International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-022-00876-z

Visions of Artificial Intelligence and Robots in Science Fiction: a

computational analysis
Hirotaka Osawa1 · Dohjin Miyamoto1 · Satoshi Hase1 · Reina Saijo1 · Kentaro Fukuchi1 · Yoichiro Miyake1

Accepted: 15 March 2022 / Published online: 18 July 2022

© The Author(s) 2022

Abstract
Driven by the rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) and anthropomorphic robotic systems, the various pos-
sibilities and risks of such technologies have become a topic of urgent discussion. Although science fiction (SF) works
are often cited as references for visions of future developments, this framework of discourse may not be appropriate for
serious discussions owing to technical inaccuracies resulting from its reliance on entertainment media. However, these
science fiction works could help researchers understand how people might react to new AI and robotic systems. Hence,
classifying depictions of artificial intelligence in science fiction may be expected to help researchers to communicate more
clearly by identifying science fiction elements to which their works may be similar or dissimilar. In this study, we analyzed
depictions of artificial intelligence in SF together with expert critics and writers. First, 115 AI systems described in SF
were selected based on three criteria, including diversity of intelligence, social aspects, and extension of human intelli-
gence. Nine elements representing their characteristics were analyzed using clustering and principal component analysis.
The results suggest the prevalence of four distinctive categories, including human-like characters, intelligent machines,
helpers such as vehicles and equipment, and infrastructure, which may be mapped to a two-dimensional space with axes
representing intelligence and humanity. This research contributes to the public relations of AI and robotic technologies by
analyzing shared imaginative visions of AI in society based on SF works.

1 Introduction the VR headset company Oculus, expressed influence of

Neal Stephenson’s “Snow Crash”, Ernes Cline’s “Ready
Science fiction (SF) as a literary genre draws on the inter- Player One”, and Reki Kawahara’s “Sword Art Online” on
action between technology and society. SF describes the his work. Researchers in academic fields including informa-
influence of technology on society in terms of human drama tion science, mechanics, robotics, and artificial intelligence
based on compelling storytelling. The SF genre is an impor- (AI) are also typically broadly familiar with SF. For exam-
tant component of our contemporary society owing to its ple, Nature Publishing Group has organized a series of short
popularization of science and technology along with an SF stories in “Nature” magazine since 2009. These stories
understanding of their transformative potential. The impact help researchers in many different disciplines and the gen-
of SF is significant in both academic and industrial fields. eral public understand visions of future technologies more
For example, iRobot, manufacturer of the Roomba brand easily. Along these lines, Microsoft commissioned short sto-
of cleaning robots, named their company based on Isaac ries from several SF writers based on their laboratory tech-
Asimov’s novel “I, Robot.” Palmer Luckey, who founded nology. The short stories were organized as a free anthology
titled “Future Visions”. In China, international SF confer-
ences are often actively supported by government organs.
Hirotaka Osawa In Japan, the Society of Artificial Intelligence, the Japanese
[email protected] Society for Robotics, the Society for Automatic Measure-
ment and Control, the Society of Human Interface, and
1
University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan

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2124 International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133

