Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Class 11 Notes

Chapter 1
• Importance of Chemistry
Chemistry has a direct impact on our life and has wide range of applications in different fields.
These are given below:
(A) In Agriculture and Food:
(i) It has provided chemical fertilizers such as urea, calcium phosphate, sodium nitrate,
ammonium phosphate etc.
(ii) It has helped to protect the crops from insects and harmful bacteria, by the use ‘ of certain
effective insecticides, fungicides and pesticides.
(iii) The use of preservatives has helped to preserve food products like jam, butter, squashes etc.
for longer periods.
(B) In Health and Sanitation:
(i) It has provided mankind with a large number of life-saving drugs. Today, dysentery and
pneumonia are curable due to discovery of sulpha drugs and penicillin life-saving drugs.
Cisplatin and taxol have been found to be very effective for cancer therapy and AZT
(Azidothymidine) is used for AIDS victims.
(ii) Disinfectants such as phenol are used to kill the micro-organisms present in drains, toilet,
floors etc.
(iii) A low concentration of chlorine i.e., 0.2 to 0.4 parts per million (ppm) is used ’ for
sterilization of water to make it fit for drinking purposes.
(C) Saving the Environment:
The rapid industrialisation all over the world has resulted in lot of pollution.
Poisonous gases and chemicals are being constantly released in the atmosphere. They are
polluting environment at an alarming rate. Scientists are working day and night to develop
substitutes which may cause lower pollution. For example, CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), a
substitute of petrol, is very effective in checking pollution caused by automobiles.
(D) Application in Industry:
Chemistry has played an important role in developing many industrially ^ manufactured
fertilizers, alkalis, acids, salts, dyes, polymers, drugs, soaps,
detergents, metal alloys and other inorganic and organic chemicals including new materials
contribute in a big way to the national economy.
• Matter
Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter.
For example, book, pencil, water, air are composed of matter as we know that they have
mass and they occupy space.
• Classification of Matter
There are two ways of classifying the matter:
(A) Physical classification
(B) Chemical classification
(A) Physical Classification:
Matter can exist in three physical states:
1. Solids 2. Liquids 3. Gases
1. Solids: The particles are held very close to each other in an orderly fashion and there is not
much freedom of movement.
Characteristics of solids: Solids have definite volume and definite shape.
2. Liquids: In liquids, the particles are close to each other but can move around. Characteristics
of liquids: Liquids have definite volume but not definite shape.
3. Gases: In gases, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid or liquid
states. Their movement is easy and fast.
Characteristics of Gases: Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape. They
completely occupy the container in which they are placed.
(B) Chemical Classification:
Based upon the composition, matter can be divided into two main types:
1. Pure Substances 2. Mixtures.
1. Pure substances: A pure substance may be defined as a single substance (or matter) which
cannot be separated by simple physical methods.
Pure substances can be further classified as (i) Elements (ii) Compounds
(i) Elements: An element consists of only one type of particles. These particles may be atoms or
molecules.
For example, sodium, copper, silver, hydrogen, oxygen etc. are some examples of elements.
They all contain atoms of one type. However, atoms of different elements are different in nature.
Some elements such as sodium . or copper contain single atoms held together as their constituent
particles whereas in some others two or more atoms combine to give molecules of the element.
Thus, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen gases consist of molecules in which two atoms combine to
give the respective molecules of the element.
(ii) Compounds: It may be defined as a pure substance containing two or more elements
combined together in a fixed proportion by weight and can be decomposed into these elements
by suitable chemical methods. Moreover, the properties of a compound are altogether different
from the constituting elements.
The compounds have been classified into two types. These are:
(i) Inorganic Compounds: These are compounds which are obtained from non-living sources
such as rocks and minerals. A few
examples are: Common salt, marble, gypsum, washing soda etc.
(ii) Organic Compounds are the compounds which are present in plants and animals. All the
organic compounds have been found to contain carbon as their essential constituent. For
example, carbohydrates, proteins, oils, fats etc.
2. Mixtures: The combination of two or more elements or compounds which are not chemically
combined together and may also be present in any proportion, is called mixture. A few examples
of mixtures are: milk, sea water, petrol, lime water, paint glass, cement, wood etc.
Types of mixtures: Mixtures are of two types:
(i) Homogeneous mixtures: A mixture is said to be homogeneous if it has a uniform
composition throughout and there are no visible boundaries of separation between the
constituents.
For example: A mixture of sugar solution in water has the same sugar water composition
throughout and all portions have the same sweetness.
(ii) Heterogeneous mixtures: A mixture is said to be heterogeneous if it does not have uniform
composition throughout and has visible boundaries of separation between the various
constituents. The different constituents of a heterogeneous mixture can be seen even with naked
eye.
For example: When iron filings and sulphur powder are mixed together, the mixture formed is
heterogeneous. It has greyish-yellow appearance and the two constituents, iron and sulphur, can
be easily identified with naked eye.
• Differences between Compounds and Mixtures
Compounds
1. In a compound, two or more elements are combined chemically.
2. In a compound, the elements are present in the fixed ratio by mass. This ratio cannot change.
3. CompoUnds are always homogeneous i.e., they havethe same composition throughout.
4 In a compound, constituents cannot be separated by physical methods
5. In a compound, the constituents lose their identities i.e., i compound does not show the
characteristics of the constituting elements.
Mixtures
1. In a mixture, or more elements or compounds are simply mixed and not combined chemically.
2. In a mixture the constituents are not present in fixed ratio. It can vary
3. Mixtures may be either homogeneous or heterogeneous in nature.
4. Constituents of mixtures can be separated by physical methods.
5, In a mixture, the constituents do not lose their identities i.e., a mixture shows the
characteristics of all the constituents .
We have discussed the physical and chemical classification of matter. A flow sheet
representation of the same is given below.

• Properties of Matter and Their Measurements

Physical Properties: Those properties which can be measured or observed without changing the
identity or the composition of the substance.
Some examples of physical properties are colour, odour, melting point, boiling point etc.
Chemical Properties: It requires a chemical change to occur. The examples of chemical
properties are characteristic reactions of different substances. These include acidity, basicity,
combustibility etc.
• Units of Measurement
Fundamental Units: The quantities mass, length and time are called fundamental quantities and
their units are known as fundamental units.
There are seven basic units of measurement for the quantities: length, mass, time, temperature,
amount of substance, electric current and luminous intensity.
Si-System: This system of measurement is the most common system employed throughout the
world.
It has given units of all the seven basic quantities listed above.

• Definitions of Basic SI Units

1. Metre: It is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299792458 of a second.
2. Kilogram: It is the unit of mass. It is equal to the mass of the international prototype
of the kilogram. ,
3. Second: It is the duration of 9192631, 770 periods of radiation which correspond to the
transition between the two hyper fine levels of the ground state of caesium- 133 atom.
4. Kelvin: It is the unit of thermodynamic temperature and is equal to 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
5. Ampere: The ampere is that constant current which if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section and placed, 1 metre apart in
vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 N per metre of
length.
6. Candela: It may be defined as the luminous intensity in a given direction, from a source which
emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in
that direction of 1/ 683 watt per steradian.
7. Mole: It is the amount of substance which contains as many elementary entities as there are
atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon -12. Its symbol is ‘mol’.
• Mass and Weight
Mass: Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it.
The mass of a substance is constant.
The mass of a substance can be determined accurately in the laboratory by using an analytical
balance. SI unit of mass is kilogram.
Weight: It is the force exerted by gravity on an object. Weight of substance may vary from one
place to another due to change in gravity.
Volume: Volume means the space occupied by matter. It has the units of (length)3. In SI units,
volume is expressed in metre3 (m3). However, a popular unit of measuring volume, particularly
in liquids is litre (L) but it is not in SI units or an S.I. unit.
Mathematically,
1L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1dm3.
Volume of liquids can be measured by different devices like burette, pipette, cylinder, measuring
flask etc. All of them have been calibrated.

Temperature: There are three scales in which temperature can be measured. These are known as
Celsius scale (°C), Fahrenheit scale (°F) and Kelvin scale (K).
-> Thermometres with Celsius scale are calibrated from 0°C to 100°C.
-> Thermometres with Fahrenheit scale are calibrated from 32°F to 212°F.
-> Kelvin’scale of temperature is S.I. scale and is very common these days.Temperature on this
scale is shown by the sign K.
The temperature on two scales are related to each other by the relationship

Density: Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit volume. So, SI unit of density can
be obtained as follows:

This unit is quite large and a chemist often expresses density in g cm3 where mass is expressed in
gram and volume is expressed in cm3.
• Uncertainty in Measurements
All scientific measurements involve certain degree of error or uncertainty. The errors which arise
depend upon two factors.
(i) Skill and accuracy of the worker (ii) Limitations of measuring instruments.
• Scientific Notation
It is an exponential notation in which any number can be represented in the form N x 10n where n
is an exponent having positive or negative values and N can vary between 1 to 10. Thus, 232.508
can be written as 2.32508 x 102 in scientific notation.
Now let us see how calculations are carried out with numbers expressed in scientific notation.
(i) Calculation involving multiplication and division

(ii) Calculation involving addition and subtraction: For these two operations, the first numbers
are written in such a way that they have the same exponent. After that, the coefficients are added
or subtracted as the case may be. For example,

• Significant Figures
Significant figures are meaningful digits which are known with certainty. There are certain rules
for determining the number of significant figures. These are stated below:
1. All non-zero digits are significant. For example, in 285 cm, there are three significant figures
and in 0.25 mL, there are two significant figures.
2. Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are not significant. Such zeros indicates the position of
decimal point.
For example, 0.03 has one significant figure and 0.0052 has two significant figures.
3. Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 2.005 has four significant figures.
4. Zeros at the end or right of a number are significant provided they are on the right side of the
decimal point. For example, 0.200 g has three significant figures.
5. Counting numbers of objects. For example, 2 balls or 20 eggs have infinite significant figures
as these are exact numbers and can be represented by writing infinite number of zeros after
placing a decimal.
i.e., 2 = 2.000000
or 20 = 20.000000
• Addition and Subtraction of Significant Figures
In addition or subtraction of the numbers having different precisions, the final result should be
reported to the same number of decimal places as in the term having the least number of decimal
places.
For example, let us carry out the addition of three numbers 3.52, 2.3 and 6.24, having different
precisions or different number of decimal places.

The final result has two decimal places but the answer has to be reported only up to one decimal
place, i.e., the answer would be 12.0.
Subtraction of numbers can be done in the same way as the addition.

The final result has four decimal places. But it has to be reported only up to two decimal places,
i.e., the answer would be 11.36.
• Multiplication and Division of Significant Figures
In the multiplication or division, the final result should be reported upto the same number of
significant figures as present in the least precise number.
Multiplication of Numbers: 2.2120 x 0.011 = 0.024332
According to the rule the final result = 0.024
Division of Numbers: 4.2211÷3.76 = 1.12263
The correct answer = 1.12
• Dimensional Analysis
Often while calculating, there is a need to convert units from one system to other. The method
used to accomplish this is called factor label method or unit factor method or dimensional
analysis.
• Laws of Chemical Combinations
The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following five basic laws.
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions
(iv) Law of Gaseous Volume (Gay Lussac’s Law)
(v) Avogadro’s Law
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
The law was established by a French chemist, A. Lavoisier. The law states:
In all physical and chemical changes, the total mass of the reactants is equal to that of the
products.
In other words, matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
The following experiments illustrate the truth of this law.
(a) When matter undergoes a physical change.

It is found that there is no change in weight though a physical change has taken place.
(b) When matter undergoes a chemical change.
For example, decomposition of mercuric oxide.

During the above decomposition reaction, matter is neither gained nor lost.
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
According to this law:
A pure chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together in a fixed
proportion by weight.
For example, Carbon dioxide may be formed in a number of ways i.e.,

(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions

If two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the weight of one of the elements
which combines with a fixed weight of the other in these compounds, bears simple whole
number ratio by weight.
For example,
(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
The law states that, under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, whenever gases
combine, they do so in volumes which bear simple whole number ratio with each other and also
with the gaseous products. The law may be illustrated by the following examples.
(a) Combination between hydrogen and chlorine:

(b) Combination between nitrogen and hydrogen: The two gases lead to the formation of
ammonia gas under suitable conditions. The chemical equation is

(v) Avogadro’s Law: Avogadro proposed that, equal volumes of gases at the same temperature
and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.
For example,
If we consider the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to produce water, we see that two volumes
of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to give two volumes of water without leaving
any unreacted oxygen.

• Dalton’s Atomic Theory

In 1808, Dalton published ‘A New System of Chemical Philosophy’ in which he proposed the
following:
1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms.
2. All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including identical mass. Atoms of
different elements differ in mass.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. These are neither created nor destroyed in
a chemical reaction.
• Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of an element is the number of times an atom of that element is heavier than an
atom of carbon taken as 12. It may be noted that the atomic masses as obtained above are the
relative atomic masses and not the actual masses of the atoms.
One atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to l/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope. It is
also known as unified mass.
Average Atomic Mass
Most of the elements exist as isotopes which are different atoms of the same element with
different mass numbers and the same atomic number. Therefore, the atomic mass of an element
must be its average atomic mass and it may be defined as the average relative mass of an atom of
an element as compared to the mass of carbon atoms (C-12) taken as 12w.
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. It is obtained
by multiplying the atomic mass of each element by number of its atoms and adding them
together.
For example,
Molecular mass of methane (CH4)
= 12.011 u + 4 (1.008 u)
= 16.043 u
Formula Mass
Ionic compounds such as NaCl, KNO3, Na2C03 etc. do not consist of molecules i.e., single entities
but exist “as ions closely packed together in a three dimensional space as shown in -Fig. 1.5.

In such cases, the formula is used to calculate the formula mass instead of molecular mass. Thus,
formula mass of NaCl = Atomic mass of sodium + atomic mass of chlorine
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u.
• Mole Concept
It is found that one gram atom of any element contains the same number of atoms and one gram
molecule of any substance contains the same number of molecules. This number has been
experimentally determined and found to be equal to 6.022137 x 1023 The value is generally called
Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant.
It is usually represented by NA:
Avogadro’s Number, NA = 6.022 × 1023
• Percentage Composition
One can check the purity of a given sample by analysing this data. Let us understand by taking
the example of water (H20). Since water contains hydrogen and oxygen, the percentage
composition of both these elements can be calculated as follows:
• Empirical Formula
The formula of the compound which gives the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of
yarious elements present in one molecule of the compound.
For example, the formula of hydrogen peroxide is H202. In order to express its empirical formula,
we have to take out a common factor 2. The simplest whole number ratio of the atoms is 1:1 and
the empirical formula is HO. Similarly, the formula of glucose is C6H1206. In order to get the
simplest whole number of the atoms,
Common factor = 6
The ratio is = 1 : 2 : 1 The empirical formula of glucose = CH20
• Molecular Formula
The formula of a compound which gives the actual ratio of the atoms of various elements present
in one molecule of the compound.
For example, molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide = H202and Glucose = C6H1206
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula
Where n is the common factor and also called multiplying factor. The value of n may be 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6 etc.
In case n is 1, Molecular formula of a compound = Empirical formula of the compound.
• Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations
The word ‘stoichiometry’ is derived from two Greek words—Stoicheion (meaning element) and
metron (meaning measure). Stoichiometry, thus deals with the calculation of masses (sometimes
volume also) of the reactants and the products involved in a chemical reaction. Let us consider
the combustion of methane. A balanced equation for this reaction is as given below:
Limiting Reactant/Reagent
Sometimes, in alchemical equation, the reactants present are not the amount as required
according to the balanced equation. The amount of products formed then depends upon the
reactant which has reacted completely. This reactant which reacts completely in the reaction is
called the limiting reactant or limiting reagent. The reactant which is not consumed completely
in the reaction is called excess reactant.
Reactions in Solutions
When the reactions are carried out in solutions, the amount of substance present in its given
volume can be expressed in any of the following ways:
1. Mass percent or weight percent (w/w%)
2. Mole fraction
3. Molarity
4. Molality
1. Mass percent: It is obtained by using the following relation:

2. Mole fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number
of moles of the solution. For a solution containing n2 moles of the solute dissolved in n1 moles
of the solvent,
3. Molarity: It is defined as the number of moles of solute in 1 litre of the solution.

4. Molality: It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent. It is

denoted by m.

