.5) Alexander Duality Theorem. Assume X is R—oriented compact :1-
dimensional manifold, A closed. Then DA is an isomorphismfor all q.

Proof: The diagram

*
H2’(U) —'
H‘’(X) *
H"(/1) —'

IDU IDX IDA

‘*
H,.—q(U) A
Hn—q(X) —*
Hn—q(X9X— A) —'

is sign—commutative (where DU and DX are the isomorphisms of the Poincare

Duality Theorem (26.6)). Apply the 5—lemma (14.7) (check that the 5-
lemma still works when the diagrams are only sign—commutative). I

(27.6) Exercise. Let (K, L) be a compact pair in X. Then there is a relative

Alexander duality

H"(K, L) a
H,,,q(X —

L, X —

K)
Which in case K = X yields an isomorphism
H"(X, L) 4
H,,_,,(X L) —

Derive the relative Alexander duality by the following sequence of steps:

Step 1. Define

H4(1<, L) =
_1i_n1 H‘7(U, V)
(U, V)
234 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

where (U, V) runs through the directed set of pairs of open sets containing
(K, L). Derive the exact cohomology sequence
~
H""(L) ~
H"(K, L) a
Hq(1<) « I:1"(L)—’
by passing to the limit the exact cohomology sequences of the pairs (U, V)_
Step 2. Define a cap product
H,,(X,X—K)><H‘7(U, V) -*
H,,_q(X—L,X—K)
as follows: Let Z,,(X, X K), c E Z"(U, V). Let 7 be the open
2 E —

covering {V, X K, —

U H (X L)} ofX. By theorem (15.9), we may assume

—

2 is small of order Y Since c annihilates Sq(V), z 0 c is a relative

(n q)—cycle on (X L, X K).
— — —

This cap product is compatible with passage to smaller (U, V); hence,
passage to the limit gives a cap product

H,,(X, X— K) x H"(K, L) a
H,,_,,(X L, X— K)
—

Step 3. The diagram

~
H""‘(L) ~
I‘-I"(K, L) ~
FI"(K) ~
H"(L) -

51.01 Ckfll §Kfll (J71

-
H,,_qH(X,X— L) -
H,,_,,(X L,X— —

K) -°
H,,_q(X,X— K) -
H,,_q(X,X-L) —'

is sign—commutative. Apply the absolute Alexander duality and the 5-

lemma. I

(27.7) Remark. We can similarly define a canonical homomorphism

CK o:H"(X —

L, X —

K) e
I'1,,_.,(1<,L>
where the module on the right is the projective limit

lim H"_q(U, V)
(U, V)
This is not in general an isomorphism: LetX P3, K P2, L empty, R Z- = = =

Then H1 (K) H, (K) Z/2. Now X K is an open 3-cell, so the exact

= = —

cohomology sequence gives H 2(X X K ) H 2(P3) 0. The trouble is

,
— = =
Alexander Duality 235

caused by torsion in the homology groups. One can prove that this duality
does hold When R is a field by an argument similar to the proof of (22.24),
using the fact that projective limits commute with exact sequences of vector
spaces.

(27.8) Remark. The Alexander duality can be generalized to the case of

an arbitrary closed pair in a paracompactmanifold, provided one uses Cech-
Alexander cohomology with compactsupports (see Spanier [5 2], Chap. 6, or
Swan [56], Chap. XI).

(27.9) Corollary. Let A be a compact submanzfold of R". Then

H"(/1) E Hf—q—1(R" —

A)
for all q < n and H”(A) = 0 (hence dim A < n).
Proof: By (26.17), we may identify H"(A) =
H"(A). Regarding R” as
S”—point, we have the isomorphisms
H"(A)
D, H,,_,,(S",
—~
S" —

A) ~
H,,_,,(R”, R"—A)aHf
a ,,,,(R"— A)
I

(27.10) General Separation Theorem. If A is a compact (n 1)- —

dimensional submanzfold of R” having k connected components, then the

complement of A has k + 1 connected components.
Proof: Take coefficients in Z/ 2. By (27.9) and Poincare duality, H0(A) %
H"“(A) % H3‘(R” A). —

(27.11) Theorem. A non-orientable compact n-dimensional manifold

cannot be imbedded in R"“.

Proof: Otherwise, if k is the numberof connected components of A, rank

H,,(A; Z) rank H"(A; Z) rank Hff(R”+’ A; Z) k (since (27.9)
= = — =

holds for any coefficient ringl). But A non—orientable implies H,,(A; Z) has
rank less than k (22.28). I

Thus the non—orientable surfaces (1,, cannot be imbedded in 3—space.

(27.12) Exercise. If A is a compact n-dimensional manifold imbedded in
Compact connected manifold X of the same dimension, then A X. =

(27.13) Exercise. Apply Alexander Duality to get short proofs of

Theorems 18.1 and 18.3.
236 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

(27.14) Exercise. RecallX* Y, the join ofX, Y(17.18). Observe thatS"

is homeomorphic to S” * S‘? wherep + q rz 1. Embed S” in S" byx
= —

—>

(x, 0, y ) where y E S” is fixed. Use this embedding to interpret the duality

isomorphism H”(S”) Hq(S” S1’) geometrically. The case p q 1 is
E —
= =

pictured

The following exercises are based on Steenrod and Epstein [87], p. 35.
(27.15) Exercise. Let M be a connected closed (n 1)—manifold
—

embedded in S ”. By (27.1 1), M is orientable and separates S into two open

"

subsets with closures A and B such thatA U B S ". Prove that no proper
:

closed subset of M can separate S”, hence A 0 B M. =

(27. 16) Exercise. Use (27.15) to prove a theorem of Hopf. The inclusions
i:M A and j :M
—* -> B induce a representation of H” (M ) as a direct sum

H"(M)’=‘i*H‘1(A)€Bj*H"(B) 0 < q < n —

1

where 1*, 1* are monomorphisms (z* H‘? (1') an abbreviation). Show that
=.

H’(A ) 0= =
H’(B) for r 2 n 1. Taking coefficients in a field F, prove
—

i*H‘1(A) 2 Hom(j*H"“"‘(B), F) 0 < q < n -1.

(27.17) Exercise.Use (27.16) to prove nonexistence of embeddings P" It

Sn+l, Cpn X Sm K S2n+m+1, Cpn K S2n+l, Hpn t S4n+1 provided n 2
 28. Lefschetz Duality

An n—dimensional mamf0ld—with—b0undary is a space X locally homeo-

morphic to the Euclidean half—space
R’l,={(x1,...,x,,)€R”|x,,Z0}

4414
Those points in
238 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

(28.4) Example 4: Y X I, where Y is any manifold without boundary.

(28.5) Example 5: Any open subspace of a manifold—with—boundary.

(28.6) Note. A complete classificationof compact surfaces—with—boundary
is given in Ahlfors and Sario [2], Chap. l, or Massey [67].
Let Vbe open inX, so_that V= VF) X, 6V= V0 8X. LetI‘(V) be the
module of sections over V of the orientation sheaf ofX F(6 V) the module of
,

sections over 6 V of the orientation sheaf of 6X (22.8 and 22.2).

(28.7) Proposition. There are unique homomorphisms

aV;r(V ) a
r(aV)
which are compatible with restriction to smaller V and which take local
orientations of X along V into local orientations of 6X along <9 V.

(28.8) Corollary. If is R—orientable so is 6X._

In fact, (28.7) shows how an R—orientation of X induces one of 8X.

Proof of the proposition: The question being local, it suffices to verify

(28.7) for the opens in a basis. These are of two types:
Type 1. VC X. seta, = 0.

Type 2. V homeomorphic to the half—ball E" F) R”+. In this case we have

several natural isomorphisms.
(1) For any x € V, X V is a strong deformation retract of X x.
— —

\/
<:'x—>
/\
Hence I-I,,(X,_X —

V)H,,(X, X x) 2 H,,(X, X x) is an isomorphism.

~ — —

(2) Since Vis an open n-cell, the evaluation homomorphism

FV H,,(X,X x)
~ —

is an isomorphism. Combining with (1) gives a commutative diagram Of

isomorphisms
H,.<X,X—V) 3 W’
11 ll
H.<X,X—x)’e H,.<X,X —x>
Lefschetz Duality 239

(3) Consider the exact homology sequence of the triple (X, X V, X V) — —

We have Hq(X, X V) Hq(X, X) 0 for all q, because X V is a

—
= = —

strong deformation retract of X.

Hence a:H,,(X, X —
V) «
H,,V1(X —

V, X —

V) is an isomorphism.
(4) ‘Suppose x’ E 6V. Then X —
V is a strong deformation retract of
X -
V —
x’.

Similarly 6X 0 V is a strong deformation retract of (9X X’.

- —

(5) X 7 V x’ is relatively open inX— V. The closure ofX V isX— V

— —

C X V x’, hence X
— —
V may be excised. Combiningthis isomorphism
—

with those of (4) gives a commutative diagram of isomorphisms

rav ——>
’\/

H,,_,(X— V,X—V)
31 Ir
H,,_,(6X,6X~x’):H,,_,(6X,6X—¢9V)?» H,,_1(X —
V, X V—x’) —

(the left vertical isomorphism being the evaluation of sections at the point
X’ [(9V is an open (11 l)—cell in 6x]).
—

(6) Combining(2),(3), and (5) gives an isomorphism

aV;rV ~ raV

Which is clearly compatible with restriction to smaller V’s of types 1 or

2. I

(28.9) Note. The converse of (28.8) is false, as is shown by Example 1.

(28.10) We next imbed X as a closed subspace of an n—dimensional

manifold without boundary in functorial way.
Let X1, X2 be two copies of X, and form the disjoint union
240 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

X.J1 (aX><1)J1 X2
Then identify any x’ E 6X1 with (x', 0), and identify any x’ E 6X2 with
(x', 1). Let 2X be the quotient space. Then each X, is mapped homeo-
morphically onto a closed subspace of 2X. Clearly 2X is an n—dimensional
manifold, compact if X is.
(28.11) Examples: 2(Mobius) = Klein bottle

2(Annu1us of dim. 2) = Torus

2 " =
S”

2(S‘ ><I)=Torus
(28.12) Exercise. If is R—0riented, then_ there is a unique R-orientation
of 2X inducing the given R—orientation on X 1 and X2.
Let Y1 X1 U (6X>< [0, 1)), Y2 (6X>< (0, 1]) U X2 (identifying with
= =

the images in 2X). then X, is a deformation retract of Y,-, i 1, 2. And =

Y, Y2
F) = 6X X (0, 1) homotopically equivalent
is to 6X. Since each Y, is
open in 2X, (2X, Y1, Y2) an
is exact triad. Applying (20.8) to the Mayer-
Vietoris sequence, we get

X(2X) =
x(Y:)+ X(Y2) x(Yu —
(7 Y2)
01'

x(2X) =
2x(X) —

x(<9X)
where the Euler characteristic may be taken relative to any PID R.

(28.13) Corollary. IfX is compact and

Lefschetz Duality 241

Then there is a unique homology class 4’ E H,,(X, 6X) such thatfor any x E
X ,

S(x) =
j if (C)
Proof: There is a canonical homomorphismj :H,,(X, 6X) —’ FX given by
j (0r)(x) =
J'§(a)
(verify j ((1) is continuous). We claim j is an isomorphism: Identify X X1, =

so that X is a closed subspace of the open manifold Y Y1 and is a =

deformation retract of Y (28.10). Then we have the commutative diagram

H,,(X, X —

X) J
\ n

1 FX
H.,< Y. Y —

X) [ r
1
H,,(Y, Y— X) L PX

where the left vertical arrows are isomorphisms (Y —

242 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

(28.17) Example: Let X be the (closed) Mobius band, <p:I2 -> X the
quotient map, so that <p(0, t ) <p(1, 1 t) for all t. The loops
= —

0(3) :
<25(S, %)
¢>(2s, 0) s I/\ 1
2
7(5) =

¢(2s —

1, 1) s 2%

represent the equator of X and the boundary of X respectively. Now the

equator is a strong deformation retract of X, the deformation being given by

Fu(¢(Ss t )) =
<l>(S,% 4' u(t —

%))
Since For 02, we see that 1' is homotopic to 02. It follows that H2(X) 0,
= =

while the inclusion H1(0X) H] (X) becomes multiplication by 2 when we

—>

identify these modules with R. The exact homology sequence then shows that
H2(X, 8X) 0 when R Z, so thatX is indeed non-orientable.
= =

(28.18) Lefschetz Duality Theorem. Let X be a compact manifold-with-

boundary ofdimension n, and let X be R—oriented. Let 4: E H,,(X, 8X) be the
fundamental class. Then the diagram
—>
H""‘(X) ->
H""(<9X) (1 H"(X, 6X) A
H‘7(X) -’

g F) 1 (65) F) 1 { F) I l

=
n~q+l(X9 ax) 5» H.,.,<aX> ~
H.-.,(X) ~
H,,-.,(X, 6X) ~

is sign—commutatz've and the vertical arrows are isomorphisms.