other academic societies related to information, machinery, storytellers that rely on themes involving science and tech-
and electricity have continuously created special articles on nology in their work, they are not typically science and
SF. An increasing number of academic organizations also technology professionals. Hence, there is some risk that
specialize in SF, such as the SF Film Institute on HCD-Net. the narrative logic inherent in SF may neglect the context
Many researchers have attested as to the influence of SF on of real social situations. For example, the AI referred to as
their work, and many technical terms are derived from SF, Skynet appearing in the Terminator franchise is occasion-
including “robot,” “robotics,” “technical singularity,” and ally referenced as a negative vision of AI in the technical
“cyberspace.” literature (Mubin et al. 2016). In addition, there are works
Science fiction is widely understood to have motivated a that do substantially involve social problems that may exist
broad variety of research and development. Kurosu 2014; in the background of future societies. Owing to recent rapid
Marcus et al. 1999; Mubin et al. 2016; Nagy et al. 2018; development of AI, the ethical problems posed by the use of
Schmitz et al. 2008; Tanenbaum, Tanenbaum, and Wakkary such technology in society have been discussed as a practi-
2012; Troiano, Tiab, and Lim 2016). From a more positive cal matter in various contexts. As a result, caution should
perspective, there are several notable examples in which SF be exercised in applying ideas from classic SF, including
writers have participated in various projects as technical visions of intelligent anthropomorphic robotic systems to
advisors. Science fiction writers such as Bruce Sterling and real-world problems directly. Out-of-context applications of
Cory Doctorow are frequently involved in conferences and science fiction ideas have also been criticized. For example,
policy decisions on information technology (Sterling 2009). Jean-Gabriel Ganascia says that various technologies have
Satoshi Hase and Taiyo Fujii have participated in the eth- been overhyped as a result of an abuse of the term tech-
ics committee of the Japanese Society for Artificial Intel- nical singularity by Ray Kurzweil (Ganascia 2010, 2017).
ligence and are involved in the creation of ethical standards, A humanities scholar, Jennifer Robertson, described the
and the Japanese Writer’s Community also cooperated with vision of the future depicted by the Japanese government
a survey (Ema et al. 2016). Liu Cixin, the author of “The as problematic, stating that it tended to confirm sexist rep-
Three-Body Problem”, joined a Chinese company (Cixin, resentations inherited from the classic SF works (Robertson
Nahm, and Ascher 2013). The acceptance of AI and robotic 2011). Given that some scientists and technicians have used
anthropomorphic systems in society has been a major theme ideas from SF unscrupulously in scientific communications,
in SF for many years. Various concepts have been gener- researchers must attend to the possibility that the deliver-
ated in the interaction of both fields, from Isaac Asimov’s ables of such advanced technologies envisioned in fiction
Three Laws of Robotics (Asimov 1950) (McCauley 2007) may not be compatible with society, or that some imple-
to Verner Vinge’s technological singularity (Singularity) mentations may be impractical, unethical, or ill-advisedi.e.,
(Vinge 1993). For example, Isaac Asimov’s SF stories Skynet, etc. While the scenarios presented in SF have the
exploring robotics as a theme have been discussed as a advantage of helping depict the future, they are limited
future vision of humans and AI. His Three Laws of Robot- by their fictional nature. In addition, in some works, it is
ics (Asimov 1950; McCauley 2007) are referred to in the important to consider the social problems and conditions
Chiba University Robot Charter (Matsuo 2017) and Korea’s that contributed to the background of the art, rather than the
Robot Ethics Charter (Shaw-Garlock 2009). Moreover, SF specifics of fictional techniques. The application of SF thus
has always exerted a significant influence on the develop- requires careful attention, as such works were necessarily
ment of AI technologies. Shedroff et al. defined four ways created within the context of a specific time period. Hence,
in which SF influences designers and researchers, includ- fictional ideas should not be uncritically adopted as a basis
ing through (1) inspiration, (2) by establishing expectations, for future developments without an appropriate consider-
(3) by creating a social context, and (4) by describing new ation of the context of such works.
paradigms (Shedroff and Noessel 2012). SF has also been These examples suggest that science fiction can help us
used as a teaching method for AI ethics (Burton et al. 2018). understand how the public imagines future AI and robots,
While SF stories and images have helped to envision as opposed to directly predicting the future. Science fiction
the future, fictional depictions to involve some important stories and the new technologies they describe provide good
constraints. First, SF stories are generally produced for the indicators of how the general public perceives technology.
primary purpose of entertainment rather than as a scientific Therefore, by analyzing AI and robots depicted in existing
investigation of the possibilities of future societies. There science fiction works, the general reception of new technol-
are also concerns as to the dark visions depicted by some ogies developed by researchers and engineers may be more
SF media, which sometimes involve themes such as those effectively predicted. In this study, we analyzed popular
of robotic systems replacing humans or going catastrophi- preconceptions of AI and robotic systems by investigating
cally out of control. Although SF writers are professional depictions of such technologies in existing science fiction.

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International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133 2125

This study surveyed depictions of AI and robotic systems widely explored in the genre. Often, the scientific frame-
in SF with the help of SF experts to analyze types of ste- work of such stories may be improved over time to reflect
reotypes applied to anthropomorphic systems and visions changing contemporary ideas, so such radical possibilities
of their development and adoption in SF. The remainder of are often explored usefully in SF despite its typical lack
this study is organized as follows. Section 2 explains the of true scientific rigor and process. For example, SF sto-
background of the relationship between science fiction and ries based on time machines or faster-than-light navigation
science and technology, including artificial intelligence. can be considered as such works. SF has explored a wide
Section 3 explains how we determined the SF criteria to variety.
avoid arbitrary selection. Section 4 explains the statistical of conceptually conceivable worlds, such as planets
methods used to perform the data analysis. Section 5 dis- or universes with different physical laws. The plausibil-
cusses the stereotypes and visions exhibited by these works ity of such descriptions cannot be easily assessed, even if
in the SF genre. The contribution and limitations of the though such speculative descriptions may be based on pat-
present work are described in Sect. 6, and Sect. 7 presents terns derived from scientific inference. Many sci-fi works
our final conclusions along with some possible avenues for are based settings that diverge dramatically from the real
future research. world, such as fictional worlds in which the speed of light is
extremely slow, stories that unfold under high gravity (Rob-
ert Forward ‘dragon’s egg’), or works that explore the con-
2 Background cept of planetary intelligences (Stanislaw Lem’s Solaris’).
Furthermore, there are examples in which the reactions of
2.1 The impact of Science Fiction: speculative society to new technologies are realistic, though the pre-
inferences of Social Development from Scientific sented technologies or scientific advancements themselves
reasoning may be fictional. For example, Sakyo Komatsu’s “Virus”
described a pandemic that decreased the population of soci-
SF is a literary genre centered on stories developed based ety through a depiction of characters onboard a train. His
on themes relating to various types of science, technology, explanation is referred to as having predicted the COVID-
or scientific methods. The definition of modern SF is sig- 19 pandemic in Japan, even though the virus in the story
nificantly broader than that of the content that was origi- is fictional (Omori 2020). Hence, we can consider that SF
nally called SF. The conventional definition of the genre is works may sometimes accurately predict future events or
imprecise, varying by author, critic, and reader and is often scenarios. For example, although the specific technologies
controversial (Tatsumi 2000). The concept of SF, in terms of the Internet itself were not directly predicted, novels
of stories based on scientific thinking, has a long history. which foresee a world connected by the communication
However, such genres attracted increasing attention owing networks have a long history. For example, Shinichi Hoshi
to the development of science in the context of the Industrial wrote ‘Voice Net’, which featured an AI-based intra-net
Revolution. For example, in Bram Stoker’s ”Dracula”, char- service based on telephone networks. Some works focus
acters try to save a person who was attacked by a vampire on portraying human beings and society through fictional
via a blood transfusion. The work itself is a horror novel, technology.
but such literary techniques have been widely used in hor- In this paper, we define SF as genre of stories that depict
ror, action, and drama genres. Therefore, such works can the imaginative settings and the reactions of people in fic-
be regarded as having some overlap with SF. Overall, SF is tional societies, with themes involving scientific techniques
heavily influenced by science and technology in the fields and reasoning. It includes stories based on technologies that
of physics, chemistry, biology, space engineering, mechani- may not necessarily be accurate according to current scien-
cal engineering, electrical engineering, and information tific knowledge or have not yet been achieved.
technology.
There are several reasons for the widespread popular- 2.2 How AI and robotic Systems are portrayed in
ity of SF. For example, owing to the development of sci- Science Fiction: Social Agents and Human Extension
ence and technology, there are many well-known cases in
which conventional scientific knowledge was overturned by Artificial intelligence and robots are often portrayed in SF
groundbreaking research. Typically classic SF works have as social agents or technologies that extend human capa-
rarely addressed science and technology in a rigorous or bilities. Several depictions of artificial slave appear in clas-
truly scientific manner. However, ideas of sci-fi technolo- sic stories. For example, golems in Jewish folklore might
gies envisioned by these works, such as robots and space be considered as a representative example of an animated
travel, have been maintained over several generations and construct. Golems are anthropomorphic beings that can be