• All substances contain matter which can exist in three states — solid, liquid or gas.
• Matter can also be classified into elements, compounds and mixtures.
• Element: An element contains particles of only one type which may be atoms or molecules.
• Compounds are formed when atoms of two or more elements combine in a fixed ratio to each
other.
• Mixtures: Many of the substances present around us are mixtures.
• Scientific notation: The measurement of quantities in chemistry are spread over a wide rhnge of
10-31to 1023. Hence, a convenient system of expressing the number in scientific notation is used.
• Scientific figures: The uncertainty is taken care of by specifying the number of significant
figures in which the observations are reported.
• Dimensional analysis: It helps to express the measured quantities in different systems of units.
• Laws of Chemical Combinations are:
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions
(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
(v) Avogadro’s Law.
• Atomic mass: The atomic mass of an element is expressed relative to 12C isotope of carbon
which has an exact value of 12u.
• Average atomic mass: Obtained by taking into account the natural aboundance of different
isotopes of that element.
• Molecular mass: The molecular mass of a molecule is obtained by taking sum of atomic masses
of different atoms present in a molecule.
• Avogadro number: The number of atoms, molecules or any other particles present in a given
system are expressed in terms of Avogadro constant.
= 6.022 x 1023
• Balanced chemical equation: A balanced equation has the same number of atoms of each
element on both sides of the equation.
• Stoichiometry: The quantitative study of the reactants required or the products formed is called
stoichiometry. Using stoichiometric calculations, the amounts of one or more reactants required
to produce a particular amount of product can be determined and vice-versa.

Structure of Atom Class 11 Notes Chemistry

Chapter 2
• Discovery of Electron—Discharge Tube Experiment
In 1879, William Crooks studied the conduction of electricity through gases at low pressure. He
performed the experiment in a discharge tube which is a cylindrical hard glass tube about 60 cm
in length. It is sealed at both the ends and fitted with two metal electrodes as shown in Fig. 2.1.
The electrical discharge through the gases could be observed only at very low pressures and at
very high voltages.
The pressure of different gases could be adjusted by evacuation. When sufficiently high voltage
is applied across the electrodes, current starts flowing through a stream of particles moving in the
tube from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode). These were called
cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
• Properties of Cathode Rays
(i) Cathode rays travel in straight line.
(ii) Cathode rays start from cathode and move towards the anode.
(iii) These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be observed with the help of
certain kind of materials (fluorescent or phosphorescent) which glow when hit by them.
(iv) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles. When electric field is applied on the
cathode rays with the help of a pair of metal plates, these are found to be deflected towards the
positive plate indicating the presence of negative charge.
(v) The characteristics of cathode rays do not depend upon the material of electrodes and the
nature of gas present in the cathode ray’tube.
• Determination of Charge/Mass (elm) Ratio for Electrons
J. J. Thomson for the first time experimentally determined charge/mass ratio called elm ratio for
the electrons. For this, he subjected the beam of electrons released in the discharge tube as
cathode rays to influence the electric and magnetic fields. These were acting perpendicular to
one another as well as to the path followed by electrons.
According to Thomson, the amount of deviation of the particles from their path in presence of
electrical and magnetic field depends upon following factors:
(i) Greater the magnitude of the charge on the particle, greater is the interaction with the electric
or magnetic field and thus greater is the deflection.
(ii) The mass of the particle — lighter the particle, greater the deflection.
(iii) The deflection of electrons from their original path increases with the increase in the voltage
across the electrodes or strength of the magnetic field.
By carrying out accurate measurements on the amount of deflections observed by the electrons
on the electric field strength or magnetic field strength, Thomson was able to determine the value
of
e/me = 1.758820 x 1011 C kg-1 where me = Mass of the electron in kg
e = magnitude of charge on the electron in coulomb (C).
• Charge on the Electron
R.A. Millikan devised a method known as oil drop experiment to determine the charge on the
electrons.

• Discovery of Proton—Anode Rays

In 1886, Goldstein modified the discharge tube by using a perforated cathode. On reducing the
pressure, he observed a new type of luminous rays passing through the holes or perforations of
the cathode and moving in a direction opposite to the cathode rays. These rays were named as
positive rays or anode rays or as canal rays. Anode rays are not emitted from the anode but from
a space between anode and cathode.
• Properties of Anode Rays
(i) The value of positive charge (e) on the particles constituting anode rays depends upon the
nature of the gas in the discharge tube.
(ii) The charge to mass ratio of the particles is found to depend on the gas from which these
originate.
(iii) Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of the fundamental unit of
electrical charge.
(iv) The behaviour of these particles in the magnetic or electric field is opposite to that observed
for electron or cathode rays.
• Proton
The smallest and lightest positive ion was obtained from hydrogen and was called proton. Mass
of proton = 1.676 x 10-27 kg
Charge on a proton = (+) 1.602 x 10-19 C
• Neutron
It is a neutral particle. It was discovered by Chadwick (1932).
By the bombardment of thin sheets of beryllium with fast moving a-particles he observed • that
highly penetrating rays consist of neutral particles which were named neutrons.
• Thomson Model of Atom
(i) J. J. Thomson proposed that an atom may be regarded as a sphere of approximate radius 1CT8
cm carrying positive charge due to protons and in which negatively charged electrons are
embedded.
(ii) In this model, the atom is visualized as a pudding or cake of positive charge with electrons
embedded into it.
(iii) The mass of atom is considered to be evenly spread over the atom according to this model.
Drawback of Thomson Model of Atom
This model was able to explain the overall neutrality of the atom, it could not satisfactorily,
explain the results of scattering experiments carried out by Rutherford in 1911.
• Rutherford’s a-particle Scattering Experiment
Rutherford in 1911, performed some scattering experiments in which he bombarded thin foils of
metals like gold, silver, platinum or copper with a beam of fast moving a-particles. The thin gold
foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it. Whenever a-particles struck the
screen, a tiny flash of light was produced at that point.
From these experiments, he made the following observations:
–
(i) Most of the a-particles passed through the foil without undergoing any deflection,
(ii) A few a-particles underwent deflection through small angles.
(iii) Very few mere deflected back i.e., through an angle of nearly 180°.
From these observations, Rutherford drew the following conclusions:
(i) Since most of the a-particles passed through the foil without undergoing any deflection, there
must be sufficient empty space within the atom.
(ii) A small fraction of a-particles was deflected by small angles. The positive charge has to be
concentrated in a very small volume that repelled and deflected a few positively charged a-
particles. This very small portion of the atom was called nucleus.
(iii) The volume of nucleus is very small as compared to total volume of atom.
• Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of an Atom
(i) The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom was densely concentrated in an
extremely small region. This very small portion of the atom was called nucleus by Rutherford.
(ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus with a very high speed
in circular paths called orbits.
(iii) Electrons and nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
• Atomic Number
The number of protons present in the nucleus is equal to the atomic number (z). For example, the
number of protons in the hydrogen nucleus is 1, in sodium atom it is 11, therefore, their atomic
numbers are 1 and 11. In order to keep the electrical neutrality, the number of electrons in an
atom is equal to the number of protons (atomic number, z). For example, number of electrons in
hydrogen atom and sodium atom are 1 and 11 respectively.
Atomic Number (z) = Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
= Number of electrons in a neutral atom.
• Mass Number
Number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus are collectively known as nucleons. The
total number of nucleons is termed as mass number (A) of the atom.
Mass Number (A) = Number of protons (p) + Number of neutrons (n).
• Isotopes
Atoms with identical atomic number but different atomic mass number are known as Isotopes.
Isotopes of Hydrogen:
These three isotopes are shown in the figure below:

Characteristics of Isotopes
(i) Since the isotopes of an element have the same atomic number, but different mass number,
the nuclei of isotopes contain the same number of protons, but different number of neutrons.
(ii) Since, the isotopes differ in their atomic masses, all the properties of the isotopes depending
upon the mass are different.
(iii) Since, the chemical properties are mainly determined by the number of protons in the
nucleus, and the number of electrons in the atom, the different isotopes of an element exhibit
similar chemical properties. For example, all the isotopes of carbon on burning give carbon
dioxide.
• Isobars

• Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

(i) When a body is moving in an orbit, it achieves acceleration. Thus, an electron moving around
nucleus in an orbit is under acceleration.
According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, charged particles when accelerated must emit
electromagnetic radiations. Therefore, an electron in an orbit will emit radiations, the energy
carried by radiation comes from electronic motion. Its path will become closer to nucleus and
ultimately should spiral into nucleus within . 10-8 s. But actually this does not happen.
Thus, Rutherford’s model cannot explain the stability of atom if the motion of electrons is
described on the basis of classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory.
(ii) Rutherford’s model does not give any idea about distribution of electrons around the nucleus
and about their energies.
• Developments Leading to the Bohr’s Model of Atom
Two developments played a major role in the formulation of Bohr’s model of atom. These were:
(i) Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means that radiations possess both
wave like and particle like properties.
(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra which can be explained only by assuming
quantized electronic energy levels in atoms.
• Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation (Electromagnetic Wave Theory)
This theory was put forward by James Clark Maxwell in 1864. The main points of this theory are
as follows:
(i) The energy is emitted from any source (like the heated rod or the filament of a bulb through
which electric current is passed) continuously in the form of radiations and is called the radiant
energy.
(ii) The radiations consist of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to each other
and both perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation.
(iii) The radiations possess wave character and travel with the velocity of light 3 x 10 8 m/sec.
(iv) These waves do not require any material medium for propagation. For example, rays from
the sun reach us through space which is a non-material medium.
• Characteristics of a Wave
Wavelength: It is defined as the distance between any two consecutive crests or troughs. It is
represented by X and its S.I. unit is metre.

Frequency: Frequency of a wave is defined as the number of waves passing through a point in
one second. It is represented by v (nu) and is expressed in Hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec.
Velocity: Velocity of a wave is defined as the linear distance travelled by the wave in one
second.
It is represented by c and is expressed in cm/sec or m/sec.
Amplitude: Amplitude of a wave is the height of the crest or the depth of the through. It is
represented by V and is expressed in the units of length.
Wave Number: It is defined as the number of waves present in 1 metre length. Evidently it will
be equal to the reciprocal of the wavelength. It is represented by bar v (read as nu bar).

Electromagnetic Spectrum: When electromagnetic radiations are arranged in order of their

increasing wavelengths or decreasing frequencies, the complete spectrum obtained is called
electromagnetic spectrum.

• Limitations of Electromagnetic Wave Theory

Electromagnetic wave theory was successful in explaining properties of light such as
interference, diffraction etc; but it could not explain the following:
(i) The phenomenon of black body radiation.
(ii) The photoelectric effect.
(iii) The variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature.
(iv) The line spectra of atoms with reference to hydrogen.
• Black Body Radiation
The ideal body, which emits and absorbs all frequencies is called a black body and the radiation
emitted by such a body is called black body radiation. The. exact frequency distribution of the
emitted radiation from a black body depends only on its temperature.
At a given temperature, intensity of radiation emitted increases with decrease of wavelength,
reaches a maximum value at a given wavelength and then starts decreasing with further decrease
of wavelength as shown in Fig 2.6.
• Planck’s Quantum Theory
To explain the phenomenon of ‘Black body radiation’ and photoelectric effect, Max Planck in
1900, put forward a theory known as Planck’s Quantum Theory.
This theory was further extended by Einstein in 1905. The main points of this theory was as
follows: ,
(i) The radiant energy emitted or absorbed in the form of small packets of energy. Each such
packets of energy is called a quantum.
(ii) The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation

where h is a proportionality constant, called Planck’s constant. Its value is equal to 6.626 x 10-
34
Jsec.
• Photoelectric Effect
Hertz, in 1887, discovered that when a beam of light of certain frequency strikes the surface of
some metals, electrons are emitted or ejected from the metal surface. The phenomenon is called
photoelectric effect.
Observations in Photoelectric Effect
(i) Only photons of light of certain minimum frequency called threshold frequency (v0) can cause
the photoelectric effect. The value of v0 is different for different metals.
(ii) The kinetic energy of the electrons which are emitted is directly proportional to the frequency
of the striking photons and is quite independent of their intensity.
(iii) The number of electrons that are ejected per second from the metal surface depends upon the
intensity of the striking photons or radiations and not upon their frequency.
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect
Einstein in (1905) was able to give an explanation of the different points of the photoelectric
effect using Planck’s quantum theory as under:
(i) Photoelectrons are ejected only when the incident light has a certain minimum frequency
(threshold frequency v0)
(ii) If the frequency of the incident light (v) is more than the threshold frequency (v0), the excess
energy (hv – hv0) is imparted to the electron as kinetic energy.
K.E. of the ejected electron
energy of the emitted electron.
(iii) On increasing the intensity of light, more electrons are ejected but the energies of the
electrons are not altered.
• Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation
From the study of behaviour of light, scientists came to the conclusion that light and other
electromagnetic radiations have dual nature. These are wave nature as well as particle nature.
Whenever radiation interacts with matter, it displays particle like properties in contrast to the
wavelike properties (interference and diffraction) which it exhibits when it propagates. Some
microscopic particles, like electrons, also exhibit this wave-particle duality.
• Spectrum
When a ray of white light is passed through a prism the wave with shorter wavelength bends
more than the one with a longer wavelength. Since ordinary white light consists of waves with
all the wavelengths in the visible range, array of white light is spread out into a series of coloured
bands called spectrum. The light of red colour which has longest wavelength is deviated the least
while the violet light, which has shortest wavelength is deviated the most.
Continuous Spectrum
When a ray of white light is analysed by passing through a prism it is observed that it splits up
into seven different wide bands of colours from violet to red (like rainbow). These colours are so
continuous that each of them merges into the next. Hence, the spectrum is called continuous
spectrum.
Emission Spectra
Emission Spectra is noticed when the radiations emitted from a source are passed through a
prism and then received on the photographic plate. Radiations can be emitted in a number of
ways such as:
(i) from sun or glowing electric bulb.
(ii) by passing electric discharge through a gas at low pressure.
(iii) by heating a substance to high temperature.
Line Spectra
When the vapours of some volatile substance are allowed to fall on the flame of a Bunsen burner
and then analysed with the help of a spectroscope. Some specific coloured lines appear on the
photographic plate which are different for different substances. For example, sodium or its salts
emit yellow light while potassium or its salts give out violet light.
Absorption Spectra
When white light is passed through the vapours of a substance and the transmitted light is then
allowed to strike a prism, dark lines appear in the otherwise continuous spectrum. The dark lines
indicate that the radiations corresponding to them were absorbed by the substance from the white
light. This spectrum is called absorption spectrum.
Dark lines appear exactly at the same positions where the lines in the emission spectra appear.
• Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
When electric discharge is passed through hydrogen gas enclosed in discharge tube under low
pressure and the emitted light is analysed by a spectroscope, the spectrum consists of a large
number of lines which are grouped into different series. The complete spectrum is known as
hydrogen spectrum.
On the basis of experimental observations, Johannes Rydberg noted that all series of lines in the
hydrogen spectrum could be described by the following expression:
Rydberg in 1890, and has given a simple theoretical equation for the calculation of wavelengths
and wave numbers of the spectral lines in different series of hydrogen spectrum. The equation is
known as Rydberg formula (or equation).

This relation is valid for hydrogen atom only. For other species,

where Z is the atomic number of the species.

Here RH = constant, called Rydberg constant for hydrogen and n1 , n2 are integers (n2 > n1)
For any particular series, the value of n1 is constant while that of n2 changes. For example,
For Lyman series, n1= 1, n2= 2, 3, 4, 5………..
For Balmer series, n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4, 5, 6………..
For Paschen series, n1= 3, n2 = 4, 5, 6, 7………..
For Brackett series,n1 = 4, n2 = 5, 6, 7, 8………..
For Pjund series, n1 =5, n2 = 6, 7, 8, 9………..
Thus, by substituting the values of n1 and n2 in the above equation, wavelengths and wave
number of different spectral lines can be calculated. When n1 = 2, the expression given above is
called Balmer’s formula.
• Bohr’s Model of Atom
Niels Bohr in 1913, proposed a new model of atom on the basis of Planck’s Quantum Theory.
The main points of this model are as follows:
(i) In an atom, the electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain definite circular paths called
orbits.
(ii) Each orbit is associated with definite energy and therefore these are known as energy
levels or energy shells. These are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4……….. or K, L, M, N………..
(iii) Only those energy orbits are permitted for the electron in which angular momentum of the
electron is a whole number multiple of h/2π
Angular momentum of electron (mvr) = nh/2π (n = 1, 2, 3, 4 etc).
m = mass of the electron.
v = tangential velocity of the revolving electron.
r = radius of the orbit.
h = Planck’s constant.
n is an integer.
(iv) As long as electron is present in a particular orbit, it neither absorbs nor loses energy and its
energy, therefore, remains constant.
(v) When energy is supplied to an electron, it absorbs energy only in fixed amounts as quanta
and jumps to higher energy state away from the nucleus known as excited state. The excited state
is unstable, the electron may jump back to the lower energy state and in doing so, it emits the
same amount of energy. (∆E = E2 – E1).
• Achievements of Bohr’s Theory
1. Bohr’s theory has explained the stability of an atom.
2. Bohr’s theory has helped in calculating the energy of electron in hydrogen atom and one
electron species. The mathematical expression for the energy in the nth orbit is,

• Limitations of Bohr’s Model

(i) The theory could not explain the atomic spectra of the atoms containing more than one
electron or multielectron atoms.
(ii) Bohr7s theory failed to explain the fine structure of the spectral lines.
(iii) Bohr’s theory could not offer any satisfactory explanation of Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
(iv) Bohr’s theory failed to explain the ability of atoms to form molecule formed by chemical
bonds.
(v) It was not in accordance with the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
• Dual Behaviour of Matter (de Broglie Equation)
de Broglie in 1924, proposed that matter, like radiation, should also exhibit dual behaviour i.e.,
both particle like and wave like properties. This means that like photons, electrons also have
momentum as well as wavelength.
From this analogy, de Broglie gave the following relation between wavelength (λ) and
momentum (p) of a material particle.
• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
It states that, “It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and exact
momentum (or velocity) of an electron”.