Proof: Specifically, the left square is commutative only up to a factor of
(—l)"”‘ (24.21), while the middle and right squares are actually
commutative.

Note that the homomorphism H"”'(6X) I-I,,._q(r9X) is the Poincaré

—’

Duality isomorphism (26.6). we

is If check the isomorphism H"(X) "

H,,_q(X, 6X), the other isomorphism will follow from the 5—1emma (14.7)-
Identify X with X] C 2X (29.3). Then excision and deformation retract10I1
give isomorphisms

HIl‘q(X9
Lefschetz Duality 243

and under this isomorphism the fundamental class in H,,(X, 6X) (28.15)
corresponds the
to fundamental class in H,,(2X, 2X X) (28.12, 22.21,—

22.24). But by Alexander Duality (27.5), cap product with the fundamental
class gives an isomorphism

H"(X) 3 H,,_,(2X, 2X X) —

In this case, IV-I"(X) =

H"(X) because X is a deformation retract of its
neighborhoods X U (c9X X [0, 8)) in 2X. I

(28.19) Exercise. LetX be 3—dimensional with H1(X) = 0. Then 6X is a

disjoint union of 2—spheres (show H,(6X) 0). =

(28.20) Exercise. Suppose Y is a compact oriented manifold of dimension

4k. Then there is a symmetric bilinearform [3 on H “(Y ) given by
B(€, 71) =
[Ca 5 U 71]
where{ is the fundamental homology class of dimension 4k. Suppose Y is a
boundary, Y 0X, where X is compact. Let A2” be the image of H 2’‘(X)
=

under the inclusion H2k(X) —' H2k(Y). Then Azk IS

244 Orientation and Duality on Manifolds

that./K, is isomorphic to a certain homotopy group which one can compute

(Thom [57]; also Milnor [41]). For q odd 75 2* 1, the class xq was
—

computed by Dold [19] as follows: Write q + 1== 2’ (2s + 1). Then xq is the
class of P(2’ —

1, 2's), where in general P(m, n) the manifold obtained

is
from S'’' X CP” by identifying (x, z) with (—x, Z). (See also Stong [72].)
There is also a cobordism theory for compact oriented differentiable
manifolds. Define ~-X to be X with the opposite orientation. Then X and Y
are said to be in the same oriented cobordism class if the disjoint union of X
and —Y is an oriented boundary [comment after (28.8)]. Giving the
topological product the product orientation (see Section 29), we obtain a
graded skew—commutative ring

The algebra Q 6-) Q over the rational numbers was determined by Thom; it
is a free—skew—commutative algebra generated by the classes of even-
dimensional complex projective spaces CP2". Thus if q is not divisible by 4,
0,1 is a torsion group. The torsion part of Q has been determined by Wall
[58] and Milnor [40]. For small values of q we have

0 q=2,3
04: Z q=4
Z/2 q=5
For any pair ( Y, B), by considering all maps (X, 6X) (Y, B ) for all X, a
rr

new homology theory for (Y, B ) is constructed, called bordism. This theory
satisfies all the Eilenberg—Steenrodaxioms except that the bordism groups of
a point are non—trivial (see Conner and Floyd [15]). A survey of recent
developments is given by R. J. Milgram in Proc. Symp. Pure Math. Vol. 32
(1978) 79-89.
(28.22) Note. For a deeper study of the material in sections 26-30, see
Dold [64]. For the generalization of the duality theorems to extraordinary
homology theories, see Adams [74] or Gray [76].
(28.23) Exercise. If M is compact, 6M is not a retract of M.

(28.24)Exercise. If M is the boundary of a contractible manifold Wthefl

M and 2W have the homology of spheres.

(28.25) Exercise. Suppose M is orientable and dimM 2n + 1. Let i:t3M

=

-’ M be inclusion. LetK ker H,,(i):H,,(dM) H,,(M ) where coefficients

= ->
Lefschetz Duality 245

are in a field F. Prove 2 dim K = dim H,,(6M ). If M is nonorientable, the

result is true for F Z/2Z.
=

(28.26) Exercise. ([79], p. 63). Let M be a compact 3—manifold such that

6M contains no 2—spheres. Prove: if either (a) M is orientable and 6M 75 0 or
(b) M is nonorientable and 6M (possibly empty) contans no projective
planes, then H,(M; Z) is infinite.
 Part IV
PRODUCTSAND
LEFSCHETZ FIXED
POINT THEOREM
 Introduction to Part IV

We have a number of means at our disposal for systematically calculating

the Values of homology and cohomology modules. No such general devices
are available for cup products. In practice two broad lines of attack are
perceptible. On the one hand, special structure on the space in question may
place restrictions on the possible cohomology algebras. For manifolds, the
dualitytheoremsimpose strong restrictions. On the other hand, by working in
an abstract setting, one can construct auxiliaryproducts and determine many
relations among them. These in turn can often be used to determine the
cohomology algebra. This part develops some basic aspects of the formal
procedure.
In chapter 29, cross products and slant products are introduced. Formal
relations among these and the cup and cap products of chapter 24 are
developed. Some relations, which hold on the level of cohomology, hold only
up to chain homotopy on the underlying chain complex. It would be a
considerable nuisance to have to make explicit such chain homotopies or
even to give an argument like that for 24.8. Instead we use the acyclic model
theorem. This is the most abstract piece of reasoning in the text, however all
the vital details were already present in the proof of homotopy invariance
(1 1.4).
Among the applications of the formal machinery is the description of the
cohomology ring of a product of spaces in terms of the tensor product of the
cohomology rings of the factors.
We have not tried to be complete in our elaboration of all the formal
relations holding among the various products. The texts by Dold [64] and
Spanier [52] provide much more information. The account in J. F. Adams
l62] gives a good overview.
The Thorn complex, introduced in chapter 30, has proved important in the
Marvin J. Grccnbcrg andjohnR. Harper, Algebraic Topology: A FirstCourse ISBN 0—805 3—3558»7(H)
CoPyright ©
, _ _ g g
_ A

_
‘ISBN
1981 by Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company, Int... Advanced
0—8053—3557»9(Pbkl
Book Program. All rights
reserved. No pan ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted. in any form
fgcby ati)1‘)_'ifr‘ieans,clectronic,
pu is er.
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of

249
250 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

study of manifolds and also in homotopy theory. The utility of the products
introduced in chapter 29 reflects itself in the theorems of this section.
In chapter 31, a brief introduction to intersection theory is given. The
Poincare duality isomorphism receives a more geometric interpretation in the
case where homology classes are represented by embedded submanifolds.
Relaxing the manner in which homology is represented would lead to the
geometric view of Poincare duality afforded by the combinatorial approach
[86]. We do not carry this out in general, but content ourselves with a
discussion of the lens spaces.
 29. Products

We have seen (7.11) that the n”‘ homotopy group of a product of pointed
spaces is canonicallyisomorphic to the product of the n"‘ homotopy groups of
the factors. However, the behavior of the homology modules with respect to
products is more complicated. For example, H2(S1 X S 1) E R, while
H2(S‘) X H2(S‘) 0. =

The analysis breaks into two parts. First is the geometric step relating
S(X X Y) with S(X) ® S(Y). Second is the algebraic step relating
H.(C (8 C ’) with H.(C) ® H.(C ’). In the case when R is afield, thegraded
homology module H.(X X Y) is isomorphic to the tensor product
H.(X) ® H.(Y).
Every singular n—simplex w in X X Y is uniquely expressible in the form
(0, r), where 0 pxw, 1' pyw (pX,py the projections ofX X Yon X, Y).
= =

For each integer p with 0 S p S n, we can associate to (0, 17) the element
0%,, ® rp,,_p of the tensor product Sp(X) ® S,,sp(Y ) (front p—face of 0
tensored with the back (n p)—face of I; see Section 24). Extending by
—

linearity gives a homomorphism S,,(X X Y) Sp(X) ® S,,_p(Y ). We can —>

then add all of these homomorphisms: Let

[S00 ‘3’ S(Y )ln ‘E0 SAX) <3 Sn—p(Y)

and define the Alexander— Whitney homomorphism
A:S,,(X>< Y) -» [S(X) <3: S(Y)],,
by
H

A(o, r) = 2 (TAP <31 rp,,,p.

p 0
’

Marvin]. Grccnberg and John R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0—8053—3558—7(H)
ISBN 0—8053»3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company, Inc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
‘

reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form
3:’by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of
8 publisher.
251
252 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

(29.1) Lemma. The Alexander-Whiteny homomorphism is functorial in

(X Y )-
,

Proof. This means: Given maps f :X X’, g:Y -+ —*

Y’, they induce the
map f>< g:X X Y X’ X Y’; then the diagram
—*

Sn(X >< Y>‘1[S(X>®S(Y >1"

S,,(f>< g) 62 S,,(f) ® s”_,,(g>
[7

S,.(X’ x Y’) 4» [S<X'> ® S(Y'>1,.

is commutative. The proof is immediate from the definitions. I

(29.2) We now make the sequence of modules [S(X) ® S(Y )],, into an
algebraic chain complex by defining a boundary operator. In general, let C,
C’ be algebraic chain complexes, and set

[Co C’],,= ec,®C;_,,

p’-0

as before. Then d:|C (8 C '],, —>

[C (8 C’],,_, is defined by

d(z (X Z’) = dz (8! z’ + (—1)"z <31 02'

forz E Cp, 2’ E C ;,.p, and extended by linearity. Clearly 86 = 0.

(29.3) Lemma. A is a chain homomorphism, i. e.,

A6=6A

Proof: The proof is by a computation essentially identical to that in the

proof of (24.2). I

We can form the homology modules H,,(C 83 C’) as by taking the

usual
kernel of 6 modulo the image of the preceding 6. (29.3) implies that A
induces a functorial homomorphism

21 ; H,,(X>< Y) ~
H,,(S(X) <3 S(Y))
(29.4) Eilenberg—ZilberTheorem. 171 is an isomorphism. In fact, A is £1
Products 253

chain equivalence of the chain complex S(X X Y) with the chain complex
S(X) S(Y ).
®
To say that A is a chain equivalence means that there is a chain
homomorphism B:S(X) 69 S( Y) S(X X Y) such thatAB and BA are both
—*

chain homotopic to the identity. The construction of B and the chain

homotopies is by the method of acyclic models——see Appendix (29.23A).
We next relate the homology of the algebraic complex S(X) 69 S( Y ) to the
tensor product of the homology of X with the homology of Y. If 2 is a p—cycle
on X, w an (n —p)—cycle on Y, thenz 69 w is a cycle in [S(X) <89 S(Y )],,, and
we get a well—defined bilinearpairing

H,,(X) >< H,,_,,(Y) ~

H,,(S(X) <2: S(Y)
by (Z, W) —'
2 (8 w. Hence there is a unique homomorphism
Hp(X) (35 H,.~,,(Y) —*
H.,(S(X) <3‘ S(Y))
sending 2 (8 W into 2 (E w. If, as before, we set

lH(X) <3‘ H(Y)]., =p§90 Hp(X) (3 H" »,,(Y)

we obtain a homomorphism
iIlH(X) <3’ H(Y)l,. —'
H.,(S(X) <3’ S(Y ))
given by

Clearly 1' is functorial in the pair (X, Y). The image of an element 4’ ® in
under the composite homomorphism

Bi:H,,(X) ® Hq(Y) ->

Hp+q(X>< Y)
will be denoted 4,’ X to.
When R is a PID, we will show that i is a monomorphism and we will
determine its cokernel. For later applications, we will treat a more general
situation: Replace S(X) and S( Y) by arbitrary algebraic chain complexes C,
C ’. Moreover, we take C and C to be indexed by all the integers, not just the
'

non—negative ones; this allows us to simultaneously treat algebraic cochain

complexes, setting C_,, C ” to convert a cochain complex into a chain
=

Complex. Let
254 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

[C®C’l,,= ea cpcacg,
p+q=II

where and q may take on negative values, and define the boundary
now 1)
operator for the complex C 69 C’ as in (29.2). We obtain the canonical chain
homomorphism
i:H(C) <8 H(C ’) ->
H(C (81 C’)
as before. We determine the kernel and cokemel of 1' under the assumptions
that R is a PID and C is free [i.e., all C,, are free modules, satisfied by
C» =
Sn(X)]'
Let Z, B be the complexes of cycles and boundaries of C. Let B be the ‘

complex given by

Then we have an exact sequence of chain complexes

(29.5) O—+Z—>C(iB’—>0
Since B’ is free by our assumptions, this sequence splits, hence tensoring
with C’ gives another exact sequence of chain complexes

0-*Z®C’->C®C’—’B’®C'—*0

By the usual argument, this sequence induces an infinite exact homology

sequence

(29.6) -»
H,,(Z ca C’) a
H,,(C ca C’) —»
H,,(B" <22: C’)
*
n—l(Z 63* C’) e

Now Z is a free complex whose boundary operator is identically zero. In

this case Z =
H(Z ), and we obtain the following result:
Sublemma. z':Z ® H(C’) ->
H(Z (8 C’) is an isomorphism.