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2126 International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133

controlled by a human, in a manner somewhat analogous of nonhumans entities obtaining intelligence or souls sim-
to that of a computational agent. Similar to stories involv- ilar to those of humans. For example, the Greek myth of
ing robots, these stories often involve a theme of golems Pygmalion involves a sculpture of a woman that behaves
breaking free of human control or escaping. Mary Shelley’s like a human being and marries the sculptor who created
“Frankenstein” is widely known as a classic work that may her(Kaplan 2004). In many of these narrative forms, artifi-
be considered as a predecessor of later SF, which tells the cial intelligence questions the nature of intelligence itself.
story of a monster created by Dr. Frankenstein by stitching Barrington Bayley’s “Soul of the Robot” tells the story by
together dead and dismembered bodies, which then escapes a robot in the first person, and incorporates some mate-
and kills Frankenstein’s family and friends in revenge for rial on artificial intelligence material, including the frame
his unfortunate creation. Karel Capek’s ”R.U.R.” is a story problem. However, in essence the work describes how the
about artificial agents that revolt against their creators. The robot protagonist’s autonomy is a result of human intel-
robots depicted in this work are not mechanical artifacts, but ligence. The theme of women’s souls or autonomy being
rather biological workers created via technology. Similarly, limited or controlled by men has been portrayed in Western
his work “War with the Newts” does not deal with artifi- literature alongside critical investigations of sex and gender
cial intelligence itself, but it does detail the consequences of divergence. Amy Thomson’s ”Virtual Girl” presents a criti-
human training of intelligent salamanders on which society cal exploration of these themes from the perspective of a
depends, and a revolt is foreseen. There are several works female robot.
on the controllability of artifacts, which consider new tech- Human augmentation through information technology
nologies and their social impact. Stories about robots have is another common theme in SF works on artificial intelli-
often centered on the theme of fear of artificial creations gence and robotics. For example, the impact of VR and HCI
going out of control. Several reasons for this revolt have has been frequently explored in cyberpunk SF. Cyberpunk
been explored, but one common criteria of such story is that emerged as a trend in SF in the 1980s. The genre often pre-
events cannot be foreseen beforehand. suppose a futures in which the bodies or minds of humans
These fears are called the Frankenstein Complex, after are augmented with technological systems. Alice Bradley
Frankenstein’s monster (Mccauley and Hall 2007). Con- Sheldon, better known by her pen name James Tiptree, Jr.,
cerned about the tendency to equate artifacts with monsters, was an early writer of cyberpunk SF who explored the idea
Isaac Asimov, a prominent classic SF writer, introduced the of a woman who remotely controls a mindless but living
Three Laws of Robotics in his work ‘I, robot.‘ (Asimov artificially constructed separate body as an advertisement
1978). In many of Asmiov’s works, robots function as for a corporation in “ The Girl Who Was Plugged In”. The
autonomous artifacts programmed to adhere to the follow- idea that technology can compensate for basic disparities
ing principles in order of priority. 1. A robot may not injure such as gender was later inherited by Donna Haraway’s
a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to “Cyborg Manifesto” and the associated movement (Har-
come to harm. 2. A robot must obey the orders given it by away 2000). Similarly, the artist Sputniko!, who creates art
human beings except where such orders would conflict with to overcome gender differences with technology, stated that
the First Law. 3. A robot must protect its own existence as her work “Crowbot Jenny” was influenced by Donna Har-
long as such protection does not conflict with the First or away. Many SF works discuss the theme of transforming a
Second Laws. The Three Principles of Robotics were used person into a superhuman by expanding their intelligence or
repeatedly and extensively in Asimov’s own later works, and changing their values. Writers such as William Gibson and
are known to have greatly influenced many other authors. Bruce Sterling have contributed to this trend. Jun Rekimoto
There have also been proposals, such as Chiba University’s was influenced by this idea as an HCI researcher at SONY
‘Chiba University Robot Charter’ and Korea’s Robot Ethics CSL/Tokyo University. For example, JackIn, a remote pres-
Charter, to establish actual control codes based on Asimov’s ence technology that seamlessly superimposes a users’ body
three laws (Matsuo 2017; Shaw-Garlock 2009). However, on remote viewpoints, was named after a phrase from Wil-
it should be noted that these three principles are merely a liam Gibson’s Neuromancer (Kasahara et al. 2017). Aug-
narrative device. In fact most of the short stories compris- mented Human, as he put it, was based on the expansive
ing ”I, Robot.” are centered on interactions between humans ideas of human nature proposed by cyberpunks (Rekimoto
and constructs that cannot be predicted solely based on the 2014). Masahiko Inami, a VR researcher, likewise pointed
Three Laws. There are many more examples of similar liter- out the influence of cyberpunk SF on research, stating that
ary themes in which an artifact seeks or gains a human soul. the use of retroreflective materials for transparency (Inami,
For example, “The Adventures of Pinocchio”, a children’s Kawakami, and Tachi 2003) was influenced by optical
story by Carlo Collodi in 1883, also describes examples of camouflage depicted in the cyberpunk SF “Ghost in the
intentional behavior by artifacts. Many stories focus on the Shell”. In Superhuman Sports, of which he is an advocate,