• Significance of Uncertainty Principle

(i) It rules out existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons and other similar particles.
(ii) The effect of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is significant only for microscopic objects
and is negligible for macroscopic objects.
• Reasons for the Failure of Bohr Model
(i) The wave character of the electron is not considered in Bohr Model.
(ii) According to Bohr Model an orbit is a clearly defined path and this path can completely be
defined only if both the position and the velocity of the electron are known exactly at the same
time. This is not possible according to the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
• Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
Quantum mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the study of the
motions of the microscopic objects that have both observable wave like and particle like
properties.
Important Features of Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
(i) The energy of electrons in atom is quantized i.e., can only have certain values.
(ii) The existence of quantized electronic energy level is a direct result of the wave like
properties of electrons.
(iii) Both the exact position and exact velocity of an electron in an atom cannot be determined
simultaneously.
(iv) An atomic orbital has wave function φ. There are many orbitals in an atom. Electron occupy
an atomic orbital which has definite energy. An orbital cannot have more than two electrons. The
orbitals are filled in increasing order of energy. All the information about the electron in an atom
is stored in orbital wave function φ.
(v) The probability of finding electron at a point within an atom is proportional to square of
orbital wave function i.e., |φ2|at that point. It is known as probability density and is always
positive.
From the value of φ2 at different points within atom, it is possible to predict the region around the
nucleus where electron most probably will be found.
• Quantum Numbers
Atomic orbitals can be specified by giving their corresponding energies and angular momentums
which are quantized (i.e., they have specific values). The quantized values can be expressed in
terms of quantum number. These are used to get complete information about electron i.e., its
location, energy, spin etc.
Principal Quantum Number (n)
It is the most important quantum number since it tells the principal energy level or shell to which
the electron belongs. It is denoted by the letter V and can have any integral value except zero,
i.e., n = 1, 2, 3, 4……….. etc.
The various principal energy shells are also designated by the letters, K, L, M, N, O, P ….. etc.
Starting from the nucleus.
The principal quantum number gives us the following information:
(i) It gives the average distance of the electron from the nucleus.
(ii) It completely determines the energy of the electron in hydrogen atom and hydrogen like
particles.
(iii) The maximum number of electrons present in any principal shell is given by 2n2 where n is
the number of the principal shell.
Azimuthal or Subsidiary or Orbital Angular Quantum Number (l)
It is found that the spectra of the elements contain not only the main lines but there are many fine
lines also present. This number helps to explain the fine lines of the spectrum.
The azimuthal quantum number gives the following information:
(i) The number of subshells present in the main shell.
(ii) The angular momentum of the electron present in any subshell.
(in) The relative energies of various subshells.
(iv) The shapes of the various subshells present within the same principal shell.
This quantum number is denoted by the letter T. For a given value of n, it can have any value
ranging from 0 to n – 1. For example,
For the 1st shell (k), n = 1, l can have only one value i.e., l = 0 For n = 2, the possible value of l
can be 0 and 1.
Subshells corresponding to different values of l are represented by the following symbols:
value of l 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……………..
Notation for subshell s p d f g h ………………..
Magnetic Orbital Quantum Number (m or m1)
The magnetic orbital quantum number determines the number of preferred orientations of the
electrons present in a subshell. Since each orientation corresponds to an orbital, therefore, the
magnetic orbital quantum number determines the number of orbitals present in any subshell.
The magnetic quantum number is denoted by letter m or ml and for a given value of l, it can have
all the values ranging from – l to + l including zero.
Thus, for energy value of l, m has 2l + 1 values.
For example,
For l = 0 (s-subshell), ml can have only one value i.e., m1 = 0.
This means that s-subshell has only one orientation in space. In other words, s-subshell has only
one orbital called s-orbital.
Spin Quantum Number (S or ms)
This quantum number helps to explain the magnetic properties of the substances. A spinning
electron behaves like a micromagnet with a definite magnetic moment. If an orbital contains two
electrons, the two magnetic moments oppose and cancel each other.
• Shapes of s-orbitals
s-orbital is present in the s-subshell. For this subshell, l = 0 and ml = 0. Thus, s-orbital with only
one orientation has a spherical shape with uniform electron density along all the three axes.
The probability of Is electron is found to be maximum near the nucleus and decreases with the
increase in the distance from the nucleus. In 2s electron, the probability is also maximum near
the nucleus and decreases to zero probability. The spherical empty shell for 2s electron is called
nodal surface or simply node.

• Shapes of p-orbitals
p-orbitals are present in the p-subshell for which l = 1 and m1 can have three possible orientations
– 1, 0, + 1.
Thus, there are three orbitals in the p-subshell which are designated as px, py and pz orbitals
depending upon the axis along which they are directed. The general shape of a p-orbital is dumb-
bell consisting of two portions known as lobes. Moreover, there is a plane passing through the
nucleus along which finding of the electron density is almost nil. This is known as nodal plane as
shown in the fig.

From the dumb-bell pictures, it is quite obvious that unlike s-orbital, a p-orbital is directional in
nature and hence it influences the shapes of the molecules in the formation of which it
participates.
• Shapes of d-orbitals
d-orbitals are present in d-subshell for which l = 2 and m[ = -2, -1, 0, +1 and +2. This means that
there are five orientations leading to five different orbitals.

• Aufbau Principle
The principle states: In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies.
In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and enter into
higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals are filled.
The order in which the energies of the orbitals increase and hence the order in which the orbitals
are filled is as follows:
Is, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, id, 5p, 6s, if, 3d, 6p, 7s, 5f 6d, 7p
The order may be remembered by using the method given in fig. 2.11.
• Pauli Exclusion Principle
According to this principle, no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers.
Pauli exclusion principle can also be stated as: Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital
and these electrons must have opposite spins.
• Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
It states that: pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p, d or f) does
not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each i.e., it is
singly occupied.
• Electronic Configuration of Atoms
The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called its electronic configuration. The
electronic configuration of different atoms can be represented in two ways.
For example:
• Causes of Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells
The completely filled and half filled subshells are stable due to the following reasons:

1. Symmetrical distribution of electrons: The completely filled or half filled subshells have
symmetrical distribution of electrons in them and are therefore more stable.
2. The stabilizing effect arises whenever two or more electrons with same spin are present in the
degenrate orbitals of a subshell. These electrons tend to exchange their positions
and the energy released due to their exchange is called exchange energy. The number of
exchanges that can takes place is maximum when the subshell is either half filled or completely
filled.
-As a result the exchange energy is maximum and so is the stability.
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in
Properties Class 11 Notes Chemistry Chapter 3
• Genesis of Periodic Classification Dobereiner’s Triads
In 1829, Dobereiner arranged certain elements with similar properties in groups of three in such
a way that the atomic mass of the middle element was nearly the same as the average atomic
masses of the first and the third elements. A few triads proposed by him are listed.

Limitations of Dobereiner’s Trids

The triads given by Dobereiner were helpful in grouping some elements with similar
characteristics together, but he could not arrange all the elements known at that time into triads.
• Newlands’ Law of Octaves
John Newlands proposed the law of octaves by stating that when elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic masses, every eighth element has properties similar to the first. Newlands
called it law of octaves because similar relationship exists in the musical notes also.
This can be illustrated as:

Limitations of Newlands’ Law of Octaves

(i) This classification was successful only up to the element calcium. After that, every eighth
element did not possess the same properties as the element lying above it in the same group.
(ii) When noble gas elements were discovered at a later stage, their inclusion in the table
disturbed the entire arrangement.
• Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: The physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic
function of their atomic masses.
Mendeleev arranged the elements known at that time in order of increasing atomic masses
and this arrangement was called periodic table.
Elements with similar characteristics were present in vertical rows called groups. The horizontal
rows were known as periods.
Description of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
(i) In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in vertical rows called groups and horizontal
rows known as periods.
(ii) There are nine groups indicated by Roman Numerals as I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII and
zero. Group VIII consists of nine elements which are arranged in three triads. The zero group
contains elements belonging to inert gases or noble gases and elements present have zero
valency.
(iii) There are seven periods (numbered from 1 to 7) or, horizontal rows in the Mendeleev’s
periodic table.
Importance of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
(i) This made the study of the elements quite systematic in the sense that if the properties of one
element in a particular group are known, those of others can be pridicted.
(ii) This helped to a great extent in the discovery of these elements at a later stage.
(iii) Mendeleev corrected the atomic masses of certain elements with the help of their expected
positions and properties.
Defects in Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
(i) Hydrogen has been placed in group IA along with alkali metals. But it also resembles
halogens of group VII A in many properties. Thus, its position is the Mendeleev’s periodic table
is controversial.
(ii) Although the elements in the Mendeleev’s periodic table have been arranged in order of their
atomic masses, but in some cases the element with higher atomic mass precedes the element with
lower atomic mass.
(iii) We know that the isotopes of an element have different atomic masses but same atomic
number. Since, periodic table has been framed on the basis of increasing atomic masses of the
elements, different positions must have been allotted to all the isotopes of a particular element.
(iv) According to Mendeleev, the elements placed in the same group must resemble in their
properties. But there is no similarity among the elements in the two sub-groups of a particular
group.
(v) In some cases, elements with similar properties have been placed in different groups.
(vi) Lanthanoids and actinoids were placed in two separate rows at the bottom of the periodic
table without assigning a proper reason.
(vii) No proper explanation has been offered for the fact that why the elements placed in group
show resemblance in their properties.
• Modern Periodic Law
Physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic
numbers.
• Present Form of the Periodic Table (Long form of Periodic Table)
The long form of periodic table, also called Modem Periodic Table, is based on Modern periodic
law. In this table, the elements have been arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers.
• Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic No. more than 100
• Structural Features of the Periodic Table
Groups
The long form of periodic table also consists of the vertical rows called groups. There are in all
18 groups in the periodic table. Unlike Mendeleev periodic table, each group is an independent
group.
Characteristics of groups:
(i) All the elements present in a group have same general electronic configuration of the atoms.
(ii) The elements in a group are separated by definite gaps of atomic numbers (2, 8, 8,18, 18,32).
(iii) The atomic sizes of the elements in group increase down the group due to increase the
number of shells.
(iv) The physical properties of the elements such as m.p., b.p. density, solubility etc., follow a
systematic pattern.
(v) The elements in each group have generally similar chemical properties.
Periods
Horizontal rows in a periodic table are known as periods.
There are in all seven periods in the long form of periodic table.
Characteristics of periods:
(i) In all the elements present in a period, the electrons are filled in the same valence shell.
(ii) The atomic sizes generally decrease from left to right.
s-Block Elements
General electronic configuration: ns1-2 Characteristics of s-block elements:
(i) All the elements are soft metals.
(ii) They have low melting and boiling points.
(iii) They are highly reactive.
(iv) Most of them impart colours to the flame.
(v) They generally form ionic compounds.
(vi) They are good conductors of heat and electricity. p-Block Elements
General electronic configuration: ns2np1-6
Characteristics of p-block elements:
(i) The compounds of these elements are mostly covalent in nature.
(ii) They show variable oxidation states.
(iii) In moving from left to right in a period, the non-metallic character of the elements increases.
(iv) The reactivity of elements in a group generally decreases downwards.
(v) At the end of each period is a noble gas element with a closed valence shell
ns2 np6 configuration.
(vi) Metallic character increases as we go down the group.
d-Block Elements
General electronic configuration: (n -1) d1-10 ns0-2
The d-block elements are known as transition elements because they have incompletely filled d-
orbitals in their ground state or in any of the oxidation states.

Characteristics of d-block elements:

(i) They are all metals with high melting and boiling points.
(ii) The compounds of the elements are generally paramagnetic in nature.
(iii) They mostly form coloured ions, exhibit variable valence (oxidation states).
(iv) They are of tenly used as catalysts.
f-Block Elements
General electronic configuration: (n – 2) f1-14 (n -1) d0-1 ns2
They are known as inner transition elements because in the transition elements of d-block, the
electrons are filled in (n – 1) d sub-shell while in the inner transition elements of f-block the
filling of electrons takes place in (n – 2) f subshell, which happens to be one inner subshell.
Characteristics of f-Block elements:
(i) The two rows of elements at the bottom of the Periodic Table, called the Lanthanoids Ce (Z =
58) – Lu (Z = 71) and Actinoids Th (Z = 90) – Lr (Z = 103).
(ii) These two series of elements are called Inner Transition Elements (f-Block Elements).
(iii) They are all metals. Within each series, the properties of the elements are quite similar.
(iv) Most of the elements pf the actinoid series are radio-active in nature.
• Metals
(i) Metals comprise more than 78% of all known elements and appear on the left side of the
Periodic Table.
(ii) Metals are solids at room temperature.
(iii) Metal usually have high melting and boiling points.
(iv) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
(u) They are malleable and ductile.
• Non-metals
(i) Non-metals are located at the top right hand side of the Periodic Table.
(ii) Non-metals are usually solids or gases at low temperature with low melting and boiling
points.
(iii) They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
(iv) The non-metallic character increases as one goes from left to right across the Periodic
Table.
(v) Most non-metallic solids are brittle and are neither malleable nor ductile.
• Metalloids
The elements (e.g., silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium) show the characteristic,
of both metals and non-metals. These elements are also called semimetal.
• Noble Gases
– These are the elements present in group 18.
– Eash period ends with noble gas element.
– All the members are of gaseous nature and because of the presence of all the occupied filled
orbitals, they have very little tendency to take part in chemical combination.
– These are also called inert gases.
• Representative Elements
The elements of group 1 (alkali metals), group 2 (alkaline earth metals) and group 13 to 17
constitute the representative elements. They are elements of s-block and p-block.
• Transition Elements
The transition elements include, all the d-block elements and they are present in the centre of the
periodic table between s and p-block elements.
• Inner Transition Elements
Lanthanoids (the fourteen elements after Lanthanum) and actinides (the fourteen elements after
actinium) are called inner transition elements. They are also called f-block elements.
The elements after uranium are also called transuranic elements.
• Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements
Trends in Physical Properties
Atomic Radii: It is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell
containing the electrons. Depending upon whether an element is a non-metal or a metal, three
different types of atomic radii are used. These are:
(a) Covalent radius (b) Ionic Radius (c) van der Waals radius (d) Metallic radius.
(a) Covalent Radius: It is equal to half of the distance between the centres of the nuclei of two
atoms held together by a purely covalent single bond.
(b) Ionic Radius: It may be defined as the effictive distance from the nucleus of an ion upto
which it has an influence in the ionic bond.
(c) van der Waals Radius: Atoms of Noble gases are held together by weak van der Waals forces
of attraction. The van der Waals radius is half of the distance between the centre of nuclei of
atoms of noble gases.
(d) Metallic Radius: It is defined as half of the intemuclear distance between the two adjacent
metal ions in the metallic lattice.
• Variation of Atomic Radius in the Periodic Table
Variation in a Period: Along a period, the atomic radii of the elements generally decreases from
left to right.

Variation in a group: The atomic radii of the elements in every group of the periodic table
increases as we move downwards.
• Ionic Radius
The ionic radii can be estimated by measuring the distances between cations and anions in ionic
crystals.
In general, the ionic radii of elements exhibit the same trend as the atomic radii.
Cation: The removal of an electron from an atom results in the formation of a cation. The radius
of cation is always smaller than that of the atom.
Anion: Gain of an electron leads to an anion. The radius of the anion is always larger than that ‘
of the atom.
Isoelectronic Species: Some atoms and ions which contain the same number of electrons, we
call them isoelectronic species. For example, O2-, F–, Na+ and Mg2+ have the same number of
electrons (10). Their radii would be different because of their different nuclear charges.
• Ionization Enthalpy
It is the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state.
M (g) + I.E ——->M+ (g) + e–
The unit of ionization enthalpy is kJ mol-1 and the unit of ionization potential is electron volt per
atom.
Successive Ionization Enthalpies
If a gaseous atom is to lose more than one electron, they can be removed one after the other i.e.,
in succession and not simultaneously. This is known as successive ionization enthalpy (or
potential).
• Variation of Ionization Enthalpies in the Periodic Table:
Variation of Ionization Enthalpy Along a Period
Along a period ionization enthalpies are expected to increase in moving across from left to the
right, because the nuclear charge increases and the atomic size decreases.
Variation of Ionization Ethalpy in a Group
The ionization enthalpies of the elements decrease on moving from top to the bottom in any
group.
The decrease in ionization enthalpies down any group is because of the following factors.
(i) There is an increase in the number of the main energy shells (n) in moving from one element
to the other.
(ii) There is also an increase in the magnitude of the screening effect due to the gradual increase
in the number of inner electrons.