Proof: The boundary operator on Z (8 C is’

given by
r3(z (85 w) =
(—l)"z (35 5w

hence, the proof of the sublemma comes down to showing thatthe sequence
Products 255

0-»Zp®Bj,—>Zp®Z[,—+Zp®Hq(C’)-r0
is exact, which follows from the fact that Z,, is free. I

Similarly, i:B" ® H(C ’) H(B’ (83 C’) is an isomorphism. Substitute

—’

these isomorphic modules in the exact sequence (29.6), obtaining

->
[B (X H(C’)],, ->
[Z (35 H(C’)],, ->
H,,(C (X C’)
"
[B Q9 H(C ’)]n—i “'

In other words, we have the exact sequence

(29.7) 0 —’ Coker (1),, ->

H,,(C (85 C’) -> Ker ¢,,_1—> 0

where ¢,,:[B ® H(C ’)],, [Z ® H(C ’)],, is the connecting homomorphism.

-’

To determine Coker qS,, and Ker <1>,,_,, we use the exact sequence

(29.8) 0 ~
Bpiezp ~
H,,(C) -» 0

which need not split. Tensoring with H,,_,,(C ’) gives an exact sequence
® 1
H,,_,,(C’)J"———+
'

(29.9) 3,, <3 4,

,

® H,,_,,(C’)
->
H,,(C) (Bi H,,_p(C’) -* 0
where the left arrow needn’t be a monomorphism; in fact, since (29.8) is a
free resolution of Hp(C)(Zp is free), its kernel is by definition
Tor (Hp(C), H,,_,,(C ’)).
Adding these sequences for all p gives the exact sequence (since)
(1),, =
E99]; (29 1).
0 ~ 69 Tor(H,,(C), H._,,(C '» e
[B <3 H(C '>1,, 9"
P

9' [Z ® H<C')1. ~
[H(C) ® H(c'>1,, ~ 0
which gives us Ker (75,, and Coker q>,,. We state the result.
(29.10) The KimnethExact Sequence. Assume R is a PID and C is free.
For all rz, we have the exact sequence

0 a
C-BH,,(C)
P
<3 H,,_,,(C’) ~
H,,(C «X C’)
~ 69
P
Tor<H,,(C). H.-,,-.<c '>> ~ 0
256 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

This sequence actually splits (but non»-canonically): For sequence (29.5)

splits, so we have a projection 7r:C Z; similarly, we have 11" :C
-+ Z '. ’
—*

Composing these with the quotient homomorphisms 1//:C H(C), tfi ’:C -*
’
—>

H(C ’), hence a homomorphism

H(a,[/ (X 1//’):H(C (81 C’) —’
H(H(C) (X H(C ’)) =
H(C) <3? H(C’)
which is a projection making H(C) ® H(C ’) a direct summand.
In the geometric case C S(X), C’ =
S(Y ), we can use the Eilenberg—
=

Zilber theorem to substitute for H,,(S(X) ® S(Y )) and obtain the homology
of X X Y.

(29.11) The KunnethFormula. Assume R is a PID. Then

H,,(X)< Y) 21330 Hp(X)® H,,_p(Y) G9 [7

:60 Tor(Hp(X),H,,_p_,(Y))
(29.11.1) Corollary. If all the homology modules of Y (or of X) in
dimensions <n are free (e.g., if R is a field), then

Hn(X x Y) E
go Hp<X> 09 H,.g,,<Y)
Proof: In that case (29.9) is exact with a zero on the left, hence
Tox<1z,(X),H...-1<Y)) = 0. I

(29.l1.2) Corollary. (R a PID.) If the Euler characteristics x(X; R),

x(Y; R ) are defined, then x(X X Y; R ) is defined and
x(X>< Y;R ) =
x(X;R )x(Y;R)
As special case of (29.10), let C =
S(X, Z ), and let C’ be the chain
complex given by C(, =
R, C ;, = O for n 75 0, where R is any commutative
ring. In this case
[(381 C'l.. =
Sn(X; Z ) ‘3 R =
S,.(X;R)
so that we obtain

(29.12) Universal Coeflicient Theorem. The sequence

0-’H,,(X;Z)®R-*H,,(X;R)-+Tor(H_,(X;Z),R)->0
Products 257

issplit exact.
For example, if R Z/ 2, Tor(H,,_, X; Z), Z/ 2) is the subgroup of
=

H,,_1(X; Z) of elements of order 2, while H,,(X; Z) ® Z/2 is the cokemel of

multiplication by on H,,(X; Z ).
2

(29.13) If the homology modules are finitely generated, we can determine

the Tor’s more explicitly in terms of the cyclic components. By an argument
completely analogous to that in (23.23), one can show that Tor (M, N ) is bi-
additive in (M, N ). Since the free summands don’t contribute anything
(29.12),we are reduced to computing Tor (R/a,R/b),where a and b are non-
zero. Just as in proof of (23.21), we can choose any free resolution to
compute Tor, so we use

a*
0 —> R —- R —> R/a -’ 0

where a* is multiplication by a. Tensoring with R/b gives

*
0 ~+
Tor(R/a, R/b) ~ R/b 5’. R/b a R/d -» 0

where d is the greatest common divisor of a and b. If m is the least common

multiple of a and b, the kernel of multiplication by a on R/b is (m/a)R/bR %
R/d. Thus if the torsion submodules of M, N have the respective decomposi-
tions

63 R/a,-, 63 R/bj
I J

and d,-j =
gcd(a,~, bj), then
Tor(M, N) %
258 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

Z n=0
Z/2 n=l
Z n=2
H,,(P3><S2;Z)% zcbz/2 n=3
0 n=4
Z n=5
0 n=6

Thus these manifolds are not homotopically equivalent. However,

rr,(P2 X S3) % Z/2 % 1r,(P3 >< S2)
and for n > 1 we have (7.12)
7T,,(P2 >< 53) '=” 7T,.(S2) X 1T..(S3)E 7T,,(-5'2 X P3)
so that all the homotopy groups are the same. (A theoremof Whitehead gives
a sufficient condition for two spaces with the same homotopy groups to have
the same homology groups. See Spanier [52], Chap. 7, Section 5.)

(29.15) Example: Consider the 6—dimensional manifolds S2 X S4 and

CP3. By (29.1 1.1) and (19.21), they both have the same homology.
However, their homotopy groups are different, e. g.,
TT4(-5'2 X S4) % 7T4(S2) X 7T4(S4)
contains the subgroup 1 X 7r4(S4) % Z, whereas the exact sequence of the
fibre space S 7 CP3 shows -’

774(CP.3) E 774(S7) : 0

(See Spanier [52], Chap. 7, Section 2.)

(29.16) Remark. In the realtive case, (29.10) yields the exact sequence

0 -’
6?
11-0
H,,(X,A) <3‘ H.,—,,(Y,B) "
Hr1(S(XaA) ‘3’ S(Y, B )) "

11-1
" 39
p=0
T0F(Hp(X,A),Hn—p—:(Y, B )) * 0
Products 259

In case one of A, B is empty, say B, then an easy argument shows thatthe

Alexander—Whitney homomorphism induces an equivalence of chain com-
plex S(X X Y)/S(A X Y) with chain complex S(X, A) (X3 S(Y), hence an
isomorphism
H,,(S(X,A) ® S(Y)) % H,,(XX Y,A X Y)
for all rt. On the other hand, in the case where (X X Y,A X Y, X X B ) is an
exact triad (e.g., if A and B are open), then joining the previous case to the
relative Mayer—Vietoris sequence via the five lemma yields the isomorphism

H,,(S(X,A) (X S(Y,B))%H,,(XXY,AX YUXXB)

foralln.

(29.17) Cup and cross products. The basis for using the previous material
to study cup products is their description (due to Lefschetz) as compositions.
The cup product c U d of cochains c E S”(X), d E S” (X) is the composite

S(X) Egg) S(XX X) 14: S(X) <29 S(X) c2~dR ®R I-n>R

where A:X X X X is the diagonal and m is multiplication in R. This is
-’

readily checked. On singular n—simplices ¢r(n _p + q), S(A)(o) (0, 0) and

= =

m(c <3 d)A(a, 0) =

m(c <3: d)( _+Z:3 ax, ca (Ipj)
=
[a}\, c][ap,,, d].
By isolating the steps, formal relations are found which are useful in
calculations.
Consider spaces X, Y and cochains c E S”(X), d E S"(Y).
(29. 17. 1) Definition. The cross (or exterior) product c X d E
S”+"(XX Y) is the cochain given by the composite

S(X>< Y)-4 S(X)<as(Y)‘¥®—.dR<aR3’ R.

More precisely, consider the cochain complex [S(X) (8 S( Y )J* whose
component of degree n is the dual of [S(X) ® S(Y)],,. There is a canonical
homomorphism of cochain complexes
r:S'(X) <85 S'(Y) -*
[S(X) ® S(Y)]*
260 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

defined as follows: Given c E S"(X), d E S4 (Y ), r(c <8 d) is the linear form

on S(X) ® S(Y) whose value onz ® w E Spr(X) ® Sq:(Y) is given by

[2, cllw, dl ifp' =11 and q’ =

q,
[2 (3! w, r(c (3! d)] =

0 otherwise.

Then c X d =
’Ar(c (8 d).
(29.17.2) Lemma. 8(c X a’) = 8c X d + (-1)”c X 8 a’.

Proof Routine using (29.2) and (29.3) I

As usual, the cross product of cocycles is a cocycle and the addition of a

coboundary varies the cross product of cocycles by a coboundary. Hence we
receive a pairing

H‘?(X) <2: H"(Y) >5» HP+q(X>< Y).

called the cohomology cross product. The basic relation between cup
products and cross products is

c U d=H'(A)(cX d)
for c, d E H '(X). This is often used as a definition for the cup product.
A useful relation is given by

(29.l7.3) Proposition. c X d S'(pX)(c) U =

S'(pY)(d) where pX,pY are
the projections of X X Y on X, Y.

Proof For any singular (p + q)-simplex(o,1') in X x Y,

[(0, r), ’Ar(c ® a’ )1 =
[A(a, r), r(c <23: d )]
E

=
[a>\,, <3 ‘tpq, r(c <3 d )1
=
[UM Cllrpq, d l,
[(0, T), S'(Px)c U S'(py)dJ =
lPx(‘7a T)>\,,,cl[Py(<7,1')Pq,dl
=[a}\p,c][1'p,],d|. I

Corollary. The cross productsfor homology and cohomology are related

by theformula
Products 261

(29-174) [C X 0’, 5 X 11|=[€a éllw, 11]-

For some applications it is useful to generalize (29.l7.3) to

(29_17.5) Proposition. Let a, b E H'(X), c, d 6 H.(Y). Then

(a Ub)><(cUd)=(—1)l’’l1"‘ (a X c) U (b X d) where |x| denotes
dimension.