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International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133 2127

this extension of humanity has been tested in other ways This writer’s association is founded on 57 years ago, and
(Orikasa et al. 2017). Post-cyberpunk SF is often seen as a includes authors, critics, translators, and researchers. It is
positive indicator of this orientation. For example, Verner widely considered most authoritative association for the
Vinge, an advocate of the idea of a technological singularity, study of Sci-Fi. Therefore, we selected the organization as
proposed in his work that the intelligence tends to extend the partners in this study. Based on a half-day face-to-face
itself, and defined the singularity in terms of such exten- discussion between them and ourselves (a scientist, two
sion, without making a fundamental distinction between engineers, and a philosopher), we established the following
human and machine. This concept is sometimes called intel- criteria to select AI systems portrayed in SF stories.
ligence amplification (IA) in comparison with AI (Leinwe- In the prior discussion, including the above review of the
ber 2009). Greg Egan used his knowledge of physics and literature, we identified three different roles for AI technol-
cognitive science to actively describe changes in humanity ogy described in SF stories.
as an author (Nichols, Smith, and Miller 2007). In addition,
stories focused on one Internet technology and social media ● - Stories considering the possibilities of alien intelli-
networks, which are relatively novel developments in soci- gence. These depict different forms of intelligence such
ety that augment human capabilities, are considered to be as programs, robots, and extraterrestrial intelligence.
included in these works. Dave Eggers’ “The Circle,” for Stevelts, the group intelligence of nanomachines in Greg
example, depicts the consequences of a world built on cor- Egan’s “Steve Fever,” was mentioned in the discussion.
porate social network approval, with each technology being ● - Stories considering aspect of social intelligence.
presented as a realistic manifestation of future concern. Even if a detailed implementation of intelligence is not
described in the story, this category included works
focused on social interactions with AI. In the discussion,
3 Designing an analysis of AI in Science Bokko-chan from Shinichi Hoshi’s “Bokko-chan,” a
Fiction parrot toss response robot, was mentioned.
● - Stories considering the possibility of artificial exten-
3.1 Making Criteria for Review sion of human intelligence. The theme of this category
was the expansion of human cognitive ability through
Following previous studies (Mubin et al. 2016; Reeves advanced interfaces between humans and robots or
2012), we first established a set of review criteria to avoid machines, augmented humans, the internet, and social
an arbitrary survey. Previous research on the use of robots in networks. In the discussion, Chohei Kanbayashi’s
SF suggests the importance of selecting works based on uni- “Yukikaze” was cited as an AI for a combat aircraft
fied criteria (Mubin et al. 2019). Hence, we used the Science designed to extends the operator’s ability.
Fiction Hall of Fame as a specific organization to limit the
scope of the SF literature review. However, representations We collected stores on artificial intelligence and robotic
of AI in SF are more diverse than those of robots, and thus technologies from science fiction on as broad a basis as pos-
simply following existing standards was difficult. It was sible with the cooperation of experts. Therefore, it was nec-
also difficult to conduct cleanly separated surveys of robots essary to collect AI and robots that appeared in the works
and artificial intelligence. Intelligent information process- by setting a broad standard including as wide a range of
ing technologies that emerged before the name artificial intelligence technologies as possible to cover the diversity
intelligence existed were often referred to as robots. Both of the subject. This is reflected in the first policy on the
robots without physical bodies and artificial intelligence diversity of intelligence. Artificial intelligence and robotics
with physical bodies have appeared, so narrowing the range in science fiction are applicable to social agents or exten-
of the two terms was not useful. Importantly, AI in earlier sions of human intelligence. This background is explained
SF works are generally not labeled as “AI” as they were in Sect. 2.2, and the criteria from this aspect are reflected in
written before the definition of AI was established; hence, it policies 2 and 3.
was not possible to collect such works simply by searching The information used to classify AI in the selected SF
for the word. using the above criteria was examined, as shown in Table 1.
To establish the review criteria, we conducted online Considering the characteristics of AI that are important in
discussions with 15 experts from the organization Science literature and those that are important in terms of AI tech-
Fiction and Fantasy Writers of Japan and selected seven nology, the following 20 factors and work summaries were
experts, including six critics and one writer, with differ- collected. In addition, we obtained an overview of each
ent specialties in foreign and domestic SF works, includ- story to verify the correctness of the factor.
ing comics, young adult novels, visual works, and drama.