• Electron Gain Enthalpy

Electron Gain Enthalpy is the energy released when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous
atom so as to convert it into a negative ion. The process is represented as:
For majority of the elements the electron gain enthalpy is negative. For example, the electron
gain enthalpy for halogens is highly negative because they can acquire the nearest noble gas
configuration by accepting an extra electron.
In contrast, noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpies because the extra electron
has to be placed in the next higher principal quantum energy level thereby producing highly
unstable electronic configuration.
Successive Electron Gain Enthalpies
We have studied that electrons from a gaseous atoms are lost in succession (i.e., one after the
other). Similarly, these are also accepted one after the other, i.e., in succession. After the addition
of one electron, the atom becomes negatively charged and the second electron is to be added to a
negatively charged ion. But the addition of second electron is opposed by electrostatic repulsion
and hence the energy has to be supplied for the addition of second electron. Thus the second
electron gain enthalpy of an element is positive.
For example, when an electron is added to oxygen atom to form O– ion, energy is released. But
when another electron is added to 0- ion to form O2- ion, energy is absorbed to overcome the
strong electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged 0– ion and the second electron
being added. Thus, first electron gain enthalpy:

Factors on which Electron Gain Enthalpy Depends

(i) Atomic size: As the size of an atom increases, the distance between its nucleus and the
incoming electron also increases and electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative,
(ii) Nuclear charge: With the increase in nuclear charge, force of attraction between the nucleus
and the incoming electron increases and thus electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative.
(iii) Symmetry of the Electronic Configuration: The atoms with symmetrical configuration
(having fully filled or half filled orbitals in the same sub-shell) do not have any urge to take up
extra electrons because their configuration will become unstable.
In that case the energy will be needed and electron gain enthalpy (Δ eg H) will be positive. For
example, noble gas elements have positive electron gain enthalpies.
Variation of Electron Gain Enthalpy Across a Period
Electron gain ethalpy becomes more negative with increase in the atomic number across a
period.
Variation of Electron Gain Enthalpy in a Group
Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative as we go down a group.
• Electronegativity
A qualitative measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract shared
electrons to itself is called electronegativity. Unlike ionization enthalpy and electron gain
enthalpy, it is not a measurable quantity.
However, a number of numerical scales of electronegativity of elements viz, Pauling scale,
Milliken- Jaffe scale, Allred Kochow scale have been developed. The electronegativity of any
given element is not constant; it varies depending on the element to which it is bound.
Across a Period
Electronegativity generally increases across a period from left to right.
In a Group
It decreases down a group.

• Periodic Trends in Chemical Properties along a Period

(i) Metallic character: Decrease across a period maximum on the extreme left (alkali metals).

(ii) Non-metallic character: Increasess along a period. (From left to right).

(iii) Basic nature of oxides: Decreases from left to right in a period.

(iv) Acidic nature of oxides: Increases from left to right in a period.
• Variation from Top to Bottom on Moving Down a Group
(i) Metallic character. Generally increases because increase in atomic size and hence decrease in
the ionizatiort energy of the elements in a group from top to bottom.
(ii) Non-metallic character. Generally decreases down a group. As electronegativity of elements
decreases from top to bottom in a group.

(iii) Basic nature of oxides. Since metallic character or electropositivity of elements increases in
going from top to bottom in a group basic nature of oxidise naturally increases.
(iv) Acidic character of oxides. Generally decreases as non-metallic character of elements
decreases in going from top to bottom in a group.
(v) Reactivity of metals. Generally increases down a group. Since tendency to lose electron
increases.
(vi) Reactivity of non-metals. Generally decreases down the group, Higher the electro-negativity
of non-metals, greater is their reactivity. Since electronegativity of non-metals in a group
decreases from top to bottom, their reactivity also decreases.
• Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
The first element of each of the group 1 (lithium) and 2 (beryllium) and group 13-17 (boron to
fluorine) differs in many respect from the other members of their respective groups. For
example, lithium unlike other alkali metals, and beryllium unlike other alkaline earth metals
form compounds which have significant covalent character; the other members of these groups,
pre-dominatly form ionic compounds.

It has been observed that some elements of the second period show similarities with the elements
of the third period placed diagonally to each other, though belonging to different groups.
For example,

This similarity in properties of elements placed diagonally to each other is called diagonal
relationship.
• Mendeleev’s Periodic Law. Physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic
function of their atomic masses.
• Modem Periodic Law. Physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic function
of their atomic numbers.

• Groups. There are 18 groups. These are vertical rows.

• Periods. There are 7 periods. These are horizontal rows.
• Representative Elements. The S and P block of elements are known as representative
elements.
• Transition Elements. They are also called d-block elements. They have general electronic
configuration (n – 1) d1-10 ns0-2.
• Inner Transition Elements. Lanthanoids (the fourteen elements after Lanthanum) and
actinides (the fourteen elements after actinium) are called inner transition elements. General
electronic configuration is (n – 2) f1-14(n – 1) d0-1 ns2.
They are also called f-block elements.
• Metals. Present on the left side of the periodic table. Comprise more than 78% of the known
elements.
• Non-metals. Mostly located on the right hand side of the periodic table.
• Metalloids. Elements which line as the border line between metals and non-metals (e.g., Si,
Ge, As) are called metalloids or semimetals.
• Atomic Radii and Ionic Radii, increase down the group decrease along the period.
• Ionization Enthalpy. Increases along the period and decreases down the group.

• Noble Gas Elements. Elements with symmetrical configuration are chemically inert in nature.
• Electric Nuclear Charge. Z = Nuclear charge – Screening constant.
• Electronegativity. Increases along a period decreases down t the group,
• Chemical Reactivity. Chemical reactivity is highest at the two extremess of a period and lowest in the
centre.
• Oxides of Elements. Oxides formed of the Elements on the left are basic and of elements
on the right are acidic in nature.
Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric or neutral.
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Class
11 Notes Chemistry Chapter 4
• Chemical Bond
The force that holds different atoms in a molecule is called chemical bond.
• Octet Rule
Atoms of different elements take part in chemical combination in order to complete their octet or
to attain the noble gas configuration.
• Valence Electrons
It is the outermost shell electron which takes part in chemical combination.
• Facts Stated by Kossel in Relation to Chemical Bonding
— In the periodic table, the highly electronegative halogens and the highly electro-positive alkali
metals are separated by noble gases.
— Formation of an anion and cation by the halogens and alkali metals are formed by gain of
electron and loss of electron respectively.
— Both the negative and positive ions acquire the noble gas configuration.
— The negative and positive ions are stabilized by electrostatic attraction Example,

• Modes of Chemical Combination

— By the transfer of electrons: The chemical bond which formed by the complete transfer of one
or more electrons from one atom to another is termed as electrovalent bond or ionic bond.
— By sharing of electrons: The bond which is formed by the equal sharing of electrons between
one or two atoms is called covalent bond. In these bonds electrons are contributed by both.
— Co-ordinate bond: When the electrons are contributed by one atom and shared by both, the
bond is formed and it is known as dative bond or co-ordinate bond.
• Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
Ionic or Electrovalent bond is formed by the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to
another. Generally, it is formed between metals and non-metals. We can say that it is the
electrostatic force of attraction which holds the oppositely charged ions together.
The compounds which is formed by ionic or electrovalent bond is known as electrovalent
compounds. For Example, ,
(i) NaCl is an electrovalent compound. Formation of NaCl is given below:

Na+ ion has the configuration of Ne while Cl– ion represents the configuration of Ar.
(ii) Formation of magnesium oxide from magnesium and oxygen.
Electrovalency: Electrovalency is the number of electrons lost or gained during the formation of
an ionic bond or electrovalent bond.
• Factors Affecting the Formation of Ionic Bond
(i) Ionization enthalpy: As we know that ionization enthalpy of any element is the amount of
energy required to remove an electron from outermost shell of an isolated gaseous atom to
convert it into cation.
Hence, lesser the ionization enthalpy, easier will be the formation of a cation and have greater
chance to form an ionic bond. Due to this reason alkali metals have more tendency to form an
ionic bond.
For example, in formation of Na+ ion I.E = 496 kJ/mole
While in case of magnesium, it is 743 kJ/mole. That’s why the formation of positive ion for
sodium is easier than that of magnesium.
Therefore, we can conclude that lower the ionization enthalpy, greater the chances of ionic bond
formation.
(ii) Electron gain enthalpy (Electron affinities): It is defined as the energy released when an
isolated gaseous atom takes up an electron to form anion. Greater the negative electron gain
enthalpy, easier will be the formation of anion. Consequently, the probability of formation of
ionic bond increases.
For example. Halogens possess high electron affinity. So, the formation of anion is very common
in halogens.

(iii) Lattice energy or enthalpy: It is defined as the amount of energy required to separate 1 mole
of ionic compound into separate oppositely charged ions.
Lattice energy of an ionic compound depends upon following factors:
(i) Size of the ions: Smaller the size, greater will be the lattice energy.
(ii) Charge on the ions: Greater the magnitude of charge, greater the interionic attraction and
hence higher the lattice energy.
• General Characteristics of ionic Compounds
(i) Physical’State: They generally exist as crystalline solids, known as crystal lattice. Ionic
compounds do not exist as single molecules like other gaseous molecules e.g., H2 , N2 , 02 , Cl2 etc.
(ii) Melting and boiling points: Since ionic compounds contain high interionic force between
them, they generally have high melting and boiling points.
(iii) Solubility: They are soluble in polar solvents such as water but do not dissolve in organic
solvents like benzene, CCl4etc.
(iv) Electrical conductivity: In solid state they are poor conductors of electricity but in molten
state or when dissolved in water, they conduct electricity.
(v) Ionic reactions: Ionic compounds produce ions in the solution which gives very fast reaction
with oppositely charged ions.
For example,

• Covalent Bond—Lewis-Langmuir Concept

When the bond is formed between two or more atoms by mutual contribution and sharing of
electrons, it is known as covalent bond.
If the combining atoms are same the covalent molecule is known as homoatomic. If they are
different, they are known as heteroatomic molecule.
For Example,
• Lewis Representation of Simple Molecules (the Lewis Structures)
The Lewis dot Structure can be written through the following steps:
(i) Calculate the total number of valence electrons of the combining atoms.
(ii) Each anion means addition of one electron and each cation means removal of one electron.
This gives the total number of electrons to be distributed.
(iii) By knowing the chemical symbols of the combining atoms.
(iv) After placing shared pairs of electrons for single bond, the remaining electrons may account
for either multiple bonds or as lone pairs. It is to be noted that octet of each atom should be
completed.

• Formal Charge
In polyatomic ions, the net charge is the charge on the ion as a whole and not by particular atom.
However, charges can be assigned to individual atoms or ions. These are called formal charges.
It can be expressed as
• Limitations of the Octet Rule
(i) The incomplete octet of the central atoms: In some covalent compounds central atom has less
than eight electrons, i.e., it has an incomplete octet. For example,

Li, Be and B have 1, 2, and 3 valence electrons only.

(ii) Odd-electron molecules: There are certain molecules which have odd number of electrons the
octet rule is not applied for all the atoms.

(iii) The expanded Octet: In many compounds there are more than eight valence electrons around
the central atom. It is termed as expanded octet. For Example,
• Other Drawbacks of Octet Theory
(i) Some noble gases, also combine with oxygen and fluorine to form a number of compounds
like XeF2 , XeOF2 etc.
(ii) This theory does not account for the shape of the molecule.
(iii) It does not give any idea about the energy of The molecule and relative stability.
• Bond Length
It is defined as the equilibrium distance between the centres of the nuclei of the two bonded
atoms. It is expressed in terms of A. Experimentally, it can be defined by X-ray diffraction or
electron diffraction method.

• Bond Angle
It is defined as -the angle between the lines representing the orbitals containing the bonding –
electrons.
It helps us in determining the shape. It can be expressed in degree. Bond angle can be
experimentally determined by spectroscopic methods.
• Bond Enthalpy
It is defined as the amount of energy required to break one mole of bonds of a particular type to
separate them into gaseous atoms.
Bond Enthalpy is also known as bond dissociation enthalpy or simple bond enthalpy. Unit of
bond enthalpy = kJ mol-1
Greater the bond enthalpy, stronger is the bond. For e.g., the H—H bond enthalpy in hydrogen is
435.8 kJ mol-1.
The magnitude of bond enthalpy is also related to bond multiplicity. Greater the bond
multiplicity, more will be the bond enthalpy. For e.g., bond enthalpy of C —C bond is 347 kJ
mol-1 while that of C = C bond is 610 kJ mol-1.
In polyatomic molecules, the term mean or average bond enthalpy is used.

• Bond Order
According to Lewis, in a covalent bond, the bond order is given by the number of bonds between
two atoms in a molecule. For example,
Bond order of H2 (H —H) =1
Bond order of 02 (O = O) =2
Bond order of N2 (N = N) =3
Isoelectronic molecules and ions have identical bond orders. For example, F2 and O22- have bond
order = 1. N2, CO and NO+ have bond order = 3. With the increase in bond order, bond enthalpy
increases and bond length decreases. For example,

• Resonance Structures
There are many molecules whose behaviour cannot be explained by a single-Lew is structure,
Tor example, Lewis structure of Ozone represented as follows:
Thus, according to the concept of resonance, whenever a single Lewis structure cannot explain
all the properties of the molecule, the molecule is then supposed to have many structures with
similar energy. Positions of nuclei, bonding and nonbonding pairs of electrons are taken as the
canonical structure of the hybrid which describes the molecule accurately. For 03, the two
structures shown above are canonical structures and the III structure represents the structure of
03 more accurately. This is also called resonance hybrid.
Some resonating structures of some more molecules and ions are shown as follows:

• Polarity of Bonds
Polar and Non-Polar Covalent bonds
Non-Polar Covalent bonds: When the atoms joined by covalent bond are the same like; H2, 02,
Cl2, the shared pair of electrons is equally attracted by two atoms and thus the shared electron
pair is equidistant to both of them.
Alternatively, we can say that it lies exactly in the centre of the bonding atoms. As a result, no
poles are developed and the bond is called as non-polar covalent bond. The corresponding
molecules are known as non-polar molecules.
For Example,

Polar bond: When covalent bonds formed between different atoms of different electronegativity,
shared electron pair between two atoms gets displaced towards highly electronegative atoms.
For Example, in HCl molecule, since electronegativity of chlorine is high as compared to
hydrogen thus, electron pair is displaced more towards chlorine atom, thus chlorine will acquire
a partial negative charge (δ–) and hydrogen atom have a partial positive charge (δ+) with the
magnitude of charge same as on chlorination. Such covalent bond is called polar covalent bond.

• Dipole Moment
Due to polarity, polar molecules are also known as dipole molecules and they possess dipole
moment. Dipole moment is defined as the product of magnitude of the positive or negative
charge and the distance between the charges.