Proof. Unlike (29.17.3) this relation does not hold for cochains. We begin
the proof here. It will be completed by an appeal to the acyclic model
theorem (29.25). The followingdiagram contains routes to define the various
products.
S(XX Y) 44:. S(X)®S(Y)
sum)
cu Sm X An (9 Sm.) <2 s<Ay>

S(X><Y><X><Y)'S(1l"—>-(>1)S(X><X><YX Y) ——’-4-» S(X><X)®S(YX Y)

.41
S(X>< Y)®S(X><
© l A ®A
Y)AE;4S(X)®S(Y)®S(X)®S(Y)l(EXlS(X)®S(X)®S(Y)® S(Y)

where i and Tare defined in (29.27). Triangle(D is induced from commuting

maps while (2) is the functorial property of A (29.1). Diagram Q) commutes
up to chain homotopy, a fact proved in (29.28). From this the result
follows. I

Next we place (29.17.5) in an algebraic context. Form the graded module

H '

(X) 69 H '( Y), whose component of degree n is

[H'(X) <85 H’(Y)]" = 63 H”(X) ® H"(Y).
p+q="

We make this into a graded R—algebra with multiplication

(a,, <3! bq)(c, (59 ds) =
(—1)”’"(ap U c,.) (81 (bq U ds).
(With the same definition of multiplication in S '(X) (8 S '(Y), the
coboundary operator becomes a graded—algebra derivation; this accounts for
the choice of sign.) Note that this multiplication is in general noncommuta—
tive, even though each of the factors may be commutative.
There is a graded algebra homomorphism

H'(X) ®H'(Y)>—<~ H'(X>< Y)

functorial in (X, Y) called cross product, defined by
262 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

a (85 b ~>
a X b =
H'(pX)(a) U H'(py)(b)
fora E H'(X),b E H'(Y)(p,\»,p,v being the projections ofX>< YonX, Y).
(29.17.6) Exercise (R a PID). Assume all the homology modules of X are
finitely generated. Then there is an exact sequence

0 ~
[H' (X) ®H‘(Y)|”>—<>H”(X><Y) ~

p+q=nl
69
I
Tor(H"(X),H"(Y))—> 0

so that if, in addition, the homology modules of X or Y are all torsion—free, the
cross product is an isomorphism. (Show S(X) is chain homotopically
equivalent to a subcomplex C such that each C’, is free finitely generated.
Then C” C 3‘ is free for all p and C is cochain homotopicallyequivalent to
=
'

S (X). Convert the cochain complexes C S '(Y) into chain complexes by

' '

negating the indices, and apply the Kilnnethexact sequence (29.10). Finally,
use the fact that C,, is free finitely generated to note that r: C” (8 S"(X) —v

[C,, ® Sq(Y )|* is an isomorphism.)

In particular, if one of H. (X), H. ( Y ) is torsion—free (or coeffieients are in
a field), we have a complete description of the cohomology ring H (X X Y)
'

as the tensor product of the rings H'(X),H‘(Y ).

Exercise. Given another space W and maps f :W X, g:W Y, they -e —~

induce a map (f,g):W XX Y. For 5 E H'(X), 17 E H'(Y), we have

—*

(29-17-7) H'(f,g))(€X 71) =

H'(f)(€) U H'(g)(n)-
In particular, if A:X -> X X X is the diagonal map A(x) =
(x, x),
H'(A)(€>< 77) =
€U 11-

There is also a formula relating cap and cross products, namely

(29-17-3) (CX 0)) V) (€><fI)= (—1)“"""(C V) 5) X ((0 V) 71)
for ( E H,,(X), w E H,,( Y ), 5 E H"(X), 11 E H‘(Y). This formula is not
obvious. The analogous formula on the chain—cochain level fails to hold,
becauseAB is only chain homotopic to the identity, not equal to the identity,
and ‘A r is an algebra homomorphism only on the cohomology, not on the
cochain level. The proof is by the same techniques as in the Eilenberg—Zilber
theorem (see Appendix (29.23A).

(29.18) Example. The cohomology ring is a finer invariant than the

homology (or cohomology) groups. Consider the space S ‘ X S 2 and the
Products 263

space S‘ V S2 V S3 obtained byjoining S‘, S2, and S3 at a common point P.

By the Kiinnethformula and formulas ( l9. l6!19. 18)), these spaces have the
same homology groups (Z in dimensions 0 to 3, 0 in higher dimensions),
hence the same cohomology groups (23.28). By (27.17.6), ifa is a generator
ofH'(S' X S2), b a generator of HZ(S' >< S2), then a U b generates
H~‘(S' >< S2).
Define the map f: S' V S2 V S3 S’ V S2 to be the identity on
—>

S‘ v S2 and the constant map onto P on S3. Then H"(f) is a group

isomorphism for q O, 1, 2. (Since H (f) is, exercise.) Let or’ generate
=

S3
H'(S‘ V S2 V S3), 1;’ generate H2(S‘ V V S3), and put
a’ :
H'(f)(a”), b’ =
H2(f)(b”).
Then a" U b" E H3(Sl V S2) =
0, so that a’ U b’ =
H3(f)(a" U b") =
0.
Thus H'(S' X S2) and H'(S' V S2 V S3) are not isomorphic as rings.
(29.19) Another useful operation on X X Y is the slant product (division
by chains), a bilinearpairing
H”+"(X X Y) X Hp(X) a
H"(Y)
(7, or) *
7/0<
which satisfies the formula

[it 7/04 =
la X 13,71
for /3 E H,,(Y).
First suppose c E [S(X) ® S(Y)];,‘;q, w E S,,(X). Define c/w to be the
q—cochain on Y given by
[z, c/w] :
[w (3 z, c]
for allz E Sq(Y). Then
[2, 6(c/w)| =
|8z, c/w]
=
|w (3 dz, C]
=
(—1)”|6(w ® 2) —
6w (86 z, c]
=
(—l)”|z, 5c/w —

c/6w]
264 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

so that 8(c/w) =
(—1)”(8c/w c/dw). Hence passage to the quotient gives a
—

slant product

H”+"(IS(X) <3 S(Y )|*) X Hp(X) —’

H"(Y)
For )1 E H”"’(X X Y), or E H,,(X) we then define
7/at =j"'7/oz
Note that in the special casep =
q =
0, y =
l, we get

(29.20) 1/a=[oz,1]1 EH°(Y)

for all oz E H0(X).
The basic formula relating all the different products is

(29.21) {(€>< 11) U 7}/01 =

("1)’“""’n U {Y/0t (7 E}
fory E H”(X>< Y), {E H"(X), n E H"(Y), a E H3(X). To make this
plausible, suppose [K E H,,,q,, ‘(Y ). Then

If}, n U {7/an 6] =
[B F) n, 7/00 €J
=I(0rf)€)><(l3fln).7I
=
(—l)’“ "’l(a >< I3) 0 (5 X 11), 7l(29-17.8)
=
(—1)"“’”’la X 3, (€>< n) U 7]
=t4W”MJKXmUflml

(For the proof see (29.30).)

In the special case q s, y = =
1, we get

(32% <:xnVa=1m:m
using (29.20).
Given mapsf:/Y —~
X’, g: Y —*
Y’, the slant product satisfies the formula
(29-23) H”"’(f>< g)(Y ')/01 =
H"(f)(7 '/H,,(g)(0<))-
(Exercise.)
Products 265

Appendix (29.23/4) Acyclic Models

In this appendix we treat the Eilenberg—Mac Lane method of acyelie
models (see [22], or Mac Lane [38], Chapter VIII) and apply it to the theory
of products.
We have seen that to an ordered pair (X, Y) of topological spaces we can
associate

F(X, Y)=S(X>< Y),

F’(X, Y)=S(X)®S(Y)
which are augmented chain complexes: An augmentation of a chain
complex C of R is an epimorphism e:C0 -* R such that the composite

C,—‘3C0—‘>R
is zero; the augmentation of S(X X Y) is 6* (9.7), while that of
S(X) (8 S( Y ) is
at ca a#:S(,(X) ca S(,(Y) ~ R ca R 31¢

We can make a category.% out of the ordered pairs (X, Y) by defining a

morphism (X, Y) (X', Y’) to be a map of the form f>< g, wheref:X
-* a

X’, g:Y a Y’. We can make a categoryn”out of the augmented chain

complexes by defining a morphism h:C C to be a chain homomorphism
-*
'

which preserves the augmentations, i.e., £’h 8. Then F is clearly a functor

=

from 9”to 6, and F’ is also (F'(fXg) S(f) ® S(g):S(X) ® S(Y)

= —>

S(X’) ® S(Y’)).
Moreover, Alexander—Whitney gives us a morphism (natural transforma-
tion) of functors
A:F-*F’

as follows from (29.1), (29.3), and the fact that

A:S(,(X X Y) —>
S(,(X) <8 S(,(Y)
preserves the augmentations (exercise). The Eilenberg—Zilbertheorem can
be rephrased to state that A is a chain equivalence of functors: This means
that there exists a morphism of functors

B:F’—>F
266 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

such that AB and BA are chain homotopic to the identity morphisms. In

general, if.0/ is any category, F, F’;<z/ 6’ functors (6 as above), CD, ‘l’:F
—’ —+

F morphisms of functors, we say (I) and ‘I’ are chain homotopic if for every
’

object X in .0/, the chain homomorphisms CI)(X), ‘I’(X):F(X) F'(X) are —*

chain homotopic by means of a chain homotopy which is functorial in X.

The technique of acyclic models gives us a sufficient condition for the two
functors F, F with values in 6’ to be chain equivalent. In fact, the condition
'

is so strong it imples that any morphism of functors F F is a chain

-'
'

equivalence.
Given a categoryiQ/ with a distinguished set of objects .//4 We say that the
pair (.31/,/X ) is a category with models, the models being the objects in./% Let
FM *> 6 be any functor. For each :1 Z 0 we have a functor Fq from.2/ to the
category of R—modules which assigns to anyX in.5a/ the q”‘ component of the
chain complex F (X). We say Fq has a basis (relative to ,%) if there is an
indexed family [a} E Fq(M,-)},»€,, where the
Products 267

{C0
Kernel s
q>0
q = 0

The homology modules of C are called the reduced (augmented) homology

modules of C. A functor F :.q/ 6’ will be called acyclic (relative to.///) if
—*

for every model M E ./fl all the augmented homology modules of the chain
complex F (M ) are zero.

(29.24) Example (continued): In the Eilenberg—Zilber situation,

H ,’f(A” X A‘? ) 0 for all n, p, and q, since A” X A” is contractible. Thus F
=

is acyclic. We also have Hf[S(A") ® S(A‘1)] 0 for all n,p, and q: Let R
=

be the chain complex which has R in dimension 0 and 0 in all other

dimensions, with zero boundary operator. Then the chain homomorphism
6*:S(A”) R is a chain equivalence since A” is contractible. Hence
-+

a** es 6*:S(A”)«>3: s(/34) -» R as R 3 R

is a chain equivalence, from which the assertion follows. Thus F’ is also

acyclic.
We can now state our main result.

(29.25) Theorem on Acyclic Models. Let (,0/,./X) be a category with

models, 6’ the category of augmented chain complexes over R. Let F,
F
268 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

which is functorial in (X, Y) is the shuffle homomorphism given by

B((a <22: r) = Z i (DH, . . .
D_,,a, D,” . . .
our)
where O’ is a singular p—simplex. r a singular q—simplex, D) is the k”‘
degeneracy operator (proof of (24.8), part 2), the sum is over all permuta»
tions (i, ...ipj,...j,,) of(0...p + q —

I) such that i, < [2 <

Products 259

(29.30) Exercise. Prove formulas (29.l7.8) and (29.21) by the same

method, i.e., deduce them from the chain homotopy commutativity Of
suitable diagrams, the latter being proved by referring to the theorem on
acyclic models.

PV00f0f(29-25)3 Let id; E Fo(1W,-)],«€_,0 be a basis for F0. Since F’ is

acyclic, the augmentation induces an isomorphism
£':H0(F '(M)) 3R

for all j E J0. Hence there is a unique zj E H0(F ’(.MJ-)) such that

€'(Z,~) =
€(dj)
for allj E J0.
morphism of functors ¢»:H0(F ) H0(F ’) preserving
There is a unique -

augmentation, namely the one sending the class of a linear combination

Ev,”-F0(u)(alJ-) E FO(X)
(v,,_,~ E R, uzll/I] ->
X) to the element

XVI;/H0(F '><u><z,,«> <—: H0(F ’(X))

We will construct a morphism <I>:F F’ so as to give gb H0(CI>). IN’ is any
—* =

morphism F F’, then by uniqueness (p H0(‘I’), and we will simul-

—‘ =

taneously construct the chain homotopy D:(I> Z ‘I’.