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2128 International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133

Table 1 Collected AI factors (11 factors shown in gray were quantified Table 2 Each factor in four clusters (* An asterisk indicates that a sig-
and normalized after data collection in Sect. 2.2) nificant difference of p < .05 was obtained on Tukey’s test.)
AI name The name of the AI Machine Human Buddy Infra-
Work name The name of the work in which AI appears /M /H /B structure
Year The year in which it was first published /I
Media First media to appear (novel, comic, movie, Friendliness 0.58 0.84 0.56 0.82
and play) (SD 0.43) (SD 0.25) (SD (SD
0.33) 0.33)
Country First published country
Generality 0.04 0.41 0.34 0.79
Friendliness How AI is friendly to humans
*M-H, M-B, H-I, (SD 0.13) (SD 0.32) (SD (SD
Generality Versatility of AI capabilities B-I 0.45) 0.26)
Consciousness How conscious AI is Consciousness 0.08 0.85 0.84 0.81
Crowd How many AI groups are there to act together? *M-H, M-B, M-I (SD 0.26) (SD 0.31) (SD (SD
Network How much AI is connected to the network 0.27) 0.38)
Language Linguistic abilities of AI Crowd 0.28 0.01 0.11 0.16
Learning AI’s ability to learn something *M-H (SD 0.46) (SD 0.07) (SD (SD
Physical How much physical reality does AI have? 0.27) 0.34)
Human-shape How does AI look like a person? Network 0.11 0.07 0.02 0.98
Maker How many people (organizations) associated *M-H,M-B,M-I (SD 0.32) (SD 0.18) (SD (SD
for AI creation 0.10) 0.07)
Independence How independent AI is from humans Language 0.08 0.97 0.74 0.95
*M-H, M-B,M-I (SD 0.19) (SD 0.12) (SD (SD
Task Tasks performed by AI
0.32) 0.13)
Communication Way AI communicates
Learning 0.15 0.56 0.57 0.87
Material AI materials *M-H,M-B, M-I (SD 0.35) (SD 0.43) (SD (SD
Energy Energy sources for AI 0.45) 0.29)
Physical 0.94 0.97 0.93 0.61
*M-I, H-I, (SD 0.13) (SD 0.11) (SD (SD
First, we designed the following review priorities for the B-I 0.15) 0.40)
survey requested of SF experts. These three characteristics Human-shape 0.17 0.89 0.06 0.43
have been cited as the impact of AI in science fiction on *M-B, I-B, I-H, (SD 0.27) (SD 0.22) (SD (SD
readers. M-H, M-I 0.22) 0.44)
Maker 0.17 0.22 0.15 0.24
(SD 0.34) (SD 0.27) (SD (SD
● - Diversity. The age of the publication and the media 0.27) 0.36)
in which the work was published must not be biased Independence 0.89 0.95 0.94 0.87
toward a specific field. (SD 0.27) (SD 0.22) (SD 0.22) (SD 0.33)
● - Impact. Works with a significant social impact should
be included. Those with less social impact but unique two works being published worldwide simultaneously. 93
characteristics were also appropriate for collection. were first released as novels, 12 as comics, seven as movies
● - Uniqueness. In the case of AI with similar character- (two of which were animations), and three as plays. Four-
istics, the original work was included inserted. When teen works were published before 1945, 64 works were pub-
multiple AI systems appear in a single work, the system lished after World War II until 1995, before the widespread
with the most unique features was collected. adoption of the Internet, and 37 works were published after
1995. We confirmed that the distribution had sufficient
diversity in each decade, as shown in Table 2.
3.2 Collecting Data Here, we discuss 20 factors. We first estimated that 11
factors were quantifiable, including maker and indepen-
We collected 115 portrayals of AI from experts after they dence factors. However, deeper discussion revealed that
performed mutual quality check. The average year of pub- the latter two factors were not appropriate to scalar value
lication of the works collected was 1981 (with a standard (darker gray shading). We then selected nine factors, as
deviation (SD) of 26.8 years). The oldest character was the displayed in the light gray cells in Table 1, for normaliza-
human cyborg described in “Rakouské celní úřady” writ- tion. The participants were divided into five steps using two
ten by Jaroslav Hašek in 1912, and the newest was Girl M, experts. For example, in the case of an animal-type AI, the
a bionic AI controlled by slime mold, in “Long Dreaming human-type value was 0.25, and in the case of an AI with
Day,” written by Katsuie Shibata in 2019. Among the works a part such as a neck or a hand, the human-type value was
collected, 55 were published in Japan, 52 in the US, three in 0.75. The Cohen’s Kappa value of two experts results was
the UK, two in Poland, and one in the Czech Republic, with