• Applications of Dipole Moment

(i) For determining the polarity of the molecules.
(ii) In finding the shapes of the molecules.
For example, the molecules with zero dipole moment will be linear or symmetrical. Those
molecules which have unsymmetrical shapes will be either bent or angular.
(e.g., NH3with μ = 1.47 D).
(iii) In calculating the percentage ionic character of polar bonds.
• The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
Sidgwick and Powell in 1940, proposed a simple theory based on repulsive character of electron
pairs in the valence shell of the atoms. It was further developed by Nyholm and Gillespie (1957).
Main Postulates are the following:
(i) The exact shape of molecule depends upon the number of electron pairs (bonded or non
bonded) around the central atoms.
(ii) The electron pairs have a tendency to repel each other since they exist around the central
atom and the electron clouds are negatively charged.
(iii) Electron pairs try to take such position which can minimize the rupulsion between them.
(iv) The valence shell is taken as a sphere with the electron pairs placed at maximum distance.
(v) A multiple bond is treated as if it is a single electron pair and the electron pairs which
constitute the bond as single pairs.
• Valence Bond Theory
Valence bond theory was introduced by Heitler and London (1927) and developed by Pauling
and others. It is based on the concept of atomic orbitals and the electronic configuration of the
atoms.
Let us consider the formation of hydrogen molecule based on valence-bond theory.
Let two hydrogen atoms A and B having their nuclei NA and NB and electrons present in them are
eA and eB .
As these two atoms come closer new attractive and repulsive forces begin to operate.
(i) The nucleus of one atom is attracted towards its own electron and the electron of the other and
vice versa.
(ii) Repulsive forces arise between the electrons of two atoms and nuclei of two atoms.
Attractive forces tend to bring the two atoms closer whereas repulsive forces tend to push them
apart.
• Orbital Overlap Concept
According to orbital overlap concept, covalent bond formed between atoms results in the overlap
of orbitals belonging to the atoms having opposite spins of electrons. Formation of hydrogen
molecule as a result of overlap of the two atomic orbitals of hydrogen atoms is shown in the
figures that follows:

Stability of a Molecular orbital depends upon the extent of the overlap of the atomic orbitals.
• Types of Orbital Overlap
Depending upon the type of overlapping, the covalent bonds are of two types, known as sigma (σ
) and pi (π) bonds.
(i) Sigma (σ bond): Sigma bond is formed by the end to end (head-on) overlap of bonding
orbitals along the internuclear axis.
The axial overlap involving these orbitals is of three types:
• s-s overlapping: In this case, there is overlap of two half-filled s-orbitals along the internuclear
axis as shown below:
• s-p overlapping: This type of overlapping occurs between half-filled s-orbitals of one atom
and half filled p-orbitals of another atoms.

• p-p overlapping: This type of overlapping takes place between half filled p-orbitals of the two
approaching atoms.

(ii) pi (π bond): π bond is formed by the atomic orbitals when they overlap in such a way that
their axes remain parallel to each other and perpendicular to the internuclear axis.The orbital
formed is due to lateral overlapping or side wise overlapping.

• Strength of Sigma and pf Bonds

Sigma bond (σ bond) is formed by the axial overlapping of the atomic orbitals while the π-bond
is formed by side wise overlapping. Since axial overlapping is greater as compared to side wise.
Thus, the sigma bond is said to be stronger bond in comparison to a π-bond.
Distinction between sigma and n bonds
• Hybridisation
Hybridisation is the process of intermixing of the orbitals of slightly different energies so as to
redistribute their energies resulting in the formation of new set of orbitals of equivalent energies
and shape.
Salient Features of Hybridisation:
(i) Orbitals with almost equal energy take part in the hybridisation.
(ii) Number of hybrid orbitals produced is equal to the number of atomic orbitals mixed,
(iii) Geometry of a covalent molecule can be indicated by the type of hybridisation.
(iv) The hybrid orbitals are more effective in forming stable bonds than the pure atomic orbitals.
Conditions necessary for hybridisation:
(i) Orbitals of valence shell take part in the hybridisation.
(ii) Orbitals involved in hybridisation should have almost equal energy.
(iii) Promotion of electron is not necessary condition prior to hybridisation.
(iv) In some cases filled orbitals of valence shell also take part in hybridisation.
Types of Hybridisation:
(i) sp hybridisation: When one s and one p-orbital hybridise to form two equivalent orbitals, the
orbital is known as sp hybrid orbital, and the type of hybridisation is called sp hybridisation.
Each of the hybrid orbitals formed has 50% s-characer and 50%, p-character. This type of
hybridisation is also known as diagonal hybridisation.

(ii) sp2 hybridisation: In this type, one s and two p-orbitals hybridise to form three equivalent
sp2 hybridised orbitals.
All the three hybrid orbitals remain in the same plane making an angle of 120°. Example. A few
compounds in which sp2 hybridisation takes place are BF3, BH3, BCl3 carbon compounds
containing double bond etc.

(iii) sp3 hybridisation: In this type, one s and three p-orbitals in the valence shell of an atom get
hybridised to form four equivalent hybrid orbitals. There is 25% s-character and 75% p-character
in each sp3 hybrid orbital. The four sp3 orbitals are directed towards four corners of the
tetrahedron.

The angle between sp3 hybrid orbitals is 109.5°.

A compound in which sp3 hybridisation occurs is, (CH4). The structures of NH2 and H20
molecules can also be explained with the help of sp3 hybridisation.
• Formation of Molecular Orbitals: Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
The formation of molecular orbitals can be explained by the linear combination of atomic
orbitals. Combination takes place either by addition or by subtraction of wave function as shown
below.
The molecular orbital formed by addition of atomic orbitals is called bonding molecular orbital
while molecular orbital formed by subtraction of atomic orbitals is called antibonding molecular
orbital.
Conditions for the combination of atomic orbitals:
(1) The combining atomic orbitals must have almost equal energy.
(2) The combining atomic orbitals must have same symmetry about the molecular axis.
(3) The combining atomic orbitals must overlap to the maximum extent.
• Types of Molecular Orbitals
Sigma (σ) Molecular Orbitals: They are symmetrical around the bond-axis.
pi (π) Molecular Orbitals: They are not symmetrical, because of the presence of positive lobes
above and negative lobes below the molecular plane.
• Electronic configuration and Molecular Behaviour
The distribution of electrons among various molecular orbitals is called electronic configuration
of the molecule.
• Stability of Molecules

• Bond Order
Bond order is defined as half of the difference between the number of electrons present in
bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals.
Bond order (B.O.) = 1/2 [Nb-Na]
The bond order may be a whole number, a fraction or even zero.
It may also be positive or negative.
Nature of the bond: Integral bond order value for single double and triple bond will be 1, 2 and
3 respectively.
Bond-Length: Bond order is inversely proportional to bond-length. Thus, greater the bond
order, smaller will be the bond-length.
Magnetic Nature: If all the molecular orbitals have paired electrons, the substance is
diamagnetic. If one or more molecular orbitals have unpaired electrons, it is paramagnetic e.g.,
02 molecule.
• Bonding in Some Homonuclear (Diatomic) Molecules
(1) Hydrogen molecule (H2): It is formed by the combination of two hydrogen atoms. Each
hydrogen atom has one electron in Is orbital, so, the electronic configuration of hydrogen
molecule is

This indicates that two hydrogen atoms are bonded by a single covalent bond. Bond dissociation
energy of hydrogen has been found = 438 kJ/mole. Bond-Length = 74 pm
No unpaired electron is present therefore,, it is diamagnetic.
(2) Helium molecule (He2): Each helium atom contains 2 electrons, thus in He2 molecule there
would be 4 electrons.
The electrons will be accommodated in σ1s and σ*1s molecular orbitals:
• Hydrogen Bonding
When highly electronegative elements like nitrogen, oxygen, flourine are attached to hydrogen to
form covalent bond, the electrons of the covalent bond are shifted towards the more
electronegative atom. Thus, partial positive charge develops on hydrogen atom which forms a
bond with the other electronegative atom. This bond is known as hydrogen bond and it is weaker
than the covalent bond. For example, in HF molecule, hydrogen bond exists between hydrogen
atom of one molecule and fluorine atom of another molecule.
It can be depicted as

• Types of H-Bonds
(i) Intermolecular hydrogen bond (ii) Intramolecular hydrogen bond.
(i) Intermolecular hydrogen bond: It is formed between two different molecules of the same or
different compounds. For Example, in HF molecules, water molecules etc.
(ii) Intramolecular hydrogen bond: In this type, hydrogen atom is in between the two highly
electronegative F, N, O atoms present within the same molecule. For example, in o-nitrophenol,
the hydrogen is in between the two oxygen atoms.
States of Matter Class 11 Notes Chemistry Chapter
5
• Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction and repulsion between interacting particles
have permanent dipole moments. This interaction is stronger than the London forces but is
weaker than ion-ion interaction because only partial charges are involved.
The attractive forces decrease with the increase of distance between dipoles. The interaction
energy is proportional to 1/r6 where r is the distance between polar molecules.
Ion-Dipole Interaction: This is the force of attraction which exists between the ions (cations or
anions) and polar molecules. The ion is attracted towards the oppositely charged end of dipolar
molecules.
The strength of attraction depends upon the charge and size of the ion and the dipole moment
and the size of the polar molecule.
For example: Solubility of common salt (NaCl) in water.
• Ion-induced Dipolar Interactions
In this type of interaction permanent dipole of the polar molecule induces dipole on the
electrically neutral molecule by deforming its electronic cloud. Interaction energy is proportional
to 1/r6 where r is the distance between two molecules.

• London Forces or Dispersion Forces

As we know that in non-polar molecules, there is no dipole moment because their electronic .
charge cloud is symmetrically distributed. But, it is believed that at any instant of time, the
electron cloud of the molecule may be distorted so that an instantaneous dipole or momentary
dipole is produced in which one part of the molecule is slightly more negative than the other part.
This momentary dipole induces dipoles in the neighbouring molecules. Thus, the force of
attraction exists between them and are exactly same as between permanent dipoles. This force of
attraction is known as London forces or Dispersion forces. These forces are always attractive and
the interaction energy is inversely proportional to the sixth power of the
distance between two interacting particles, (i.e. 1/r6 where r is the distance between two
particles).
This can be shown by fig. given below.

Hydrogen bonding: When hydrogen atom is attached to highly electronegative element by

covalent bond, electrons are shifted towards the more electronegative atom. Thus a partial
positive charge develops on the hydrogen atom. Now, the positively charged hydrogen atom of
one molecule may attract the negatively charged atom of some other molecule and the two
molecules can be linked together through a weak force of attraction.

Thermal Energy: The energy arising due to molecular motion of the body is known as thermal
energy. Since motion of the molecules is directly related to kinetic energy and kinetic energy is
directly proportional to the temperature.
• The Gaseous State
Physical Properties of Gaseous State
(i) ases have no definite volume and they do not have specific shape,
(ii) Gases mix evenly and completely in all proportions without any mechanical aid.
(iii) Their density is much lower than solids and liquids. :
(iv) They are highly compressible and exert pressure equally in all directions.
• Boyle’s Law (Pressure-Volume Relationship)
At constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure.

Charles’ law: At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature.

• Gay Lussac’s Law (Pressure-Temperature Relationship)

At constant volume, pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature.

• Avogadro Law (Volume-Amount Relationship)

Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature
and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
Vαn
Where n is the number of moles of the gas.
Avogadro constant: The number of molecules in one mole of a gas
= 6.022 x 1023
Ideal Gas: A gas that follows Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro law strictly, is called an
ideal gas.
Real gases follow these laws only under certain specific conditions. When forces of interaction
are practically negligible.
• Ideal Gas Equation
This is the combined gas equation of three laws and is known as ideal gas equation.
• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
When two or more non-reactive gases are enclosed in a vessel, the total pressure exerted by the
gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of individual gases.
Let P1 ,P2, and P3 be the pressure of three non reactive gases A, B, and C. When enclosed
separately in the same volume and under same condition.
PTotal = P1+ P2 + P3
Where, PTotal = P is the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases.
• Aqueous Tension
Pressure of non reacting gases are generally collected over water and therefore are moist.
Pressure of dry gas can be calculated by substracting vapour pressure of water from total
pressure of moist gas.
P2Dry gas = PTotal – Aqueous Tension
• Partial Pressure in terms of Mole Fraction
Let at the temperature T, three gases enclosed in the volume V, exert partial pressure P 1 , P2 and
P3 respectively, then

• Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

(i) Gases consist of large number of very small identical particles (atoms or molecules),
(ii) Actual volume occupied by the gas molecule is negligible in comparison to empty space
between them.
(iii) Gases can occupy all the space available to them. This means they do not have any force of
attraction between their particles.
(iv) Particles of a gas are always in constant random motion.
(v) When the particles of a gas are in random motion, pressure is exerted by the gas due to
collision of the particles with the walls of the container.
(vi) Collision of the gas molecules are perfectly elastic. This means there is no loss of energy
after collision. There may be only exchange of energy between colliding molecules.
(vii) At a particular temperature distribution of speed between gaseous particles remains
constant.
(viii) Average kinetic energy of the gaseous molecule is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.
• Deviation From Ideal Gas Behaviour
Real Gas: A gas which does not follow ideal gas behaviour under all conditions of temperature
and pressure, is called real gas.
Deviation with respect to pressure can be studied by plotting pressure Vs volume curve at a given
temperature. (Boyle’s law)

Compressibility factor (Z): Deviation from ideal behaviour can be measured in terms of
compressibility factor, Z.

• van der Waals Equation

Where V is a constant for molecular attraction while ‘V is a constant for molecular volume.
(a) There is no force of attraction between the molecules of a gas.
(b) Volume occupied by the gas molecule is negligible in comparison to the total volume of the
gas.
Above two assumptions of the kinetic theory of gas was found to be wrong at very high pressure
and low temperature.
• Liquifaction of Gases
Liquifaction of gases can be achieved either by lowering the temperature or increasing the
pressure of the gas simultaneously.
Thomas Andrews plotted isotherms of C02 at various temperatures shown in figure.

Critical Temperature (Tc): It is defined as that temperature above which a gas cannot be
liquified however high pressure may be applied on the gas.
Tc = 8a/27bR
(Where a and b are van der Waals constants)
Critical Pressure (Pc): It is the pressure required to Liquify the gas at the critical temperature.
Pc = a/27b2
The volume occupied by one mole of the gas at the critical temperature and the critical pressure
is called the critical volume (Vc).
For Example. For C02 to Liquify.
Tc = 30.98°C
Pc = 73,9 atm.
Vc = 95-6 cm3/mole
All the three are collectively called critical constants.
• Liquid State
Characteristics of Liquid State
(i) In liquid, intermolecular forces are strong in comparison to gas.
(ii) They have definite volume but irregular shapes or we can say that they can take the shape of
the container.
(iii) Molecules of liquids are held together by attractive intermolecular forces.
Vapour Pressure: The pressure exerted by the vapour of a liquid, at a particular temperature in
a state of dynamic equilibrium, is called the vapour pressure of that liquid at that temperature.
Vapour Pressure depends upon two factors:
(i) Nature of Liquid (ii) Temperature

• Surface Tension
It is defined as the force acting per unit length perpendicular to the line drawn on the surface of
liquid.
S.I. unit of Surface Tension = Nm-1
Surface Tension decreases with increase in temperature, because force acting per unit length
decreases due to increase in kinetic energy of molecules.
• Viscosity
It is defined as the internal resistance to flow possessed by a liquid.
The liquids which flow slowly have very high internal resistance, which is due to strong
intermolecular forces and hence are said to be more viscous.
When liquid flows, the layer immediately below it tries to retard its flow while the one above
tries to accelerate.
Thus, force is required to maintain the flow of layers.

Effect of Temp, on Viscosity: Viscosity of liquids decreases as the temperature rises because at
high temperature, molecules have high kinetic energy and can overcome the intermolecular
forces to slip past one another.
• Boyle’s Law: It states that, under isothermal conditions pressure of a given mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to its volume.
Thermodynamics Chemistry Chapter 6
• Important Terms and Definitions
System: Refers to the portion of universe which is under observation.
Surroundings: Everything else in the universe except system is called surroundings. The
Universe = The System + The Surroundings.

Open System: In a system, when there is exchange of energy and matter taking place with
the surroundings, then it is called an open system.
For Example: Presence of reactants in an open beaker is an example of an open system. Closed
System: A system is said to be a closed system when there is no exchange of matter ‘ but
exchange of energy is possible.
For example: The presence of reactants in a closed vessel made of conducting material.
Isolated System: In a system, when no exchange of energy or matter takes place with the
surroundings, is called isolated system.
For example: The presence of reactants in a thermoflask, or substance in an insulated closed
vessel is an example of isolated system.
Homogeneous System: A system is said to be homogeneous when all the constituents present is
in the same phase and is uniform throughout the system.
For example: A- mixture of two miscible liquids.
Heterogeneous system: A mixture is said to be heterogeneous when it consists of two or more
phases and the composition is not uniform.
For example: A mixture of insoluble solid in water. ’
The state of the system: The state of a thermodynamic system means its macroscopic or bulk
properties which can be described by state variables:
Pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T) and amount (n) etc.
They are also known as state functions.
Isothermal process: When the operation is carried out at constant temperature, the process is
said to be isothermal. For isothermal process, dT = 0 Where dT is the change in temperature.
Adiabatic process: It is a process in which no transfer of heat between system and surroundings,
takes place.
Isobaric process: When the process is carried out at constant pressure, it is said to be isobaric.
i.e. dP = 0
Isochoric process: A process when carried out at constant volume, it is known as isochoric in
nature.
Cyclic process: If a system undergoes a series of changes and finally returns to its initial state, it
is said to be cyclic process.
Reversible Process: When in a process, a change is brought in such a way that the process could,
at any moment, be reversed by an infinitesimal change. The change r is called reversible.
• Internal Energy
It is the sum of all the forms of energies that a system can possess.
In thermodynamics, it is denoted by AM which may change, when
— Heat passes into or out of the system
— Work is done on or by the system
— Matter enters or leaves the system.
Change in Internal Energy by Doing Work
Let us bring the change in the internal energy by doing work.
Let the initial state of the system is state A and Temp. TA Internal energy = uA
On doing’some mechanical work the new state is called state B and the temp. T B. It is found to be
TB > TA
uB is the internal energy after change.
∴ Δu = uB – uA
Change in Internal Energy by Transfer of Heat
Internal energy of a system can be changed by the transfer of heat from the surroundings to the
system without doing work.
Δu = q
Where q is the heat absorbed by the system. It can be measured in terms of temperature
difference.
q is +ve when heat is transferred from the surroundings to the system. q is -ve when heat is
transferred from system to surroundings.
When change of state is done both by doing work and transfer of heat.
Δu = q + w
First law of thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of Energy). It states that, energy can neither
be created nor be destroyed. The energy of an isolated system is constant.
Δu = q + w.
• Work (Pressure-volume Work)
Let us consider a cylinder which contains one mole of an ideal gas in which a frictionless piston
is fitted.