Thus for every object X E 9/ we must define a chain homomorphism
(D(X):F(X) F '(X) (resp. a chain homotopy D(X):F(X) F ’(X)) such
-> ~’

that for any h:X Y we have

->

‘1’(Y)F(/I) =
F'(/l)<1>(X)
(resp. D(Y )F(/2) = F ’(h)D(X))
Forq Z 0, let {dj E Fq(ll/lJ»)}J-C-14 be a basis for Fq. Once we know the values
<1>q(1V[_,»)(a}) (resp. Dq(MJ-)(d,-)) then for any X we are forced to define
q3.,(X)F.,(l4)(d,-) F[,(ll)‘1’r,(M,—)(d_,)
=

(reSp' Dr[(X)Fr/(u)(d/) :
270 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

6<I>q(X) c1>,,_,(X)a
=

(resp. dDq(X) CDq(X) ‘I’,,(X) Dq, ,(X)6)

= — i

We use induction on q. For q 0, define CI>0(M,-)(dj-) to be any

:

representative F’(1Wj) ofzj H0(F’(Mj~)) (resp. define D0(.Mj)(dj-) to be

in E
any element of Fi(MJ~) whose boundary is the element <I>0(1l4,) (a}) —

‘I’0(1Wj)(dj) of kernel of the augmentation). Then for w E F0(X) the homology

class of d>0(X)(w) is obtained by applying ¢>(X) to the class of w.
In particular, for j €J,,d>0(1l4j)(6dj) is a boundary in F 5(1l4j), so define
<D1(M/~)(d/~) to be any element such that
5‘1>:(1V1,~)(d,~) ‘1>o(M,-)(¢9d,-)
=

Assume q > 1 and CI)’, defined for p < q so as to commute with 6. Note that
<I>q,,(M,-)(a}) is a cycle; since Hq_,(F’(1l/I]-)) 0, we can define CI)q(Mj)(dj)
=

to be any element such that

<9‘1>l,(M,-)(d,-) CD1/—l(A4j)(dj)
=

[Assume q > 0 and DP defined for p < q so as to be a chain homotopy. Note

that for every j € Jq, the element

‘Dc: (M/*)(d/‘) “

‘Yq(Mj)(dj) Dq\x(M/)(5d/)
‘

is a cycle. Since Hq(F (M1)) 0, we can define Dq(M/A)(dj) to be any element

=

whose boundary is this cycle.]. I

(29.31) Remark. We can view our results somewhat more categorically if

we notice that S(X) carries all the structure for the homology and cohomology
of the space X. Thus far we have regarded S(X) only as an augmented chain
complex. To obtain the multiplicative properties, consider the augmentation
preserving chain homomorphism

S(X) SSE’) S(X x X) 51» S(X) <2: S(X)

where d is the diagonal map and A is Alexander—Whitney; let m =
AS(d).
Then m is the comultiplication for a structure of coalgebra on C =
S(X),
i.e., the diagram
Products 271

C®C®Cn£ydC®C
id®m m

C®C ———» C

is commutative (this diagram represents the dual of the associative law; to

prove it is commutative, use the explicit formula

m(a) = 2 O'>\p (3? apq

p+q:n

for any singular n—simplex 0). Moreover the augmentation 6#:S(X) ~* R is a

co—um't, i.e., the composites

C@C®C@~QC®R:c
® n #

CflC®C%—flR®C3C
#®-

are both equal to the identity automorphism of C.

Let ’/7 be the category whose objects are those augmented chain
complexes having a comultiplication making them into a coalgebra for which
the augmentation is a ctrunit. A morphism in the category .9 will be an
augmentation preserving chain homomorphism h:C C’ such that the
-*

diagram
C®Ch—~®h C’®C’
ml Tm’

c —”- C’

is commutative. Then the functor X S(X) actually takes its values in the
->

category 9 (iff:X —’ Y then (29.1) implies that S(f) is a morphism

in 9 ).
However, the category 7 is not appropriate for products, since it does not
have them! Indeed, given C, C’ E 7, the tensor product C 69 C’ does have
the natural comultiplication

c®C'@§VC®C®c®c7M®1§mC®C'®c®C
where T is the interchange operator defined in (29.28). This makes C ® C’
272 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

into a coalgebra (exercise). There are projectionsp:C (8 C’ **

C,p':C ® C’
-> C’ given by

C®C’

id®£'[ \e®id
C®R R®C’
11 11
C C’

which are morphisms in 9 (exercise). Suppose h:C "

—>
C, h’:C C are
”
-r
'

morphisms in .9 If there exists a morphism (h, h’):C

.
”
-r C (3 C such that
’

p(/1, h’) h,p'(h, h’) h’, then it is unique:

= =

(h, /1’) =
(p ®p’)(id ® TX id)(m (X m’)(h, h’)
=
(p 09 p')l(h, /1') <2» 0:, /mm"
=
(/2 <81 h’)m"
Now h (8 /2’ is a morphism in 9, but m” is not, unless the diagram
T
C"®C" a C"®C”

m7I\ / mm

C H

is commutative, i.e., C is skew—commutative (exercise). Thus C (8 C’ has

"

the universal property of a product only relative to the subcategory of skew-

commutative objects. We have seen (24.7) that the functor X S(X) does -’

not have values in this subcategory.

Hence we consider the category 9 whose objects are the same as those
in
Products 273

(29.32) Exercise. The Alexander—Whitney map S(X X Y) —*

S(X) ® S(Y ) is a morphism in the category 9,.

(29.33) Relative cup products. Let (X X Y, A X Y, X X B) be an exact
triad. We derive the relative Eilenberg—Zilbertheorem and use it to construct
relative cup products. From exactness of the triad, we obtain a chain
equivalence
S(X>< Y)/S(A X Y) + S(X>< B) —>
S(X>< Y)/S(A><YUX><B).
Using the Eilenberg—Zilbertheorem (29.4) we have chain equivalences
S(X) (X S(Y) ->
S(X>< Y),
S(A) <31 S(Y) -*
S(A X Y),
S(X)®S(B)-+ S(X><B)
which combine, using functoriality, to produce a chain equivalence

S(X) (31 S(Y)/S(A) (Bl S(Y) + S(X) (Xi S(B) —~

S(X>< Y)/S(A X Y) + S(X>< B)

Combining these chain equivalences with the chain isomorphism

S(X) ®S(Y)/S(A)®S(Y)+S(X)®S(B)%S(X)/S(A) (X! S(Y)/S(B)

we obtain

(29.34) Relative Eilenberg—ZilberTheorem. If(X>< Y, A X Y, XX B ) is

an exact triad, there is a chain equivalence of S(X, A) (8 S( Y, B) with
S(XXY,AX YUX>< B).
(29.35) Corollary. There is a pairing, the relative cross product,

H”(X,A)®H"(Y,B)Z<-'H"+"(X><Y,A><YUXXB)
compatible with the cross product in the absolute case and satisfizing the
analogues of functoriality, associativity, and behavior under the inter-
change map (29.29) which hold jbr the cross product.
274 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

The proof mimics the acyclicmodel methodused to prove these properties

for the cross product
In case X Y, the diagonal induces =

(X,AUB)—*(X><X,A><XUX><B)
and hence a pairing
H”(X, A) (3! H"(X, B) —> HP+"(X, A U B ).
(29.36) Proposition. IfX UL, U,- where U,- are open and contractiblein =

X, then all n—fold cup products of elements ofpositive dimension are 0 in

H'(X).
Proof The inclusion (L X induces the zero map H '(X) H '(U,) in -+ —>

positive dimensions, since U, is contractible in X. By the long exact

sequence, there are epimorphisms H"(X, U,-) H"(X), q > 0. Given —+

x1, x,,, let y,~

. .
E H.'(X U,) be the preimage of x,-. Then the relative cup
, ,

product yl U U y,, E H '(X, U§':, U,)

. .
0 in positive dimensions. By
.
=

naturality, x1U U x,, 0. . . .

= I
In particular, cup products in a suspension are 0.

(29.37) Remark. An elegant application of relative cup products to Hopf

invariants is given in Steenrod and Epstein [87], p. 12-15. The reader is
encouraged to look at it.
(29.38) Exercise. Show the cohomology rings of CP" and S 2 X S4
X . . .
X S 2" are not isomorphic.

(29.39) Excercise. Prove S" V S ’" is not a retract of S " X S”’.

(29.40) Exercise. Prove that if the diagonal AX X X X factors up to —’

homotopy through X V X then cup products of elements of positive degree

,

are 0 in H (X).
'
»

\
XVX.

Show such a factorizationexists if X is a suspension.

Products 275

(29.41) Exercise. Prove if X is a closed manifold with diagonal factoring

as in (29.40), then X has the homology of a sphere.

(29.42) Exercise. Let f : X Y. Adapt the proof of (29.36) to the

~>

situation Cf CX U Y to show if n—fold cup products are 0 in H (Y ). then

=
'

(n + 1)—fold cup products are 0 in H '(Cf ) where Cf is the mapping cone

(21.15).
(29.43) Exercise. Use the method of derived functors applied to the
functor “tensoring with R” to derive (29.12).

(29.44) Exercise. For R =

Z/nZ, derive (29.12) directly from the liong
exact sequence in homology induced by the coefficient sequence 0 Z Z-* —>

-* Z/nZ -> 0. Suggestion: Identify Hq(X; Z/nl) with

Coker {Hq(X; z) 3 H,,(X; 2)}
and Tor(Hq_1(X; Z), Z/nZ) with
Ker {H.,-.(X; z ) 3 H.,~.(X; z n.
 30. Thom Class and Lefschetz
Fixed Point Theorem

Let X be an orientable n—manifold without boundary. We construct a

cohomology class it E H"(X X X, X X X A) called the Thorn class. This
—

class has intimate connections with the fundamental class ( and is used to
construct an inverse to the Poincare duality isomorphism.
LetX be an n—dimensional manifold (withoutboundary). In Section 22 we
have defined the R—orientation sheaf X0 X of X whose fibre over a pointx
->

is the local homology module H,,(X, X x). Given an R—orientation of X,

—

i.e., given a section s:H X0 such that for each x, s(x) generates
-*

I-121: X X)’ —

Consider now the dual sheaf X°* X, whose fibre over x is the local
->

cohomology module H "

(X, X x). The R—orientation s determines a global
—

section s*:X X"* which

—* is characterized by
[S(x), S*(X)] = 1

for all x E X.
Suppose U is open in X. Denote by I*Uthe module of sections over U of
the dual sheaf. If A is the diagonal of X X X,

U’x:(X,X—x) -*
(XX U,XX U—A)
will be the map given by
Ulx(x’) =
(x', x), x’ E X

where x E U. Recall that

M arvin J. Greenbergand John R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN O—805 3—35 5 8»7( H)
ISBN 0-805 3»3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/CummingsPublishing Company, Inc, Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form
by electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, orotherwise, without the prior permission Of
0}:t pualnly |'}1;l€anS,
e 15 er.

276
Thom Class and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem 277

J"§I(X,X* U) -*
(X,X—x)
is the inclusion map.

(30.1) Theorem. Let X be an R—oriented n—dimensional manifold, U an

open Subspace. Then
H‘1(X><U,X><U—A)=0 allq<n
and there is a unique isomorphism <1>:H"(X X U, X X U —

A) -> F*Usuch
that

¢>(l3)(x) =
Hn(Uix)(B)
forallfl €H"(X>< U,X>< U- A),x € U.

(30.2) Corollary‘ There is a unique cohomology class it =

,u,( in
H"(X>< X, X><X— A) such thatfor all x EX,
S*(x) =
H"(xix)(M)
This class pt will be called the Thorn class of the given R—orientation of X.

(30.3) Corollary. Suppose X is compact. Let § E H,,(X) be the funda-

mental class of the R—orientation. Let

H"(j):H"(X>< X,X><X— A) -+
H"(X>< X)
be the homomorphism induced by inclusion, and let ,u' = H "( j )(}L). Then

M’/Z,’ = 1

Proof: For any x E X, consider the commutative diagram

(X,X—x)i1>(X><X,X><X-A)
J} f
X
278 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

for all x, which proves the corollary.

I

Proof of Theorem (30.1): For any [3 E H”(X>< U, X X U —

A), define a
set—theoretic section q5([3): U X°* by
—*

¢>(l3)(x) =
H"(uix)([3) X E U

If F ’U denotes the module of set—theoretic sections over U, then for V C U

we have the commutative diagram

H"(X>< U,X>< U—-A)—> H"(X>< V,X>< V—A)

¢ ¢
I”U *—-* I"V

Thus to verify that the homomorphism 95 actually takes its values in the
module l"*U of (continuous) sections, it suffices to consider the following
special case:

Case 1. U is contained in a coordinate neighborhood U’ and U is

contractible (an open n—cell, say).
For each x E U we have the commutative diagram

H‘1(X>< U,X>< U—A)=’>H‘1(U’>< U, U’ x U—A)

Uix Uix
H"(X,X—x) _~._. H‘?(U’, U’ —x)

where the horizontal isomorphisms are excisions. Thus We may assume X =

U’ % R”. In that case we have a homeomorphism

f:(_R"><U,(R”-0)><U)':>(R”><U,R”><U-A)
given by f( y, x) =
(y + x, x), and for each x E U a commutative diagram
Thom Class and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem 279

.5
(R"X U,(R"—0)X U)—*(R"X U,R"X U—A)
I id Xjx Uix
(R" ><0,(R” —0)><o)
I
(R", R" —

0) —+
A:
(R", R" —x)
fx
where fi(y) =
x + y, and jx is the map of the point 0 onto x. We may
assume 0 E U.