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International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133 2129

Table 3 Four clusters with years

Machine Human Buddy Infrastructure Total
1912–1945 3 7 2 0 12
1946–1995 9 32 19 14 74
1996–2019 6 7 5 11 29
Total 18 46 26 25 115
Average 1977.5 1979.3 1981.4 1994 1981.1
SD 29.2 SD 21.9 SD 21.8 SD 18.0 SD 27.0

shown in Fig. 1 (arrows), several factors exhibited mutual

relationships. For example, both the pairing of human shape
with friendliness and consciousness with language abil-
ity contributed to increased intelligence and humanity, as
shown in Fig. 1. Increasing generality, learning, and higher
network connectivity contributed to increased intelligence,
but also decreased humanity. The crowd factor did not
contribute to intelligence, but did contribute to decreased
humanity. Physical factors contributed to increased human-
ity but also decreased intelligence. Independence and maker
did not contribute to either axis Electricity was the most
Fig. 1 AI in SF on a PCA Map (each AI name has a label in front of
common energy source, and other sources were diverse,
the name) with no significant trends.
The average values of the axes for each cluster are given
0.86 (> 0.8) and we estimated that the collected data were of in Table 3. The combinations that showed significant dif-
sufficient accuracy. ferences on Tukey’s multiple comparison test are listed in
the first table cell. The distribution by year of publication is
shown in Table 2. These averages exhibit a weak tendency
4 Analysis in which Machine and Human type AIs are typically slightly
older archetypes than Buddy and Infrastructure. In addition,
We used principal component analysis (PCA) to extract the it is remarkable that all works with Infrastrcuture-type AIs
main factors from multiple factors. As a result, of 43.3% the were written after 1970 (The year of publication of “Voice
information in the second main component and 64.4% in the Net,” written by Shin’ichi Hoshi). This suggests that most
fourth main component was extracted. We decided that up of this AI type was generated after computer and telecom-
to the fourth main component represented our data well. The munication technologies were developed.
first axis (24.4%) with a high contribution ratio was labeled
intelligence, whereas the second axis (19.0%) was labeled 4.1 Machine-type AI
humanity, which suggests familiarity with human society.
The third axis (12.0%) with a high contribution ratio of The cluster was populated by AI that are shown as being
independence was labeled as independence, and the fourth less intelligent than humans (as regarded by human beings).
axis (9.1%) with a high maker factor contribution ratio was In contrast to the human type, this type is unique in that it
labeled maker. Hierarchical cluster analysis was also per- exhibited low generality (0.04 (SD 0.13)), low conscious-
formed for the 11 factors. The distance between each ele- ness (0.08 (SD 0.26)), low language ability (0.08 (SD
ment was measured in terms of the Euclidean distance and 0.19)), and low learning ability (0.15 (SD. 35)), and low
classified using Ward’s method. The cluster tree was divided human-shape (0.17 (SD 0.27)). Representative examples
into four clusters based on the distance between 10 distinc- of this type include the Robot Mother in “The Mechanical
tive points. These four clusters were characteristically sepa- Mice” by Maurice Hugi, “Hog-Belly Honey” by R.A Laf-
rated on a PCA map constructed with the first (intelligence) ferty, and KEIGI-1 in “Inter Ice Age 4” The tasks performed
and second (humanity) factors as primary axes, as Fig. 1 is by AI range from babysitting to weapons, but many of them
mainly constructed by nine factors. There was no distinctive do not learn from the environment. These appear in stories
clustering in the PCA map constructed by the third (inde- as unintelligent automated machines for solving specific
pendence) and fourth (maker) factors. problems. Alternatively, these machines are provided in
Based on the characteristics of the four clusters, we labeled an environment in which the protagonists cannot interfere.
them as Buddy, Machine, Infrastructure, and Human. As Their inflexibility often damages human society.