• Work Done in Isothermal and Reversible Expansion of Ideal Gas

• Isothermal and Free Expansion of an Ideal Gas
For isothermal expansion of an ideal gas into vacuum W = 0

• Enthalpy (H)
It is defined as total heat content of the system. It is equal to the sum of internal energy and
pressure-volume work.
Mathematically, H = U + PV
Change in enthalpy: Change in enthalpy is the heat absorbed or evolved by the system at
constant pressure.
ΔH = qp
For exothermic reaction (System loses energy to Surroundings),
ΔH and qp both are -Ve.
For endothermic reaction (System absorbs energy from the Surroundings).
ΔH and qp both are +Ve.
Relation between ΔH and Δu.
• Extensive property
An extensive property is a property whose value depends on the quantity or size of matter
present in the system.
For example: Mass, volume, enthalpy etc. are known as extensive property.
• Intensive property
Intensive properties do not depend upon the size of the matter or quantity of the matter present in
the system.
For example: temperature, density, pressure etc. are called intensive properties.
• Heat capacity
The increase in temperature is proportional to the heat transferred.
q = coeff. x ΔT
q = CΔT
Where, coefficient C is called the heat capacity.
C is directly proportional to the amount of substance.
Cm = C/n
It is the heat capacity for 1 mole of the substance.
• Molar heat capacity
It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1° (kelvin
or Celsius).
• Specific Heat Capacity
It is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of one unit mass of a substance by 1°
(kelvin or Celsius).
q = C x m x ΔT
where m = mass of the substance
ΔT = rise in temperature.
• Relation Between Cp and Cv for an Ideal Gas
At constant volume heat capacity = Cv
At constant pressure heat capacity = Cp
At constant volume qv= CvΔT = ΔU
At constant pressure qp = Cp ΔT = ΔH
For one mole of an ideal gas
ΔH = ΔU + Δ (PV) = ΔU + Δ (RT)
ΔH = ΔU + RΔT
On substituting the values of ΔH and Δu, the equation is modified as
Cp ΔT = CvΔT + RΔT
or Cp-Cv = R
• Measurement of ΔU and ΔH—Calorimetry
Determination of ΔU: ΔU is measured in a special type of calorimeter, called bomb calorimeter.

Working with calorimeter. The calorimeter consists of a strong vessel called (bomb) which can
withstand very high pressure. It is surrounded by a water bath to ensure that no heat is lost to the
surroundings.
Procedure: A known mass of the combustible substance is burnt in the pressure of pure
dioxygen in the steel bomb. Heat evolved during the reaction is transferred to the water and its
temperature is monitored.

• Enthalpy Changes During Phase Transformation

Enthalpy of fusion: Enthalpy of fusion is the heat energy or change in enthalpy when one mole
of a solid at its melting point is converted into liquid state.

Enthalpy of vaporisation: It is defined as the heat energy or change in enthalpy when one mole
of a liquid at its boiling point changes to gaseous state.
Enthalpy of Sublimation: Enthalpy of sublimation is defined as the change in heat energy or
change in enthalpy when one mole of solid directly changes into gaseous state at a temperature
below its melting point.

• Standard Enthalpy of Formation

Enthalpy of formation is defined as the change in enthalpy in the formation of 1 mole of a
substance from its constituting elements under standard conditions of temperature at 298K and 1
atm pressure.
Enthalpy of Combustion: It is defined as the heat energy or change in enthalpy that
accompanies the combustion of 1 mole of a substance in excess of air or oxygen.

• Thermochemical Equation
A balanced chemical equation together with the value of ΔrH and the physical state of reactants
and products is known as thermochemical equation.

Conventions regarding thermochemical equations

1. The coefficients in a balanced thermochemical equation refer to the number of moles of
reactants and products involved in the reaction.

• Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation

The total amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction is same whether the reaction takes
place in one step or in number of steps.

• Born-Haber Cycle
It is not possible to determine the Lattice enthalpy of ionic compound by direct experiment.
Thus, it can be calculated by following steps. The diagrams which show these steps is known as
Born-Haber Cycle.
• Spontaneity
Spontaneous Process: A process which can take place by itself or has a tendency to take place
is called spontaneous process.
Spontaneous process need not be instantaneous. Its actual speed can vary from very slow to quite
fast.
A few examples of spontaneous process are:
(i) Common salt dissolves in water of its own.
(ii) Carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide of its own.
• Entropy (S)
The entropy is a measure of degree of randomness or disorder of a system. Entropy of a
substance is minimum in solid state while it is maximum in gaseous state.
The change in entropy in a spontaneous process is expressed as ΔS

• Gibbs Energy and Spontaneity

A new thermodynamic function, the Gibbs energy or Gibbs function G, can be defined as G = H-
TS
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
Gibbs energy change = enthalpy change – temperature x entropy change ΔG gives a criteria for
spontaneity at constant pressure and temperature, (i) If ΔG is negative (< 0) the process is
spontaneous.
(ii) If ΔG is positive (> 0) the process is non-spontaneous.
• Free Energy Change in Reversible Reaction
Equilibrium Class 11 Notes Chemistry Chapter 7
• Chemical Equilibrium
In a chemical reaction chemical equilibrium is defined as the state at which there is no further
change in concentration of reactants and products.
For example,

At equilibrium the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction.
Equilibrium mixture: The mixture of reactants and products in the equilibrium state is called an
equilibrium mixtures.
Based on the extent to which the reactions proceed to reach the state of equilibrium, these may
be classified in three groups:
(i) The reactions which proceed almost to completion and the concentrations of the reactants left
are negligible.
(ii) The reactions in which most of the reactants remains unchanged, i.e. only small amounts of
products are formed.
(iii) The reactions in which the concentrations of both the reactants and products are comparable
when the system is in equilibrium.
• Equilibrium in Physical Processes
(i) Solid-Liquid Equilibrium: The equilibrium is represented as

Rate of melting of ice = Rate of freezing of water.

The system here is in dynamic equilibriums and following can be inferred.
(a) Both the opposing processes occur simultaneously
(b) Both the processes occur at the same rate so that the amount of ice and water – remains
constant.
(ii) Liquid-Vapour Equilibrium
The equilibrium can be represented as

Rate of evaporation = Rate of condensation

When there is an equilibrium between liquid and vapours, it is called liquid-vapour equilibrium.
(iii) Solid-Vapour Equilibrium
This type of equilibrium is attained where solids sublime to vapour phase. For example, when
solid iodine is placed in a closed vessel, violet vapours start appearing in the vessel whose
intensity increases with time and ultimately, it becomes constant.

• Equilibrium involving Dissolution of Solid in Liquid

Solution: When a limited amount of salt or sugar or any solute dissolves in a given amount of
water solution is formed.
At a given temperature state is reached when no more solute can be dissolved then the solution is
called saturated solution.
The equilibrium between a solid and its solution is indicated by the saturated solution and may
be represented as
Here dissolution and precipitation takes place with the same speed.
On adding a small amount of radioactive sugar to the saturated solution it will be found that the
sugar present in the solution as well as in the solid state is radioactive.
• Equilibrium between a Gas and its Solution in Liquid
This type of equilibrium can be seen by the following example:
Let us consider a sealed soda water bottle in which C02 gas is dissolved under high pressure. A
state of equilibrium is attained between CO2 present in the solution and vapours of the gas.

Henry’s law: The solubility of a gas in a liquid at a certain temperature is governed by Henry’s
law. It states that the mass of a gas that dissolves in a given mass of a solvent at any temperature
is proportional to the pressure of the gas above the surface of the solvent.

• Characteristics of Equilibria Involving Physical Processes

(i) The equilibrium can be attained only in closed systems at a given temperature.
(ii) At the equilibrium the measurable properties of the system remain constant.
(iii) The equilibrium is dynamic since both the forward and backward processes occur at same
rate.
(iv) At equilibrium, the concentrations of substances become constant at constant temperature.
(v) The value of equilibrium constant represents the extent to which the process proceeds before
equilibrium is achieved.
• Equilibrium in Chemical Processes
Like equilibria in physical systems it can also be achieved in chemical process involving
reversible chemical reactions carried in closed container.

The dynamic nature of chemical equilibrium can be demonstrated in the synthesis of ammonia
by Haber’s process. Haber started his experiment with the known amounts of N2 and H2 at high
temperature and pressure. At regular intervals of time he determined the amount of ammonia
present. He also found out concentration of unreacted N2 and H2.
After a certain time he found that the composition of mixture remains the same even though
some of the reactants are still present. This constancy indicates the attainment of equilibrium. In
general, for a reversible reaction the chemical equilibria can be shown by

After a certain time the two reactions occur at the same rate and the system reaches a state of
equilibrium. This can be shown by the given figure.

• Equilibrium in Homogeneous System

When in a system involving reversible reaction, reactants and products are in the same phase,
then the system is called as homogeneous system.
For Example,

After some time it can be observed that an equilibrium is formed. The equilibrium can be seen by
constancy in the colour of the reaction mixture.

• Law of Chemical Equilibrium

At a constant temperature, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the product
of the molar concentrations of the reactants each raised to a power equal to the corresponding
stoichiometric coefficients as represented by the balanced chemical equation. Let us consider the
reaction,

• Relationship between Equilibrium constant K, reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs energy G.

A mathematical expression of thermodynamic view of equilibrium can be described by tine
equation.

• Factors Affecting Equilibria

Le Chatelier’s principle: If a system under equilibrium is subjected to a change in temperature,
pressure or concentration, then the equilibrium shifts in such a manner as to reduce or to
counteract the effect of change.
Effect of Change of Concentration: When the concentration of any of the reactants or products
in a reaction at equilibrium is changed, the composition of the equilibrium changes so as to
minimise the effect.
Effect of Pressure Change
If the number of moles of gaseous reactants and products are equal, there is no effect of pressure.
When the total number of moles of gaseous reactants and total number of moles of gaseous
products are different.
On increasing pressure, total number of moles per unit volume increases, thus the equilibrium
will shift in direction in which number of moles per unit volume will be less.
If the total number of moles of products are more than the total number of moles of reactants,
low pressure will favour forward reaction.
If total number of moles of reactants are more than total number of moles of products, high
pressure is favourable to forward reaction.
Effect of Inert Gas Addition
If the volume is kept constant there is no effect on equilibrium after the addition of an inert gas.
Reason: This is because the addition of an inert gas at constant volume does not change the
partial pressure or the molar concentration.
The reaction quotient changes only if the added gas is involved in the reaction.
Effect of Temperature Change
When the temperature of the system is changed (increased or decreased), the equilibrium shifts
in opposite direction in order to neutralize the effect of change. In exothermic reaction low
temperature favours forward reaction e.g.,

but practically very low temperature slows down the reaction and thus a catalyst is used. In case
of endothermic reaction, the increase in temperature will shift the equilibrium in the direction of
the endothermic reaction.
Effect of a Catalyst
Catalyst has no effect on the equilibrium composition of a reaction mixture.
Reason: Since catalyst increases the speed of both the forward and backward reactions to the
same extent in a reversible reaction.
• Ionic Equilibrium in Solution
Electrolytes: Substances which conduct electricity in their aqueous solution.
Strong Electrolytes: Those electrolytes which on dissolution in water are ionized almost
completely are called strong electrolytes.
Weak electrolyte: Those electrolytes which on dissolution in water partially dissociated are
called weak electrolyte.
Ionic Equilibrium: The equilibrium formed between ions and unionised substance is called
ionic equilibrium, e.g.,
Acids: Acids are the substances which turn blue litmus paper to red and liberate dihydrogen on
reacting with some metals.
Bases: Bases are the substances which turn red litmus paper blue. It is bitter in taste. Common
Example: NaOH, Na2C03.
• Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
Acids: According to Arrhenius theory, acids are substances that dissociates in water to give
hydrogen ions H+(aq).
Bases: Bases are substances that produce OH–(aq) after dissociation in water.

• Limitations of the Arrhenius Concept

(i) According to the Arrhenius concept, an acid gives H+ ions in water but the H+ ions does not
exist independently because of its very small size (~H-18 m radius) and intense electric field.
(ii) It does not account for the basicity of substances like, ammonia which does not possess a
hydroxyl group.
• The Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
According to Bronsted-Lowry, an acid is a substance which is capable of donating a hydrogen
ion H+ and bases are substances capable of accepting a hydrogen ion H+.
In other words, acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors. This can be explained by
the following example.

• Acid and Base as Conjugate Pairs

The acid-base pair that differs only by one proton is called a conjugate acid-base pair.
Let us consider the example of ionization of HCl in water.

Here water acts as a base because it accepts the proton.

CL is a conjugate base of HCl and HCl is the conjugate acid of base CL. Similarly, H20 is
conjugate base of an acid H30+ and H30+ is a conjugate acid of base H2O.
• Lewis Acids and Bases
According to Lewis, acid is a substance which accepts electron pair and base is a substance with
donates an electron pair.
Electron deficient species like AlCl3, BH3, H+ etc. can act as Lewis acids while species like H20,
NH3 etc. can donate a pair of electrons, can act as Lewis bases.
• Ionization of Acids and Bases
Strength of acid or base is determined with the help of extent of ionization in aqueous solution.
pH Scale: Hydrogen-ion concentration are measured as the number of gram ions of hydrogen
ions present per litre of solution. Since these concentrations are usually small, the concentration
is generally expressed as the pH of the solution. pH being the logarithm of the reciprocal of the
hydrogen ion concentration.

• Di and Polybasic Acids

Acids which contain more than one ionizable proton per molecule are called Dibasic acids or
polybasic acids or polyprotic acids.
Common examples are oxalic acid, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid etc.
Factors Affecting Acid Strength
When the strength of H-A bond decreases

The energy required to break the bond decreases, H-A becomes a stronger acid.
As the size of A increases down the group, H-A bond strength decreases and so the acid strength
increases.
In a period, as the electronegativity of A increases, the strength of the acid increases.

• Common Ion Effect

If in a aqueous solution of a weak electrolyte, a strong electrolyte is added having an ion
common with the weak electrolyte, then the dissociation of the weak electrolyte is decreased or
suppressed. The effect by which the dissociation of weak electrolyte is suppresed is known as
common ion effect.
• Hydrolysis of Salts and the pH of their Solutions

• Solubility Products
It is applicable to sparingly soluble salt. There is equilibrium between ions and unionised solid
substance.
• Equilibrium: It can be established for both physical and chemical processes. At the state of
equilibrium rate of forward and backward reactions are equal.
• Equilibrium constant: Kc is expressed as the concentration of products divided by reactants
each term raised to the stoichiometric coefficients. For reactions,

• Le Chatelier’s principle: It states that the change in any factor such as temperature, pressure,
concentration etc., will cause the equilibrium to shift in such a direction so as to reduce the effect
of the change.
• Electrolytes: Substances that conduct electricity in aqueous solutions are called electrolytes.
• Arrhenius Concept: According to Arrhenius, acids give hydrogeneous while bases produce
hydroxyl ions in their aqueous solution.
• Bronsted-Lowry concept: Bronsted-Lowry defined acid as proton donor and a base as a
proton acceptor.
• Conjugate base and Conjugate acid: When a Bronsted-Lowry acid reacts with a base it
produces its conjugate base and conjugate acid.
• Conjugate pair of acid and base: Conjugate pair of acid and base differs only by one proton.
• Lewis acids: Define acid as an electron pair acceptor and a base as an electron pair donor.
• pH Scale: Hydronium ion concentration in molarity is more conveniently expressed on a
logarithmic scale known as the pH scale. The pH of pure water is 7.
• Buffer solution: It is the solution whose pH does not change by addition of small amount of
strong acid or base.
For example: CH3COOH + CH3COONa.
• Solubility product (Ksp): For a sparingly soluble salt, it is defined as the product of molar
concentration of the ions raised to the power equal to the number of times each ion occurs in the
equation for solubilities.