Sublemma 1. The map s’ -+

s'(0) is an isomorphism of 1"*U onto
Hn(Rn, Rn _
280 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

Using the comutative diagram above, we must show that

H"(id ><j0):H"(R"><U,(R"— 0) X U) H"(R” X 0, (R”—0) X 0) —>

is an isomorphism, which follows from the contractibilityof U. I

Case 2. If the theorem holds for opens U, V andB U fl V, then it holds

=

for the open Y U U V.

=

Forbrevity,1etU’=X>< U—A, V’=X>< V—A,B’=X><B-A, Y’

= XX Y— A.

Sublemma 4. There exists an exact sequence

—*
H"(X>< Y, Y’) -l+H"(X>< U, U')@ H"(X>< V, V’)
k
£H%XxnBu~HWmXxnYq~
'

where i is induced by the chain homomorphism z (z, z), j by the chain

->

homomorphism (z, w) z w, and k is a connecting homomorphism.

-* —

Granting this sublemma, we see by the case assumption that

H"(X X Y, Y’) 0 for q < 11. Moreover, the cummutative diagram
=

0~ H"(X>< Y, Y’) LH”(X>< U, U')€B H”(XX V, V’) LH"(X><B,B’)

1<i> 1_<7>EB¢ 1¢>
0 ~ l‘*Y ~ r*Ue9r*V 1"- r*B

and the 5—lemma imply that ¢> is an isomorphism for Y.

Proof of sublemma: To derive the exact sequence of sublemma 4,

consider the monomorphism of chain complexes

r&XXB)fi&XXU)@&XXV)
MR) av) MV)
'

given by i(Z) =
(Z, Z), and the chain epimorphism

”_&XXU)®flXXV)fi&XXU)+&XXV)
mu» aw) mUq+mVq

given by j (Z, w) z w. Clearlyji 0. Supposej (Z, W) O. Ifz 2 v,,0,,,

= — = = =

let 1/ be the sum of those v,,o,, such that I a,,| meets A; then 12 is equal to the
chain defined in the same way using w instead of 2, since 2 w E S(U ’) ‘l’ —

S(V’), so that i(z7) (Z, w). Thus we have an exact sequence of chain
=
Thom Class and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem 281

complexes. Since all these complexes are free, dualizing gives an exact
sequence of cochain complexes, hence an infinite exact cohomology
sequence

a
H‘1(C/C’) —l~H‘1(X>< U, U’) EBH"(X>< V, V’)
1» H‘1(X x B, B’) 5 H"+'(C/C') a

where C= S(X>< U) + S(X>< V), C’ S(U’) + S(V’). SinceX>< Y==

X X U U X X V, the inclusion of C into S(X X Y) is a chain homotopy

equivalence. This holds similarly for the inclusion C’ S(Y’), and by ->

passage to the quotient, for the inclusion C/ C S(X X Y )/S(Y’). Thus we

’
—>

can replace H"(C/C') by H”(X>< Y, Y’) in the above exact sequence. I

Case 3. If U U,~U,~, where (U,) is a totally ordered family of open

=

subspaces for each of which the theorem holds, thenthe theoremholds for U.
The restriction homomorphism I‘*U F *U,- give a representation of
—>

F *U as the projective limit (25.9)

I‘ *U = lim I‘ *U,-
1'

Thus we need only verify that the canonical homomorphism

0:H"(X>< U, U’) ~+ lim H"(X>< U,, Uf)

i

is an isomorphism for all q S n. If C stands for either S, Z, or B, we have

Cq(X>< U, U’) =
U Cq(X>< U,-, U;)

since each chain has compact support and the U, are totally ordered. Taking
annihilators, we see that
C"(X>< U, U’) =
lim C‘1(X>< U,, Uf)
I.
for C = S or Z. We verify it for C 8d, with
= B: Ifc =

d E S""'(X >< U, U’),

then cl X X U, 8(d| X X U,) for all 1'. Conversely, suppose for each 1'
=

there is d, E S""(X>< U,, U,’») such that cl X X U, 8d,. We claim that =

after modifying each d, by a coboundary, we can get the various d,- to

282 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

pathtogether to give d € S""(X>< U, U’) such thatc 8d. If U,

= C U], then
d,-
—
Thom Class and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem 283

true for coordinate neighborhoods by the Kiinneth Theorem. The general

case is obtained by Mayer—Vietoris methods embodied in sublemma 4. The
theorem has important extensions and applications to fibre bundles and
characteristic classes. Further developments are in [64], [52], [65], [84].

One reason for working with the relative cohomology module

H(X X X, X X X A) is the following commutativity lemma.
—

(30.5) Lemma. Ify E H”(XX X, XX X —

A), 11 E H"(X), then

H”(J' )(Y) U (77 X 1) =
H”(J')(Y) U (1 X 11)
wherej:XX X -+
(X X X, XX X —

A) is the inclusion.
Proof. By (26.17.7), there is an open neighborhood Vof A inX X X and
retraction of r:V A such that ir x k, where i:A X X X, k: V X X X
-* -* -*

are the inclusion maps. Denote the inclusion

(V, V—A)->(XXX,XXX—A)
by k’, and note thatk’ is an excision. The following diagram is commutative:

I3 c
7 U [3
H‘1(i) H4(X x X) —+
H1’*‘1(X x X, X X X —

A)
H‘1(A) 1 H"(k) 1: HP+‘?(k’)
\
Hm) H‘1(V) ~
H1’+"(V,V—A)
5 ~
HP<k')<y>u<
where we are using the mixed cup products of absolute and relative
cohomology.
Letp,~:XX X-+ X, i= 1, 2, be the projections. Then 1 X 11 H°(p1)(l)U =

H"(p2)(n) H‘1(p2)(11), 11 X 1 H"(p1)(n). Letp:A X be the common

= = -+

restriction of p1 and 132 to the diagonal. From the diagram we get

7 U H"(P;)(n) =
H"+"(k')"(H”(k')(7)U H"(P.-ir)(n))
=
H”+"(k')_‘(H”(k')(Y)U H"(pr)(17))
for both i = 1 and i = 2. By definition of the mixed cup product,
H”(J' )(7) U H"(P;)(77) =
H”+"(7 U H"(P.-)(11))
284 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

which proves the lemma. I

In case X is compact, we can use the Thom class it (or rather its image it’
in H "(X X X)) to make explicit the inverse to the Poincare duality
isomorphism.
(30.6) Theorem. Let X be a compact R—oriented n—dimensional manifold
withfundamental class 5 E H"(X). Then for any p S n, the inverse to the
Poincare duality isomorphism H”(X) 3 H,,_p(X) is given by

oz —>
(—1)”",u'/oz, an E H,,_p(X).
Proof Ifn E H"(X), then { H 11 is its image in H,,_p(X), and

M74“ n=1U{.u'/€fl7:}
=
{(11 X 1) U it}/4 (29.21)
=
{(1 X n) U M}/C (30-5)
=
(—1)P"(—1)°n U {#7: r) 1} (29.21)
=
(—1)”"n U (M4)
=
(—1)P"n U 1 (30.2)
=(_1)”"7I~ I

Suppose wehave a map f :X Y, where Y is another compact R-

->

oriented manifold, of dimension m. We define the cohomology class ,u,~ of the

graph offby
u;= H’"(f>< id )'(u'Y) E H*"<X>< Y)
where,u'Y E H "'(Y X Y) is the image of the Thom class of Y. The class pf
completely determines the homomorphism induced by f on the cohomology.
(30.7) Proposition. For any 17 E HP(Y),
H"(f)(n) =
(‘1)"’”Mf/Cy0 n

where {Y E H,,,(Y) is thefundamental class of Y.

Thom Class and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem 285

Proof My/CY 0 n H"(f)(i/Jr/Cy0 11)

=
(29-23)
=
(—1)’""H"(f)(n)- (30.6)
I

Assume now Y = X. We seek sufficient conditions for f to have a fixed

point.
(30.8) Proposition. If ,uf 75 0 thenf has a fixedpoint.
Proof If f has no fixed point, then we have a factorization

XX X A

/ll‘
—

X><X?’X><X
f><id
where i is the inclusion. Since H"(i)H"(j) = 0 and ,u}( =
H"(j )(,u.X), ,uf=
H”(f>< id )(p.jY) 0. = I

To obtain a numerical criterion, consider the Lefschetz class L] =

H"(f, id)(,u’) =
H"(A)(p.f) E H"(X), and define the Lefschetz number by
Af: [C2 Lf] :
[Cs
286 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

(so thatykj 0 when qk + qj 75 n, andyjk

= =
(—1)"k‘”_"k)y,g- when qk + qj =

n). Then
Af: §.3c,-Ac, H'(f, id )(a,« X oz,-)1
ll
§c,,.[;, H'(f)(a,-) U 02,] (29.17.7)

ll 2 Czyakiléfa 01k U 09']

1}/',k

2 Czyakzykj :
Thom Class and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem 287

A,= 21] (—1)q Trace H‘?(f)

If Af # 0, then f has a fixedpoint.
(30.10) Corollary. The Lefschetz number of the identity map is equal to
the Euler characteristic X (X; R ) of X, i. e. ,

X (X; R ) =
[4, H"(d )M’l
where d : X -> X X X is the diagonal map.

(30.11) Exercise. If R =
Q, then Af is actually an integer.
(30.12) Corollary. Iff: S" S” has degree d 75 (—1)”“, thenfhas a
->

fixedpoint. (The antipodal map (16.4) shows the hypothesis is necessary.)

Proof: TraceH”(f) d. TraceH'(f)=1, andAf= 1 + (—l)”d. I
=

(3013) Exercise. Using (26.12) or (26.14), prove that if n is even every

map of CP" or HP” into itself has a fixed point (see [63]).

(30.14) Note. In case f has only finitely many fixed points x, x,, there
, . . .

is a purely local way of assigning an index I (xj) E Z to each point so thatthe

Lefschetz Fixed Point Formula holds:

Af= §11(x,)
(see Brown [11, 63]). The Lefschetz formula has very interesting analogues
in differential geometry (Bott and Atiyah [8]) and in algebraic geometry
(Weil [60]).
(30.15) Exercise. Let X, Y be R—oriented manifolds of dimensions n, m
respectively, not necessarily compact. Then for each point (x, y ) E X X Y,
we have a canonical isomorphism (29.16)

><:H,,(X,X—x) ®H,,,(Y, Y—y)

_'
m+n(XXYsXXY—(xsy))
(since all other terms in the Kilnnethformula are zero). Then there is a
unique R—orientation of X X Y such that the local R—orientation at (x, y) is
Q X 4}, where {X (resp. Q) is the localR-orientationof X atx (resp. of Yaty);
this is called the product R—orientation of X X Y. In case X and Y are
compact, then
288 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

CXXY =
{X X {Y
where 4‘ denotes the fundamental class for the R—orientation.
Suppose X is compact R—oriented and ,uXXX is the Thorn class for the
manifold X X X in the product R—orientation, ,u}(XX its image in
H2"(X X X X X X X). What is the relation between ,u/QXX and (1.3; X ,u§(?
Let ,u}(’ be the Poincare dual of H,,(A)((’X),i.e.,

(€x X Cx) (7 Mir’ =

Hn(A)(€x)-
Prove it} =
p.,’(S. (see 30.17)
(30.16) Project. Generalize all the results of Section 30 to compact
manifolds with boundary; in particular, determine the inverse isomorphism to
the Lefschetz Duality Theorem and prove a Lefschetz fixed point theorem.