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2130 International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133

4.2 Human type AI In contrast to the human type, this type is characterized
by high network connectivity (0.98 (SD.07)), slightly
Human-type AI was the most common of the four types lower physical appearance (0.61 (SD 0.40)), and moderate
(40%). From Table 2, it may be observed that this type of human-shape (0.43 (SD 0.44)). Representative examples of
AI has been depicted in SF from the beginning to the pres- this type include Skynet in “Terminator” by James Cam-
ent day in every decade. Specificities in this type included eron, Wintermute in “Neuromancer” by William Gibson,
moderate generality (0.41 (SD 0.32)), high consciousness and Lacia in “Beatless” by Satoshi Hase. The most com-
(0.85 (SD 0.31)), high language skills (0.97 (SD 0.12)), mon task performed by the AI was facility management (15
moderate learning skills (0.56 (SD 0.43)), high physical cases). The image of infrastructure-type AI is thought to
appearance (0.97 (SD 0.11)), and high human-shape (0.89 have been created mainly after World War II with the devel-
(SD 0.22)). Representative examples of this type include opment of computer and communication technologies. The
Atom in Osamu Tezuka’s “Astro Boy” and several robots in average year of publication was 1994 (SD 18.0), as shown
Isaac Asimov’s “I, Robot”. This type is thought to include in Table 2, which was more recent than the other catego-
the traditional SF theme of artificial humans taking the place ries. The implementation of computer networks has varied
of humans. Regarding the tasks performed by the AI, house- over time, and some works have been represented as AI
work was the most common task (11 cases), followed by over telephone networks (“Voice Net” by Shin’ichi Hoshi).
outdoor physical labor (5 cases) follows. Human-type AI In “Voice Net,“ a recommendation system and evaluation
act independently as members of society, learn from their economy similar to that of the Internet society is achieved
environment, and perform general tasks, just as humans do. by an AI system composed of telephone networks installed
In general, most of these characters are treated as a meta- in buildings.
phor for humans. This type of AI was concentrated in a rela-
tively small cluster, as illustrated in Fig. 1. This seems to be
because the human image was the norm for these characters. 5 Discussion of SF stereotypes and
possibilities
4.3 Buddy-type AI
5.1 AI factors that imply contributions to
The buddy-type AI were identified as human-dependent, intelligence and humanity
conscious, and collaborative agents that typically helped
with work. They are similar to the human type, but distinct In order to explain the developed framework for AI and
in terms of their low generality (0.24 (SD. 45)), slightly robot systems, we identified some factors suggestive of
lower language skills (0.74 (SD 0.32)), and low human- intelligence and humanity in fictional AI. Our analysis of
shape (0.06 (SD 0.22)). Representative examples of this fiction, shown in the PCA map ( Fig. 1), contributed to
type include HAL 9000 (a spaceship AI) in “2001: A Space revealing these hidden relationships.
Odyssey” by Arthur C. Clark, Yukikaze (a combat aircraft) Embodiment is an important factor in the field of AI
in “Yukikaze” by Chohei Kanbayashi, and Asurada (a semi- (Brooks 1991). From an SF viewpoint, it has been con-
automatic car) in “Future GPX Cyber Formula” by Mitsuo sidered as a factor contributing to humanity in terms of
Fukuda. The buddy-type AI typically exhibits a tool-type familiarity with human society. However, our analysis sug-
shape such as that of a vehicle, performs specific tasks for gests that embodiment exhibits a two-sided influence on
each tool, and sometimes accepts commands via non-verbal how intelligence influences people. If a humanlike shape
input. Among the tasks performed by the AI, the most com- is attributes AI, portrays typically involved increased intel-
mon task was military (eight cases), followed by automatic ligence. However, general physical attribution contributed
operation (four cases). The buddy type of AI works with to decreased intelligence. This tendency was the same as
humans to extend their cognitive abilities. These AI’s unique that suggested in the robotics design and human-computer
consciousness (autonomy) interferes with and effects human interaction (HCI) design principle called the adaptation gap
consciousness. There are also cases in which they run out of (Komatsu, Kurosawa, and Yamada 2012), in which human-
control owing to dilemmas involving human orders. like attributes contribute to more intelligence.
Language ability, consciousness, learning ability, gen-
4.4 Infrastructure-type AI erality, and network connection exhibited similar tenden-
cies in contributing to an increase in portrayed intelligence.
Infrastructure-type AI are often less physically active, However, their contributions to humanity were slightly dif-
include substantial network connectivity and language ferent. The language ability of AI and their consciousness
capabilities, and are often used as social infrastructure. showed the same tendency to weakly increase humanity. In

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International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133 2131