Redox Reactions Class 11 Notes Chemistry

Chapter 8
• Oxidation
Oxidation is defined as the addition of oxygen/electronegative element to a substance or
rememoval of hydrogen/ electropositive element from a susbtance.
For example,

• Reduction
Reduction is defined as the memoval of oxygen/electronegative element from a substance or
addition of hydrogen or electropositive element to a substance.
For example,

• Redox Reaction in Terms of Electron Transfer Reaction

A few examples of redox reaction on the basis of electronic concept are given below:
According to electronic concept every redox reaction consists of two steps known as half
reactions.
(i) Oxidation reaction: Half reactions that involve loss of electrons are called oxidation reactions.
(ii) Reduction reaction: Half reactions that involve gain of electrons are called reduction
reactions.
Oxidising agent: Acceptor of electrons.
Reducing agent: Donar of electrons.

• Competitive Electron Transfer Reactions

To understand this concept let us do an experiment.
Place a strip of metallic zinc in an aqueous solution of copper nitrate as shown in Fig. After one
hour following changes will be noticed.
(i) Strips becomes coated with reddish metallic copper.
(ii) Blue colour of the solution disappears.
(iii) If hydrogen sulphide gas is passed through the solution appearance of white ZnS can be –
seen on making the solution alkaline with ammonia.

• Oxidation Number
It is the oxidation state of an element in a compound which is the charge assigned to an atom of a
compound is equal to the number of electrons in the valence shell of an atom that are gained or
lost completely or to a large extent by that atom while forming a bond in a compound.
• Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers
(i) The oxidation number of an element in its elementary form is zero.
For example, H2, 02, N2 etc. have oxidation number equal to zero.
(ii) In a single monoatomic ion, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion. For
example, Na+ ion has oxidation number of +1 and Mg2+ ion has +2.
(iii) Oxygen has oxidation number -2 in its compounds. However, there are some exceptions.
Compounds such as peroxides. Na202, H202
oxidation number of oxygen = – 1 In OF2
O.N. of oxygen = +2 02F2
O.N. of oxygen = +1
(iv) In non-metallic compounds of hydrogen like HCl, H2S, H2O oxidation number of hydrogen =
+ 1 but in metal hydrides oxidation number of hydrogen = -1
[LiH, NaH, CaH2 etc.]
(v) In compounds of metals and non-metals metals have positive oxidation number while non-
metals have negative oxidation number. For example, In NaCl. Na has +1 oxidation number
while chlorine has -1.
(vi) If in a compound there are two non-metallic atoms the atoms with high electronegativity is
assigned negative oxidation number while other atoms have positive oxidation number.
(vii) The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all atoms in a compound is equal to zero.
(viii) In poly atomic ion the sum of the oxidation no. of all the atoms in the ion is equal to the net
charge on the ion.
For example, in (C03)2—Sum of carbon atoms and three oxygen atoms is equal to -2.
Fluorine (F2) is so highly reactive non-metal that it displaces oxygen from water.

Disproportionation Reaction. In a disproportionation reaction an element in one oxidation state is

simultaneously oxidises and reduced.
For example,

Hence, the oxygen of peroxide, which is present in -1 oxidation state is connected to zero
oxidation state and in 02 and in H2O decreases to -2 oxidation state.
• Fractional Oxidation Numbers
Elements as such do not have any fractional oxidation numbers. When the same element are
involved in different bonding in a species, their actual oxidation states are whole numbers but an
average of these is fractional.
For example, In C302

Fractional O.N. of a particular element can be claculated only if we know about the structure of
the compound or in which it is present.
• Balancing of Redox Reactions
(i) Oxidation Number Method. Following steps are involved:
(ii) Write the correct formula for each reactant and product.
(b) By assigning the oxidation change in oxidation number can be identified.
(c) Calculate the increase and decrease in oxidation number per atom with respect to the
reactants. If more than one atom is present then multiply by suitable coefficient.
(d) Balance the equation with respect to all atoms. Balance hydrogen and oxygen atoms also.
(e) If the reaction is carried out in acidic medium, use H+ ions in the equation. If it is in basic
medium use OH– ions.
(f) Hydrogen atoms in the expression can be balanced by adding (H20) molecules to the reactants
or products.
If there are the same number of oxygen atoms on the both side of equation then it represents the
balanced redox reaction.
(ii) Half Reaction Method. In this method two half equation are balanced separately and than
added together to give balanced equation.

• Redox Reactions as the Basis for Titration

Potassium Permanganate Titration: In these titrations potassium permanganate (pink in colour)
acts as an oxidising agent in the acidic medium while oxalic acid or some ferrous salts acts as a
reducing agents.
The ionic equation can be written as:

These are the examples of redox titration.

On both these titrations, potassium permanganate itself acts as indicator. It is commonly known
as self indicator. The appearance of pink colour in the solution represents the end points.
Potassium Dichromate Titration: In place of potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate can
also be used in the presence of dil. H2S04. The ionic equation for the redox reaction with
FeS04 (Fe2+ ions) is given.
• Limitation of Concept of Oxidation Number
According to the concept of oxidation number, oxidation means increase in oxidation number –
by loss of electrons and reduction means decrease in oxidation number by the gain of electrons.
However, during oxidation there is decrease in electron density while increase in electron density
around the atom undergoing reduction.
• Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes—Electrochemical Cells
A device in which the redox reaction is carried indirectly and the decrease in energy appears as
the electrical energy are called electrochemical cell.
Electrolytic Cell. The cell in which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy. Example,
when lead storage battery is recharged, it acts as electrolytic cell.
Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes. When zinc rod is dipped in copper sulphate solution
redox reaction begins hence, zinc is oxidised to Zn2+ ions and Cu2+ ions are reduced to metal.
• Redox reaction. Reactions in which oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously are called
redox reactions.
• Oxidation. Involves loss of one or more electrons.
• Reduction. Involves gain of one or more electrons.
• Oxidising agent. Accepting electrons.
• Reducing agent. Losing electrons.
• Electrochemical cell. It is a device in which redox reaction is carried indirectly and decrease in
energy gives electrical energy.
• Electrode potential. It is the potential difference between the electrode and its ions in solution.
• Standard electrode potential. It is the potential of an electrode with respect to standard
hydrogen electrode.
• Electrochemical series. It is activity series. It has been formed by arranging the metals in order
of increasing standard reduction potential value.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes

Hydrogen Class 11 Notes Chemistry Chapter 9
• Electronic Configuration of Hydrogen 1s1
Position of hydrogen in the periodic table: Position of hydrogen in periodic table is not justified
because it resembles both alkali metals as well as halogens.
• Resemblance of Hydrogen with Alkali Metals
(i) Electronic Configuration: Hydrogen has one electron in its valence shell like alkali metals.

(ii) Both hydrogen and alkali metals form unipositive ions.

For example,
Na ———–> Na+ + e–
H ———-> H+ + e–
(iii) Hydrogen and alkali metals both shows +1 oxidation state.
(iv) Hydrogen as well as other alkali metals acts as reducing agents.
(v) Both have affinity for electronegative element For example, Na2O, NaCl, H20, HCl.
• Resemblance with Hologens
(i) Electronic configuration: Hydrogen and halogen family both require one electron to fulfil the
inert gas configuration

(ii) Ionisation energy of hydrogen is almost similar to halogens.

(iii) Hydrogen as well as halogens are Diatomic in nature.
(iv) Many compounds of hydrogen as well as of halogens are of covalent nature.
For example, CH4, SiH4CCl4, SiCl4
• Occurrence of Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. It is present in combined state as water,
coal, animal and vegetable matter. All organic compounds contain hydrogen as an essential
constituent.
• Isotopes of Hydrogen
Hydrogen has three isotopes.

• Preparation of Dihydrogen, H2
Laboratory Preparation of Dihydrogen
(i) It is prepared by the reaction of granulated zinc with dil HCl.
Zn + 2HCl ——–> ZnCl2 + H2
(ii) It is prepared by the action of zinc with aqueous alkali.

• Properties of Dihydrogen
Physical properties
(i) Dihydrogen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.
(ii) It is a combustible gas.
(iii) It is insoluble in water.
(iv) It is lighter than air.
Chemical properties
Reaction with halogens: It reacts with halogens, X2 to give hydrogen halides. HX.

• Hydrides
The hydrides are classified into three types:
(i) Ionic or saline or salt like hydrides
(ii) Covalent or molecular hydrides (iii) Metallic or non-stoichiometric hydrides.
• Ionic or Saline Hydrides
Hydrides formed between hydrogen and electropositive element of group I and II belonging to s-
block. These are known as stoichiometric compounds.
Properties of saline or ionic hydrides:
(i) The hydrides of lighter elements like Li, Be, Mg etc. have significant covalent character.
(ii) Ionic hydrides are crystalline, non-volatile and non-conducting in solid state.
(iii) They conduct electricity in molten state and liberate hydrogen at anode.
• Covalent or Molecular Hydrides
These are binary compounds of hydrogen with non-metals belonging to p-block.
For example, NH3, CH4, H20, HF They are mostly volatile compounds with low boiling points.
They are classified as:
(i) Electron-Deficient Molecular Hydride: Molecular hydrides in which central atom does not
have octet are called electron deficient hydrides e.g., BH3, MgH2, BeH2.
(ii) Electron precise hydrides: Those hydrides in which the central atom has its octet complete
e.g., group 14 hydrides. They are tetrahedral in geometry.
(iii) Electron rich hydrides: Those metal hydrides which contain lone pair of electrons are called
electron rich hydrides, e.g., NH3, PH3, H20 and H2S.
NH3 and PH3 has 1 lone pair and H20 and H2S have 2 lone pairs of electrons.
• Metallic or Non-Stoichiometric Hydrides
These hydrides are also known as interstitial hydrides. Transition metals group 3, 4 and 5 form
metallic hydrides. In group 6, chromium alone has a tendency to form CrH. Metals of 7, 8 and 9
do not form hydrides. This is called as hydride gap.
Latest study shows that only Ni, Pd, Ce and Ac are interstitial in nature, that means they can
occupy hydrogen atom in the interstitial sides. The hydrides are generally non-stoichiometric and
their composition varies with temperature and pressure, for example, Ti H1.73, CeH2.7′ , LaH2.8 etc.
These hydrides have metallic lock and their properties are closely related to those of the parent
metal. They are strong reducing agents in most of the cases due to the presence of free hydrogen
atom in the metal lattice.
• Water
Human body has about 65% and some plants have nearly 95% water.
Physical properties of water:
(i) Freezing point of water is 273.15 K and boiling point 373.15 K.
(ii) Maximum density of water at 4°C is 1 gm cm-3
(iii) It is a colourless and tasteless liquid.
(iv) Due to hydrogen bonding with polar molecules, even covalent compounds like alcohol and
carbohydrates dissolve in water.
Structure of Water:
In gas phase, it is a bent molecule with HOH bond angle 104.5° and O—H bond length of 95.7
pm. It is highly polar in nature. Its orbital overlap picture is also shown below.
Water in Crystalline Form:
Ice is the crystalline form of water. At atmospheric pressure ice crystallise in the hexagonal
form. At low temperature it condenses to cubic form. Density of ice is less than that of water.
Therefore, ice cubes can float on water.
Structure of ice:

Chemical Properties of Water:

(i) Amphoteric nature: It behaves like an amphoteric substance because it can act as an acid as
well as base.

Autoprotolysis of water also accounts for its amphoteric nature according to Bronsted-Lowry
concept.

(ii) Oxidising and Reducing Nature: Water can act as an oxidising as well as reducing agent.
(iii) Hydrolysis Reaction: It has a very strong hydrating tendency. It can hydrolyse a large
number of compounds such as oxides, halides, carbides etc.

• Hydrates Formation
From aqueous solutions many salts can be crystallised as hydrated salts. Hydrates are of three
types:
(i) Coordinated water
For example: [Ni(H20)6]2+ (N03–)2 and [Cr(H20)6]3+ 3CP
(ii) Interstitial water
For example: BaCl2. 2H20
(iii) Hydrogen bonded water
For example: [Cu(H20)4]2+ S042- H20 in CuS04.5H20
• Hard and Soft Water
Hard water: Water which does not produce lather with soap easily is called hard water.
Presence of calcium and magnesium salts in the form of hydrogen carbonate, chloride and
sulphate in water makes the water hard.
Types of Hardness of Water:
(i) Temporary hardness: It is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium in
water. It is known as temporary because it can be easily removed by simple boiling of hard
water.
(ii) Permanent hardness: It is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium. It cannot be removed on boiling water. Permanent hardness of water can be
removed by chemical methods.
Soft water: Water which readily forms lather with soap is called soft water.
For example: rain water, distilled water.
• Hydrogen Peroxide (H202)
Preparation:
Uses of H202:
(i) It is used as a mild disinfectant. It is marketed as perhydrol (an Antiseptic).
(ii) It is used in the manufacture of high quality detergents.
(iii) It is used in the synthesis of hydroquinone tartaric acid and certain food products and
pharmaceuticals.
(iv) It is used as bleaching agent for textilies, paper pulp etc.
(v) It is used for pollution control treatment of domestic and industrial effluents.
(vi) 93% H202 is used as an oxidant for rocket fuel.
• Heavy Water (D20)
It is used in the preparation of other deuterium compounds.

Uses of D2O:
(i) It is used as moderator in nuclear reactors.
(ii) It is used in the exchange reaction study of reaction mechanisms.
• Hydrogen as a Fuel
Hydrogen Economy: The basic principle of hydrogen economy is the transportation and storage
of energy in the form of liquid or gaseous dihydrogen. Advantage is that energy is transmitted in
the form of dihydrogen and not as electric power.
Advantage as a fuel:
– It is used as fuel cells for the generation of electric power.
– One major advantage of combustion of hydrogen is that it produces very little pollution and
there is not any emission of unbumt carbon particles in the form of smoke.
– It is evident from the study that dihydrogen in the gaseous state as well as in liquefied form
releases more energy on combustion as compared to the other fuel commonly used.
– 5% of dihydrogen is mixed in CNG for use in four wheeler vehicles.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes

Filed Under: CBSE
The s-Block Elements Class 11 Notes Chemistry
Chapter 10
• General Electronic Configuration of s-Block Elements
For alkali metals [noble gas] ns1
For alkaline earth metals [noble gas] ns2
• Group 1 Elements: Alkali metals
Electronic Configuration, ns1, where n represents the valence shell.
These elements are called alkali metals because they readily dissolve in water to form soluble
hydroxides, which are strongly alkaline in nature.
• Atomic and Ionic Radii
Atomic and ionic radii of alkali metals increase on moving down the group i.e., they increase in
size going from Li to Cs. Alkali metals form monovalent cations by losing one valence electron.
Thus cationic radius is less as compared to the parent atom.
• Ionization Enthalpy
The ionization enthalpies of the alkali metals are generally low and decrease down the group
from Li to Cs.
Reason: Since alkali metals possess large atomic sizes as a result of which the valence s-electron
(ns1) can be easly removed. These values decrease down the group because of decrease in the
magnitude of the force of attraction with the nucleus on account of increased atomic radii and
screening effect.
• Hydration Enthalpy
Smaller the size of the ion, more is its tendency to get hydrated hence more is the hydration
enthalpy.
Hydration enthalpies of alkali metal ions decrease with increase in ionic sizes.
Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+
• Physical Properties
(i) All the alkali metals are silvery white, soft and light metals.
(ii) They have generally low density which increases down the group.
(iii) They impart colour to an oxidising flame. This is because the heat from the flame excites the
outermost orbital electron to a higher energy level. When the excited electron comes back to the
ground state, there is emission of radiation in the visible region.
• Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals
(i) Reaction with air:
When exposed to air surface of the alkali metals get tarnished due the formation of oxides and
hydroxides.
Alkali metals combine with oxygen upon heating to form different oxides depending upon their
nature.