(30.17) Remark. LetX be compact of dimension 11. Take coefficients in a

field. We construct an explicit representation of ,u’, the restriction of the
Thorn class to H"(X X X). Given a basis {b,-} for H '(X), construct a dual
basis {bf} for H ‘(X) by requiring

1 i =
J,
[(2 bf U
Thom Class and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem 239

(—1)"|brlbr= 2arS(_1)|bf| |brlbS_

Since {bs} are independent, we obtain
(—1)ibr| rzs,
am:
0 r753. I

The appearance of (30.18) (signs, whether bf’ is on the right or left) is

sensitive to the conventions used when defining cap products.
Prove ,u,’. =
,u,’(’. Suggestion: Write ,u,’[ Bambi‘ X b5 and evaluate
=

4>< gm ,1; onb, >< bf.

(30.19) Exercise. Show that H"(z),u' (—1)",u’ where i:XXX—*XXX
=

is the interchange map and n dim X.

=

(30.20) Exercise. Show the existence of a class it satisfying (30.3) implies

X is orientable.

(30.21) Exercise. Derive (30.10) from (30.18). This is easy but worth
knowing.
(30.22) Exercise. Let f:X Yas in (30.9) and define g:X XX Yby
-+ —>

g(x) (x, f(x)). Let F H(g)(§X). Prove {X X {Y F) ,uf= I‘. Suggestion:

= =

Take coefficients in a field and let w satisfy (X X {Y H w I‘. Write w

= =

Ekmbf‘ X c5 and F H(1 Xf)(§X X (Y F) ,u.}() by (30.15). Then evaluate

=

on b, X cf and use (30.18) to compute ,uf. Remark. The identification of ii’

and ,u_, as Poincare duals of the diagonal H(A)(§X) and the graph F
respectively provides geometric insight. For example the formula Af =

[C X 4’, ,u.’ U ,u.f] follows from (30.15). In the next chapter, we can interpret
this formula as the “intersection number” of the diagonal and the graph.
 31. Intersection numbers
and cup products.

Consider, once again, the torus. A basis for H, is represented by a pair of

embedded circles intersecting in a point. The cup product of the dual basis
elements is nonzero. Another example is the orientable surface of genus 2
with a basis for I-I, represented in the picture.

Using (24.30) to calculate, the nonzero and zero values among cup products
of different elements in the dual basis for H1 correspond to nonempty or
empty intersections among the representative circles. We use the Thorn class
to develop the relation between intersection numbers and cup products. Our
account is introductory. A fuller account is given in Dold [64] and a .

geometric treatment in Seifert and Threlfall [86]. The basic ideas for this
treatment come from Dold’s book and Milnor [82]. The basic paper is Thom
[57]. Throughout coefficients are either a field or the integers.
Let V be a closed n—manifold with submanifolds M, N of dimensions r, s
respectively.
Basic assumption, r + s = n and M F) N (if nonempty) is a finite set of
points.
(31.1) Definition. M intersects N transversally at a point x if there is a

Marvin J. Greenbergand John R. Harper, AlgebraicTopology: A First Course ISBN 0-805 3»3558—7( H)
ISBN 0-805 3»3557—9(Pbk)
Copyright © 1981 by Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., Advanced Book Program. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the publisher.

290
Intersection numbers and cup products 291

coordinate neighborhood U of x and a homeomorphism(U, U (W M, U F) N )

% (R’+‘, R’ X {0}, {O} X R‘). Necessarily x corresponds to the origin. We
say M F) N is transverse, if it is transverse at each point

Examples. The intersection of either the graph of y x or yV= x3 and the

=

x—axis is transverse at the origin. A nontransverse intersection is exhibited by

the graph of y x2 and the x—axis.
=

If each of the manifolds M, N, V is oriented (or coefficients are Z/2Z) we

can assign an intersection number il to each transverse intersection as
follows. Let 4”,‘.4, 4"}, and Cf, be the local orientations at x E M F) N C V
induced by the given global orientations. Let U be a coordinate neighborhood
ofx as in (22.1). The inclusion (U, U x) C (V, V x) is an excision. By
— —

transversality we have a homeomorphism

(U: U _

x) E (Rr+.r, Rr+s _
 292 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

Proof. This follows from the corresponding property for cross products
_
(29.29). I

Remark. A useful geometric way to thinkof the local intersection number

8 is in terms of equivalence classes of frames. If we juxtapose a local
orientation frame for M atx with one for N at x, we obtain a frame for V at x.
The value of e is il according as this frame is (is not) equivalent to the
oarientation of V.
(31.5) Lemma. Let k:(V, V—x) (V>< V, VX V— A) be the inclusion.
-’

Then M -
N =
Z2,-[K.£, X 53;, H"(k),u.], where ,u. is the Thorn class and
(jig X 5.} is regarded as an element of H,,(V: V x). —

Proofi By (30.2), mt, H"(k),u] = 1. I

As things stand M N is not well related to H .(V). For example, if V=

-

S 2, M and N a pair of intersecting arcs, we can have M N 75 0. -

(31.6) Definition. A class 01 E H,( V) is represented by a submanifold M

if a I-I,(i)(CM) where i:M
= V is inclusion.
-*

The connection between algebra_ and geometry is supplied by

(31.7) Proposition. Let oz E H,(V), [3 E IL(V) be represented by

submanzfolds M, N such that M F) N is transverse. Then [oz X [3, ,u’] =

M N where ,u’ is the restriction of the Thorn class.

-

Proof We first set up notation. Let {U,-} be coordinate neighborhoods of

the transverse intersections at {x,} M F) N. Write Al M F) N C V>< Vfor
=

the set {(x, x)l x E M F) N}. We have a commutative diagram

 Intersection numbers and cup products 293

M><N—>(M><N,M><N-AIMHN)
1 ll

V><V
j (V><V,V>< V—A).

Write the pair of open sets (M 0 U,-, N O U,-) (A,-, B,). =

By naturality of
cross products, we have the commutative diagram

X
H,(M)®Hs(N)—*H,+x(M><N)-' ,+x(M><N,M><N—A]MflN)
l 1 lH(l)
Hr(V) ®Hs(V) §Hr+s(VX V) HG) Hr+s(VX V, VX V—A)-

Using excision, we factor H(l ) into a composite

H,,(M><N, M><N—A I Mfl N)3 EH,,(A,-XB,-, A,-><B,-—(x,-, x,-))
=H,,(U,-, U,— —x.~> '—“> .2H,.(V, V«x,-)’1"~)Hn<V>< V, V>< V~ A).
Here the second isomorphism is from transversality, and the others are
excisions. Now we calculate,

[a X 1%, M] =
{a><fi,H‘<j>u1={H.<j)(a X /3), M
=
[H.(I>(<M >< c~>,u1= .§2m2>< c;;,H'<k>u1
=M -
N. I

We apply (31.7) to calculate cup products in H '(V).

(31.8) Corollary. Ifa =

,u’/oz, b =
p.’/[3, then [§V, a U b] =
(—1)‘M -
N.
Recall [3 E I-IS(V).

Proof. By (30.6), 5 H a =
(—1)"‘a. Hence
[4, 0 U bl =
[U7asb]=(—1)"‘[<1sM'/B]=(—1)"‘[/3><CW3]
=<—1>*[a><m'1=<—1>xM-N. I
294 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

Remark. The annoying sign is a consequence of our conventions for cap

products.
Remark. The possibility that a [3 is allowed. But if a [3 we still
= =

require different submanifolds representing the classes, and they must

intersect transversally or not at all.

Remark. The reader should examine the opening examples in light of

(31.8). In particular note the different usages of the word “dual” to describe
bases in H1, H1 related by algebraic duality and Poincare duality.

Example. The cup product structure for the mod 2 cohomology of P3 is

read off a suitable picture. Thinkof P3 as a solid 3—ball with antipodal points
on the boundary identified. There are embeddings P2 C P3 from an
equatorial 2—disc and P1 C P3 from a diameter. Their intersection detects
the nonzero cup product H1 <8 H 2 H 3. ->

PI

P3
Exercise. Use (31.8) to calculate the cohomology rings of compact
surfaces, and P", CP", HP”.
Exercise. Let f 2 X ” Y" be a _map of closed manifolds with deg f k.
—’ =

Show kx(Y) [F, pf] where I‘ is defined in (30.22). Use (31.6) and (30.22)
=

to obtain the equation kx(Y ) I‘ I‘.= -

Note. The reader wishing further development of intersection theory is

referred to Dold [64], VIII, § 11, p. 314-325. Herevwe give a brief outline of
the connection between the material here and Do1d’s formulation.
Let e:M’ -' V” be an embeddingwith e(M ) sufficiently well behaved that
1:1‘? (M ) % H ‘1(M ) (27.1). Then there is an Alexander duality isomorphism
H"“’(M ) H,,(V, V M) (27.6). Combined with Poincare duality, we
—’ —

obtain the transfer isomorphism

Intersection numbers and cup products 295

Hq(V: V“M) *'

H””"(M) C-A*4Hq—s(M)
where n r + s. Under this isomorphism, 1 E H0(M ) corresponds to a class
=

1/M E Hs( V, V M ) called the transverse class of M in V. Using universal

—

coefficients, we obtain the Thom class ofM in V, TM E H‘( V V M ) such —

that [1/M, TM] 1. In the case of the diagonal A C V>< V, we have ‘CA E ‘U, E
=

H"(V>< V, V>< V A) as defined in chapter 30.

—

Now suppose M ’, N‘ C V intersect transversally in a single point. It is

proved that under the cup product pairing
H‘(V, V—M)®H’(V, V—N)—>H”(V, V—MflN)
we have 17,, U IN i rMnN. The sign is the intersection number. The
=

requirement r + s n is unnecessary and the nonconnected situation

=

develops in the expected way. Furthermore, if ,u.M E H‘( V) is the pull—back

of Q4, one can prove {V (W ‘UM e*({M). This is a generalization of (30.15).
=

Our (31.7) results in treating the case M X N, A C V>< V. The formalism

is:

CVXV fl .U-M><1v =
9*(CM X (N) =
0! X .3-
Cvxv (7 M =
e*(€A) (30-15)-
Then writing (31.7) in this notation, we have

lo‘ X ll, H-[l =

l€V><V fl au'M><N9 MA]
:
lC1o<V» MMXN U MA]
=
[{,,X,,, rMxN U TA] by naturality of cup product,
=
l§VxVa i T(M><1v)n Al-
An extension of intersection theory (lengthyexample). The local character
of intersection theoretic calculation permits substantial generalization. We
give a simple extension in the case of lens spaces L(p, q) and refine earlier
calculations. Our goal is to prove

(31.9) Proposition. Let p be prime. There is a generator x E

H‘(L(p, q); Z/pl) such that [(, x U [ix] =
qz where z E H3(L(p, q);
Z/pl)
satisfies [{, z] 1, { is the mod p reduction of the integral fundamental
=

class and B is theBockstein homomorphism associated with theshort exact

sequence 0 Z/pl Z/p2Z Z/pl 0.
-+ -> -> —’
296 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

Before proving this, we first recall the main features of the spaces L(p, q)
and introduce the models to be used. Next we discuss the extension of (3 1 .7)
to these models. After this, the proof will be calculation.
Recall L(p, q) (E2 X S‘) U,,(E§ X S‘) where h is a homeomorphismof
=

c3(E,2X S1) S1 X S1 such thath|6E2 X {pt} is a (p, q)—torus knot on

=

8(E§ X S‘). The integers (p, q) are coprime. For models we form E2 X S‘
by identifying (x, 0) with (x, 1) in E2 X I. We write M 6E =
2 X {§} for the
circle whose image under h is the (p, q) torus knot. For suitable h, h(M ) is
represented by p helicial arcs on 8E2 X I with the top of the are displaced
from the bottom by rotation through 21rq/p radians.
Here is a picture for L(5, 2).

1 ,Q‘V

E?xI Egxl
We orient L(p, q) with the right hand orientation on each block E X I and
take h to be orientation reversing, and choose h to map M in the indicated
direction.
We have calculated the integral and mod p cohomology groups by Mayer-
Vietoris sequences (combine (21.28) and (23.28)). AbbreviatingL(p, q) to
L, the results are H"(L; Z/pl) % Z/pl, 0 S q S 3 and with integer
coefficients H 2 % Z, H2 % Z/pl, H1 0. For the mod p cohomology ring,
=

recall [3:H‘ -’ H2 is an isomorphism (23.37). By Poincare duality, the

cup product pairing H1 (85 H2 -" H 3 is nondegenerate. Hence if x E
H ‘(L; Z/pl) is a generator, then ,Bx and x U Bx generate H2 and H 3. Of
course the integral cohomology ring is trivial. Consequently, these
cohomology rings are independent of q.
The effect of the 27rq/p twist shows up when we use intersection theory.
We turn to the appropriate modifications of (31.7).
Clearly, nonzero elements of H2(L; Z/pZ) cannot be represented by
submanifolds (why? note H2(L; Z) 0). Instead we shall represent H; by an
=

embedded “pseudo-projective plane” P. P is obtained by attaching a 2-cell

along its boundary to a circle by a map of degree p
Intersection numbers and cup products _
297

P=s1u,,e2.
The abstract pseudo—projective plane P may be visualized as a regular 1)-
sided polygon with identifications on the boundary. We embed P in L by
describing the pieces in the blocks E X 1. One piece is the disc E? X {§}
bounding M. The other piece consists of flanges from thep helicial arcs to the
core axis of E g X I. The pieces are pictured in figure 10. A Mayer—Vietoris
calculation shows the inclusion P L induces isomorphisms of H1, H2 with
—>

Z/pZ coefficients. We use P to represent H2 in the sense of (31.6).