contrast, learning ability and generality contributed weakly working system, including issues such as the division of
to decreased humanity, and network connection margin- roles between humans and AI in automated driving. These
ally contributed to decreased humanity. It may be useful to examples can shed light on how the coupling of humans
explain language capabilities rather than the versatility of and AI my function under extreme conditions. Yukikaze is
AI to convey the advantage of AI to non-experts. a typical example. It depicts the process in which a human
It is also remarkable that the crowd factor simply con- pilot interacts with a heterogeneous helper intelligence, and
tributes to decreased humanity. It is difficult for people to in the process, accepts decisions and makes heterogeneous
imagine an intelligence comprised of many less complex decisions. This is a challenge that needs to be addressed
intelligences. Hence, care should be taken to communicate when dealing with autonomous weapons, autonomous vehi-
the harmlessness of this kind of artificial crowd intelligence. cles, and other similar issues.
The infrastructure type is a new image that appeared
5.2 Avoiding stereotypes: human and machine alongside the development of the computer. These systems
were imagined as information technology progressively
Human-type AI in SF seems to have been used as a motif developed. For example, “Beatless” by Satoshi Hase depicts
for humans from different cultures, and machine-type AI in a world of AI after a singularity, and Lacia is depicted as a
SF seems to have been used as a motif for an uncontrollable humanoid interface. In this story, human activities are moni-
machines, with each being a stereotypical aspect. Human- tored and predicted by AI as operating as infrastructure, and
type agents, like Karel Capek’s R.U.R. which coined the human agents “hack” the human mind socially through sev-
term “robot,” are reflective of racial discrimination and eral human factors, including gender. “Beatless” is consid-
slave labor engaged in housework and labor. This is thought ered a key SF story for referenced in future AI design, with
to have functioned in the narratives to describe aspects of addressed the ethical problems associated with the introduc-
the coexistence of different human beings in society such tion of AI into society, the ethical problems of persuasive
as fear. engineering, as discussed by Fogg et al. (Fogg 1999), and
Machine-type AI are another stereotype in SF, represent- gender difference problems in social factors, as explored by
ing the theme of machines that work independently and may Nass et al. (Nass and Moon 2000) and corresponding cases
cause problems by going out of control. The fear of this were described experimentally. This provides a realistic
type of uncontrollable machine goes back to the stories of example of the risks that interactive agent affective com-
golems. The main features of this type of AI are its apparent puting technology may present to decision-making (Picard
lack of intelligence and inflexibility. 1997). These works will help the public to understand the
Although we acknowledge that these AI images work pressing problems of information technology.
well in the literature, we are concerned that they may not 6 Contribution and Limitations.
present a technically realistic image. We are also concerned This research has contributed guidelines for AI research-
that these fictional works may induce stereotypes of AI. ers on how to explain their work in the society. For instance,
Although creating human-like intelligence is a primary goal it is not appropriate to use SF related to human-like AI as
of AI, today’s AI are not as intelligent as humans, but they an example of a system that operates as infrastructure for a
are also not necessarily unsophisticated machines regulated connected society. In “Beatless,” for example, the question
by simple rules easily understood by humans. Human-like of who bears responsibility for decision-making in the deci-
images are often used, especially in the design and promo- sions of infrastructuralized artificial intelligence is debated
tion of commercialized AI; however, we think researchers as an essential issue. When explaining similar social infra-
and technologists should take care to avoid the overuse of structure AI, “Beatless” can be used to discuss the decision-
this image, and should explain their technologies to avoid making of infrastructure AI, showing that concerns based on
these stereotypes. human AI are not appropriate metaphors.
Our categorization also allows researchers to identify
5.3 Beyond Anthropomorphism: non-human works that provide inspiring and simulative visions of AI.
buddies and social infrastructure Important works are selected according to the criteria, and
the results produce knowledge about stereotypes. By evalu-
We believe that buddy-type and infrastructure-type AI will ating the artificial intelligence developed by engineers with
be more important in communicating the vision of future the same parameters as these fictional portrayals, and using
AI designs. Buddy-type AIs are not like a human, but they the results to classify their similarity to fictional AI, it is
performs tasks in cooperation with humans. A Buddy- possible to address the problems described in the fictional as
type AI’s work deals with the problem of how to compro- a possible virtual problem in advance. Based on the results
mise between AI and human decision-making as a unified of this survey, we believe it is appropriate to collect more

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2132 International Journal of Social Robotics (2022) 14:2123–2133

extensive surveys from the general public using crowd- we hope to extend future work to include more movies.
sourcing and other methods. The next step in this research is to develop a more detailed
The contribution of this research is to derive the range of methods of communication. For example, the best fiction
contemporary popular imaginations of artificial intelligence for conveying actual AI and robots to people can be selected
and robots from sci-fi works based on the analysis of experts. by classifying actual AI according to the parameters of this
Therefore, it is difficult at present to directly derive a future study and searching for similar stories.
vision using SF alone. In the future, to understand through
science fiction how AI fits into the various imaginary futures Funding This study was supported by JST RISTEX Grant Number
JPMJRX18H6, Japan.
presented in literature and media, attention needs to be paid
to the philosophical and empirical aspects of each work, as Data Availability The datasets generated during and/or analyzed dur-
well as to the computation of narrative components. For ing the current study are available from the corresponding author upon
example, what would it be like for people in the imaginary reasonable request.
world to interact with AI or robotics and to live under the
socio-technical conditions created thereby? Do patterns of Declarations
human life continue to exist, what changes are likely, and
what conditions exist? Is the story fundamentally optimistic Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
about human nature and the ability to self-govern, or does
it suggest that people need monitoring and guidance, and Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
how does that human concept relate to the types of AI in the Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
story, and how does it work? As a next step in this research, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format,
as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
we believe that additional verification should be conducted
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate
from a multifaceted perspective, including literary scholars. if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
Popular concerns about artificial intelligence technology article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
can be addressed by separating the concerns that come from indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
the literary visions of humans and tools from the real con-
use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
cerns that are extrapolated from real technology. use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
In a future work, we plan to use crowdsourcing to collect holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.
more data. The present work also involves a bias towards org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Japanese and American fiction. Science fiction from the
United States has a strong influence on every country,
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