Next we consider orientation. While P is not a manifold, it has local
euclidean structure at points x in the interior of the polygon described above.
For such points and coefficients Z/pZ there is an excision (R2, R2 {0}) — ->

(P, P x) and an isomorphism

—

H2(P; Z/pZ ) ~'

H2(P, P -

x; Z/pZ).
(Prove this and also see what happens when integer coefficients are used.)
Thus we can identify a generator of H2(P, P x) with an orientation and,
—

with mod p coefficients, pull this class back to H2(P; Z/pl). In figure 10 an
orientation of the preimage of P is indicated along with the corresponding
orientation of P in L. The orientation of P depends on the choice of h.
The key step in the proof of (31.7) is the factorizationof the map H(l) (in
the notation of (3 1 .7)). For this only local transversality is required. We shall
use the extension of (31.7) to the current situation without formal statement.
Next we look for a generator of H1 having transverse intersection withP.
The Mayer—Vietoris calculations shows the core axis of E 3 X I represents a
generator of H1 after identificationof its end points. The core axis is oriented

pre-image of P E, x I Ezx I
Figure 10.
298 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

upward as indicated in figure 10. A small parallel displacement of the core

axis gives a line C intersecting P transversally in q—points. The intersection
number at each of these points is -1, since the orientation of C juxtaposed
with the orientation of P is left—handed.

null”
~Ig|in.1|
ll!

We summarize this discussion:

1. Let 7 E H,(L; Z/pZ) be the class represented by C, a small parallel

displacement of the core axis of E 2 X I with the upward orientation.

2. Let 1r E H2(L; Z/pl) be the image of the generator g E H2(P; Z/pZ)

pulling back an orientation of (P, P x) where x E C F) P. Then
—

3. [7 X 17, ,u.’] =
—q where p.’ E H 3(L X L; Z/pl) is the restriction of the
Thom class and

4. [377 =
7 where ,B:H;,_ ->
H, is the Bockstein.
Proof Item 3 is proved in the preceding discussion. For item 4, consider
the short exact sequence of chain complexes

0 ~
S(L) <3 Z/pl 3 S(L) <22 Z/p2Z ~
S(L) <2: Z/pl ~ 0.

Then a chain representing 1r pulls back to a chain 2 whose boundary is

divisible by p. Using the model P, one sees p"8(z) is a chain representing
7.
'
I

We can now complete the proof of (31.9). Let y E H ‘(L; Z/pZ) satisfy
[7, y] 1- Then [77, fly] [Bmyl hay] 1- Since ‘(I [7 X W, M]
= = = = = =

[1r, ,u.’/7], we have ,u'/7 —q[3y. Similarly,u'/71' —qy. Hence by (31.8)

= =
Intersection numbers and cup products 299

qzleiy U By] =
(—1)(-q) =
q

soy U By q’z where qq’ E 1 modp andz satisfies [(,z]

= = 1. Setx =
qy
to obtain the desired formula x U fix qz. = I

(31.10) Corollary. IfL(p, q) is homotopy equivalent to L(p, q’), then iq’

E qmz mod p.
Proof.Let f 2 L(p, q) L(p, q’) be a homotopy equivalence. Then H( f )4’
—’

=
if since 4’ is the reduction of an integral class. Let x, x’ be the classes in
H1 ofL(p, q), L(p, q’) given by (31.8). Then H’ (f)x’ mx for some modp =

integer m. Calculating
iq' =
lic’, x’ u fix'l =
[4, H'(f)(x’ U fix’)]
=
mm: x U fix] =
mzq
where the equations hold in Z/pl. I

Remark. The homeomorphisms among lens spaces (21.27) allow the

rephrasing of the necessary condition for homotopy equivalence; iqq’ is a
quadratic residue mod p.
Remark. Examples can be found among the lens spaces which are not
homotopy equivalent, but have isomorphic cohomology rings and isomorphic
homotopy groups. For example L(5, 1) and L(5, 2) are not homotopy
equivalent by (31.10). We have seen their cohomology rings and funda-
mental group are isomorphic. Since the universal covering space of each is
S 3, their higher homotopy groups are isomorphic as well.

Note.Perhaps the most important examples are pairs of lens spaces which
are homotopy equivalent but not homeomorphic. For arbitrary spaces, such
examples are common place, but for closed manifolds the issue is much more
subtle. Recall thatthere are no such examples for n S 2, and the solution of
the generalized Poincaré conjecture asserts that a manifold of the homotopy
type of S is homeomorphic to S” for n 2 5 (see note (19.12)). The lens
”

space examples arise because the sufficient condition for homeomorphism,

L(p, q) E L(p, q’) if iq’ E iq“ mod p, is also necessary (due to Moise and
Reidemeister using work of Franz) while the necessary condition for
homotopy equivalence (31.10) is also sufficient (due to J. H. C. Whitehead).
Thus e.g., L(7, 1) and L(7, 2) are homotopy equivalent but not homeomor-
phic. These matters and more are discussed in detail in M. Cohen [78].
300 Products and Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem

Exercise. The core axis of E1 X I oriented downward gives another

generator a E H1(L(p, q); Z/pl), after identification of endpoints. Show,
both by intersection theory and Mayer—Vietoris sequences, 7 =
qoz and [a, x]
= 1 where x is from (31.9).
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
 TABLE OF SYMBOLS

0": rre1.(0,1)
m(X, X0), [0]
£1.
f =1;
ago
P"
X’
axe
WAX, xo)
6
A9"]
E0, E1, E2, . ..

(Po .Pq)
. .

R
S,,(X)
F2’ 0-0‘)
6
21 ~22
Zq(X)9 Bq(X):
302

H (X)
'

1 97 r

2 F) c 205 y/oz
li_m 11/1, 2 10 A
{K 215 s*(x), I“‘U
H 2 (X) 2 15 U ‘x
D 217 .11., pt’
ANR 225 pf
H " (A) 230
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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INDEX
 INDEX

Absolute neighborhood retract, 225 Characteristic map or cell complex, 134

Acyclic, 54 Closed form, 178
Acyclic carrier, 200 Coalgebra, 270
Acyclic with augmentation, 54 Cobordism, 39, 139, 243
Adjoininga cell, 112 Coboundary, 177
Adjunctionspace, 112 Cochain, 174
Affine map, 42 Cocycle, 177
Affine space, 41 Cohomology algebra, 197
Alexander-Whitney homomorphism, 251 Cohomology module, 177
Algebraic mapping cone, 90 Collaring, collared pair, 112
Antipodal map, 95 Compact-open topology, 32
Aspherical, 55 Compact support (section), 166
Augmentation, 54 Compact supports (cohomology), 215
Augmented homology, reduced homology, 48 Complex projective space, 114
Cone, 140
Backface, 196 Connecting homomorphism, 75
Ball, 76 Continuation, 158
Barratt—Whitehead sequence, 99 Contractible, ll
Barycenter, 42 Contrafunctor, 174
Barycentric coordinates, 42 Convex, 42
Betti numbers, 128 Covering space, 21
Bockstein maps, 192 Covering transformation, 24
Borsuk antipode theorem, 127, 229 Cross product, 259
Borsuk—Ulam theorem, 223 Cup product, 195, 259
Boundary, 46, 53 Cycle, 46, 53
Bouquet~wedge, 126
Brouwer fixed point theorem, 19, 84
Deformation retract, 82
Cap product, 204 Degeneracy operators, 199
Cell (closed), 106 Degree (of a map), 85
Cell complex (finite), 134 Derivation, 196
Cellular map, 135 Derived functor, 185 (of hom.), 275 (of Q9)
Chain, 45 Dimension (in a complex), 52
Chain complex, 52 Dimension (of a manifold), 28
Chain equivalence, 91, 265 Direct sum, 47
Chain homomorphism, chain map, 52 Directed set, 208
Chain homotopy, 33 Double (of a manifold with boundary), 240
Chain map, 52 Dunce cap, 146

309
310 Index

Elienberg—Zilbertheorem, 252 Lefschetz fixed point theorem, 286

Equivalence (of covering spaces), 27 Lefschetz number, 285
Euler characteristic, 128 Lens space, 116, 149, 229, 295
Evaluation map, 32 Lifting, 26
Evenly covered, 21 Linking number, 68
Exact, 54 Longitude, 147
Exact form, 178 Loop, 7
Exact homology sequence, 75
Exact triad, 98 Manifold, 28
Excision, 82 Manifold with boundary, 237
Mapping cone, 141
Face, 45 Mayer—Vietoris sequence, 99
Fibres, 21 Mobius band, 69, 171, 173,237
Final, 211 Meridian, 147
Finite cell complex, 134 Models, 266
Finite simplicial complex, 136
Five lemma, 77 Natural transformation, 50
Free functor, 266 Naturality (=functionality),49, 77
Front face, 196 Normal (covering space), 25
Functor, 3 Normal extension, 187
Fundamental cohomology class, 221
Fundamental group, 9 Orientable, 161
Fundamental homology class, 167 Orientation (global), 160
Orientation (local), 160
g—fold torus,67, 123, 191 Orientation-preserving map, 171
Genus, 124 Orientation sheaf, 164
Graph, 101 Outside, 109

H—space, 33 Pair, 71
Homogeneous, 115 Path, 6
Homologous, 47 Poincare homology sphere, 150
Homology module, 47, 53 Pointed topological space, 9
Homology sequence, 75 Polyhedron, 136
Homotopy, 7, 11, 73 Prism operator, 62
Homotopy equivalence, 13 Product orientation, 287
Homotopy groups, 34 Projective limit, 210
Hopf invariant, 204, 207, 274 Projective space, 25, 36, 114, 222, 243, 294
Proper map, 215
Independent points, 42 Properly discontinuous, 25
Index, 243
Induced homomorphism, 9, 48, 53 Quatemionic projective space, 116
Inductive limit, 209
Inside, 109 Rank, 128
Intersection number, 291 Reduced chain complex, 54
Invariance of domain, 1 10 Reduced homology, 48
Relative boundary, 71
Join, 85 Relative cohomology, 179
Join (of spaces), 104 Relative cup product, 206, 273
Relative cycle, 71
Klein bottle, 50, 104, 127, 172 Relative Eilenberg—Zilbertheorem, 273
Knot, 68, 108 Relative homeomorphism, 1 13
Kronecker product, 179 Relative homology, 70
Kunneth exact sequence, 255, 262 Relative Mayer—Vietoris sequence, 100, 105
Index 311

Representation of homology by submanifolds, Surgery, 151

292 Suspension, 126
Resolution (free), 184 Suspension isomorphism, 93, 126
Retract, 19, 78
Retraction, 4 Tautly imbedded, 230
Rose (r-leaved), 101 Thom class, 277, 295
Thom isomorphism theorem, 282
Section, 164 Topologist’s sine curve, 55, 127, 182
Semi—locally simply connected, 27 Torus, 18, 50, 68, 102, 146, 147, 172, 21
Sheets, 21 Transpose, 176
Short exact sequence, 79 Transverse class, 295
Shuffle homomorphism, 268 Transverse intersection, 290
Simplex (geometric), 42 Triad, 98
Simplex (singular), 44 Triangulation, 136
Simplicial complex, 136 Triple, 77
Simplicial map, 137 Truncated polynomial algebra, 223
Simply connected, 12 Twist, 147
Skeleton, 134
Skew~commutative, 198 Universal coefficient theorem 189, 256
Slant product, 263 Universal covering space, 27
Small of order 7;’ 85
Spherical complex, 114 Vector field (on a sphere), 95
Split exact sequence, 79 Vertex of cone, 140
Strong deformation retract, 19
Subdivision, 85 Weak homotopy equivalence, 137
Support (of a chain), 106 Wedge (=bouquet), 126