(ii) Reaction with water:

Alkali metals react with water to form hydroxide and dihydrogen

(iii) Reaction with hydrogen:

The alkali metals combine with hydrogen at about 673 K (lithium at 1073 K) to form hydrides.
2M + H2 ————-> 2M+
The ionic character of hydrides increases from Li to Cs.
(iv) Reaction with halogens:
Alkali metals combine with halogens directly to form metal halides.
2M + X2————–> 2MX
They have high melting and boiling points.
Order of reactivity of M:

(v) Reducing nature:

The alkali metals are strong reducing agents. In aqueous solution it has been observed that the
reducing character of alkali metals follows the sequence Na < K < Rb < Cs < Li, Li is the
strongest while sodium is least powerful reducing agent. This can be explained in terms of
electrode potentials (E°). Since the electrode potential of Li is the lowest. Thus Li is the strongest
reducing agent.
(vi) Solubility in liquid ammonia:
The alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia to give deep blue solution. The solution is
conducting in nature.
M+ (x + y) NH3 ———-> [M (NH3) X]+ + [e (NH3) y]–
When light falls on the ammoniated electrons, they absorb energy corresponding to red colour
and the light which emits from it has blue colour. In concentrated solution colour changes from
blue to bronze. The blue solutions are paramagnetic while the concentrated solutions are
diamagnetic.
• Uses of Alkali Metals
Uses of Lithium
(i) Lithium is used as deoxidiser in the purification of copper and nickel.
(ii) Lithium is used to make both primary and secondary batteries.
(iii) Lithium hydride is used as source of hydrogen for meteorological purposes.
(iv) Lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) is a good reducing agent.
(v) Lithium carbonate is used in making glass.
Uses of Sodium
(i) Used as sodium amalgum in laboratory (synthesis of organic compounds).
(ii) Sodium is used in sodium vapour lamp.
(iii) In molten state, it is used in nuclear reactors.
(iv) An alloy of sodium-potassium is used in high temperature thermometres.
Uses of Potassium
(i) Salts of potassium are used in fertilizers.
(ii) Used as reducing agent.
Uses of Cesium
(i) In rocket propellent
(ii) In photographic cells.
• Group 2 Elements: Alkaline Earth Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals: They were named alkaline earth metals since they were alkaline in nature
like alkali metals oxides and they were found in the earth’s crust.
Example, Be (Beryllium), Ca, Mg, Sr etc.
• Electronic Configuration
Their general electronic configuration is represented as [noble gas] ns2.

• Atomic and Ionic Radii

Atomic and ionic radii of alkaline earth metals one comparatively smaller than alkali metals.
Within the group atomic and ionic radii increases with the increase in atomic number. Reason:
Because these elements have only two valence electrons and the magnitude of the force of
attraction with the nucleus is quite small.
• Ionization Enthalpies
These metals also have low ionization enthalpies due to fairly large size of atoms. As the atomic
sizes increase down the group ionization enthalpies are expected to decrease in the same manner.
Due to their small size in comparison to alkali metals first ionization enthalpies of alkaline earth
metals is higher than that of alkali metals.
• Hydration Enthalpies
The hydration enthalpies of alkaline earth metal ions are larger than those of the alkali metals.
Thus alkaline earth metals have more tendency to become hydrate. The hydration enthalpies
decreases down the group since the cationic size increases.
Be2+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > Sr2+ > Ba2+
Metallic character: They have strong metallic bonds as compared to the alkali metals in the same
period. This is due to the smaller kernel size of alkaline earth metal and two valence electrons
present in the outermost shell.
• Physical Properties
(i) They are harder than alkali metals.
(ii) M.P and B.P are higher than the corresponding alkali metals due to their small size.
(iii) The electropositive character increases down the group.
(iv) Except Be and Mg, all these metals impart characteristic colour to the flame.
(v) The alkaline earth metals possess high thermal and electrical conductivity.
• Chemical Properties
1. Reaction with oxygen. Beryllium and magnesium are kinetically inert to oxygen because of
the formation of a thin film of oxide on their surface.
Reactivity towards oxygen increases as going down the group.
2. Reaction with water. Since these metals are less electropositive than alkali metals, they are
less reactive towards water.
Magnesium reacts with boiling water or steam. Rest of the members reacts even with cold water.
Mg + 2H20 ——-> Mg(OH)2 + H2
Ca + 2H20 ————> Ca(OH)2 + H2
3. Reaction with halogens. They combine with the halogens at appropriate temperature to form
corresponding halides MX2.
M + X2 ——–> MX2 (X = F, Cl, Br, I)
Thermal decomposition of (NH4)2 BeF4is used for the preparation of BeF2.
4. Reaction with hydrogen. These metals except Be combine with hydrogen directly upon
heating to form metal hydrides.

• General Characteristics of Compounds of Alkaline Earth Metals

Oxides and Hydroxides
(i) The alkaline earth metals bum in oxygen to form MO (monoxide).
(ii) These oxides are very stable to heat.
(iii) BeO is amphoteric in nature while oxides of other elements are ionic.
(iv) Exept BeO, they are basic in nature and react with water to form sparingly soluble
hydroxides.
MO + H2O ———-> M(OH)2
(v) Hydroxides of alkaline earth metals are less stable and less basic than alkali metal
hydroxides.
(vi) Beryllium hydroxide is amphoteric in nature.
Halides
The alkaline earth metals combine directly with halogens at appropriate temperatures forming
halides, MX2.
They can also be prepared by the action of halogen acids (HX) on metals, metal oxides, metal
hydroxides.
M + 2HX ——-> MX2 + H2
MO + 2HX ——> MX2 + H20
M (OH)2 + 2HX —–> MX2 + 2H20
(i) Except beryllium halides, all other halides of alkaline earth metals are ionic in nature.
(ii) Except BeCl2 and MgCl2 other chloride of alkaline earth metals impart characteristic colours
to flame.

(iii) The tendency to form halide hydrates decreases down the group.
For example, (MgCl2– 8 H20, CaCl2– 6 H20, SrCl2– 6 H20, BaCl2– 2 H2O)
(iv) BeCl2 has a chain structure in the solid phase as shown below.

In vapour phase the compound exist as a dimer which decomposes at about 1000K to give
monomer in which Be atom is in sp hybridisation state.
Sulphates
(i) The sulphates of alkaline earth metals are white solids and quite stable to heat.
(ii) BeS04 and MgS04 are readily soluble in water. Solubility decreases from BeS04 to BaS04.
Reason. Due to greater hydration enthalpies of Be2+ ions and Mg2+ ions they overcome the lattice
enthalpy factor. Their sulphates are soluble in water.
Carbonates
Carbonates of alkaline earth metals are thermally unstable and decompose on heating.

• Some Important Compounds of Calcium

Uses:
(i) In the manufacture of cement, sodium carbonate, calcium carbide etc.
(ii) Used in the purification of sugar.
(iii) In the manufacture of dye stuffs.

Uses:
(i) It is used in the manufacturing of building material.
(ii) Used in white-wash as a disinfectant.
(iii) Used to detect C02 gas in the laboratory.
(iii) Calcium Carbonate or Limestone (CaC03)
Preparation: Calcium carbonate occurs in nature in different forms like limestone, marble, chalk
etc. It can be prepared by passing C02 through slaked lime in limited amount.
Ca(OH)2 + C02 ———> CaC03 + H20
It can also prepared by the reaction of a solution of sodium carbonate with calcium chloride.
CaCl2 + Na2C03 ————> CaC03 + 2NaCl

Uses:
(i) In the manufacturing of Quick Lime.
(ii) With MgC03 used as flux in the extraction of metals.
(iii) Used as an antacid.
(iv) In the manufacture of high quality paper.
(iv) Calcium Sulphate (Plaster of Paris) CaS04-1/2H20
Preparation: It is obtained when gypsum CaS04– 2 H20 is heated to 393 K
2(CaS04-2H20) ———-> 2(CaS04) . H20 + 3H20
Above 393 K anhydrous CaS04 is formed, which is called ‘dead burnt plaster’.
Properties:
(i) It is a white atmosphous powder.
(ii) When it is mixed in adequate quantity of water it forms a plastic hard mass within 15
minutes.
Uses:
(i) Commonly used in making pottery, ceramics etc.
(ii) Used in the surgical bandages for setting the fractured bone or sprain.
(iii) For making statues, ornamental work, decorative material etc.
(v) Cement
Preparation: Prepared by combining a material rich in CaO with other material such as clay,
which contains Si02 along with the oxides of aluminium, iron and magnesium.
Important Ingredients of portland cement:
(Ca2Si04) dicalcium silicate 26%
(Ca2SiO4) Tricalcium silicate 51%
(Ca3Al206) Tricalcium Aluminate 11%
Uses:
In plastering and in construction purposes.
• s-block elements constitute Group I and II elements.
• General electronic configuration of
Group I = [Noble gas] ns1
Group II = [Noble gas] ns2
• Diagonal Relationship
The first three elements of second period (Li, Be, B) show diagonal similarity with the elements
(Mg, Al, Si) of third period. Such similarities are termed as diagonal relationship.
• The alkali metals are silvery-white soft metals. They are highly reactive. Their aqueous
solutions are strongly alkaline in nature. Their atomic and ionic sizes increase on moving down
the group and ionization enthalpies decrease systematically down the group.
• Alkaline earth metals. They are much similar to alkali metals but due to small size some
differences are there. Their oxides and hydroxides are less basic than the alkali metals.
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is prepared by the electrolysis of aq NaCl in Castner- Kellner cell.
Slaked lime Ca(OH)2 is formed by the action of quick lime on water.
• Gypsum is CaS04. 2 H20. On heating upto 390 K CaS04/2H20 (plaster of paris) is formed.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes

Filed Under: CBSE
The p-Block Elements Class 11 Notes Chemistry
Chapter 11
• p-Block Elements
Elements belonging to groups 13 to 18 of the periodic table are called p-block elements. General
electronic configuration: ns2 np1-6 (except for He)

• Group 13 Elements: The Boron Family

Outer Electronic Configuration: ns2np1
Atomic Radii: The atomic and ionic radii of group 13 elements are smaller than the
corresponding elements of alkali and alkaline earth metals.
Reason: On moving from left to right in a period the effective nuclear charge increases and the
outer electrons are pulled more strongly towards the nucleus. This results in decrease in atomic
size.
On moving down the group, both atomic and ionic radii expected to increase due to the addition
of a new electron shell with each succeeding element.
Exception: Atomic radius of Ga is less than that of Al due to the presence of poor shedding 10d-
electrons in gallium.
Ionisation enthalpies: First ionisation enthalpies of the elements of group-13 are less than those
of the elements present in group-2 in the same period.
Reason: The removal of p-electron is much easier than the s-electron and therefore, the first
ionisation enthalpies (∆i H1) of the elements of group 13 are lower as compared to the
corresponding elements of group 2.
On moving down the group 13 from B to Al the first-ionization enthalpies (∆i H1) decrease due to
an increase in atomic size and screening effect which outweigh the effect of increased
nuclear charge.
There is discontinuity expected in the ionisation enthalpy values between Al and Ga and between
In and Tl due to enability of d- and f-electrons which have low screening effect to compensate
the increase in nuclear charge.
Electronegativity: Down the group, electronegativity first decreases from B to Al and then
increases.
This is due to discrepancies in the atomic size of the elements.
Physical Properties
(i) Due to strong crystalline lattice boron has high melting point. Rest of the members of this
family have low melting point.
(ii) Boron is extremely hard and black coloured solid and non metallic in nature.
(iii) Other members of this family are soft metals with low melting point and high electrical
conductivity.
Chemical Properties
Oxidation states: The first two elements boron and aluminium show only +3 oxidation state ~ in
the compounds but the other elements of this group gallium, indium and thalium also exhibit +1
oxidation state in addition to +3 oxidation state i.e., they show variable oxidation states.
As we move down the group, the stability of +3 oxidation state decreases while that of +1
oxidation state progressively increases.
• Some Compounds of Boron

Physical properties of boric acid:

(i) It is a white crystalline solid.
(ii) It is soft soapy in touch.
(iii) It is sparingly soluble in cold water but fairly soluble in hot water.
Uses:
(i) In the manufacture of heat resistant borosilicate glazes.
(ii) As a preservative for milk and food stuffs.
(iii) In the manufacture of enamels and glazes in pottery.
Structure of boric acid

(iii) Diborane, (B2H6): The series of compounds of boron with hydrogen is known as boranes.
Diborane is prepared by the reduction of boron trifluoride with LiAlH4 in diethyl ether.
4BF3 + 3LiAlH4 ——–> 2B2H6+ 3LiF + 3AlF3
Laboratory method of preparation. In laboratory diborane is prepared by the oxidation of sodium
borohydride with iodine.
2NaBH4 + I2 ——-> B2H6 + 2NaI +H2
Industrial method of preparation. On industrial scale, diborane is prepared by reduction of
BF3 with sodium hydride.

Physical Properties:
(i) Diborane is a colourless, highly toxic gas with a b.p. of 180 K.
(ii) Diborane catches fire spontaneously upon exposure to air.
(iii) Higher boranes are spontaneously flammable in air.
Chemical properties:
(i) Boranes are readily hydrolysed by water to form boric acid
B2H6(g) + 6H20(Z) ——> 2B(OH)3(aq) + 6H2(g)
(ii) It burns in oxygen evolving an enormous amount of heat
B2H6 + 302 —–> B203 + 3H20
(iii) Reaction with Lewis base:
Diborane on treatment with lewis bases undergo cleavage reactions to form borane which then
reacts with Lewis bases to form adducts.
B2H6 + 2NMe3 ——-> 2BH3. NMe3
B2H6 + 2CO ———> 2BH3 .CO
• Group 14 Elements: The Carbon Family Group 14 includes carbon (C), silicon (Si),
Germanium (Ge), tin (Sn) and lead (Pb).
General electronic configuration of carbon family is ns2np1.
Carbon: Carbon is the seventeenth most abundant element by weight in the earth’s crust.
(i) It is available as coal, graphite and diamond. In combined state it is present in metal
carbonates, hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide gas (0.03%) in air.
(ii) Naturally occurring carbon contains two stable iosotopes 12C and 13C and third isotope 14C.
14C is a radioactive isotope with half life 5770 years and is used for radiocarbon dating.
Covalent radius: Covalent radius expected to increase from C to Si. From Si to Pb small
increase is found.
Reason: Due to the addition of a new energy shell in each succeeding element. The increase in
covalent radii from Si to Pb is small due to ineffective shielding of the valence electrons by the
intervening d- and f orbitals.
Ionization Enthalpy: The first ionization enthalpies of group 14 elements are higher than those
of the corresponding group 13 elements.
Reason: Because effective nuclear charge increases and size of the atoms becomes smaller. First
ionization enthalpy decreases on moving down the group from carbon to tin.
The decrease is very sharp from carbon to silicon while there is slight increase in the first
ionization enthalpy of lead as compared to that of tin.
Electronegativity: Group 14 elements are smaller in size as compared to group 13 elements
that’s why this group are slightly more electronegative than group 13. From Si to Pb it is almost
same. Small increase in ionization enthalpy from Sn to Pb is due to the effect of increased
nuclear charge outweighs the shielding effect due to the presence of additional 4f- and 5d-
electrons.
Physical properties:
(i) All the elements of group 14 elements are solids. They are less metallic than group 13.
(ii) M.P. and boiling points of group 14 elements are generally high.
Chemical properties:
Carbon and silicon mostly show +4 oxidation state. Germanium forms stable compounds in +4
state and only few compounds in +2 state.
Tin forms compounds in both oxidation states. Lead forms compounds in +2 state are stable and
in +4 state are strong oxidising agents.
• Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon
Carbon, differs from the rest of the member of its family. The main reason for the anomalous
behaviour is:
(i) exceptionally small atomic and ionic size
(ii) higher ionization enthalpy
(iii) absence of d-orbitals in the valence shell.
(iv) Higher electronagativity.
It can be explained as follows:
=> Since carbon has only s and p-orbitals it can accommodate only four pairs of electrons ; other
member can expand their covalence due to the presence of d-orbitals.
=> Carbon can form Pπ-Pπ multiple bonds with itself and other atoms having small size and high
electronegativity.

Heavier elements do not form Pπ-Pπ bonds because their atomic orbitals are too
large and diffuse to have effective overlapping.
=> Carbon atoms have the tendency to link with one another through covalent bonds to form
chains and rings. This property is called catenation.
Down the group property to show catenation decreases.

Lead does not show catenation.

• Allotropes of Carbon
The property of an element to exist in two or more forms which have different physical
properties but identical chemical properties is called allotropy and different forms are called
allotropes. Carbon exists in two allotropic forms:
(i) Crystalline (ii) Amorphous
Crystalline form of carbon: Diamond, Graphite, Fullerenes Diamond: In diamond each carbon
atom undergoes sp3 hybridisation. Each carbon is tetrahedrally linked to four other carbon atoms.
The C—C bond length is 154 pm.
Properties:
(i) It is the hardest substance on earth.
(ii) It is used as an abrasive for sharpening hard tools in making dyes and in manufacture of
tungsten filaments.
Graphite: In graphite, carbon is sp2-hybridized. Graphite has a two-dimensional sheet like
structure consisting of a number of hexagonal rings fused together. Layers are held by van der
Waals forces and distance between two layers is 340 pm.
Properties:
(i) Graphite conducts electricity along the sheet.
(ii) It is very soft and slippery.
(iii) Used as a dry lubricant in machines running at high temperature, where oil cannot be used as
a lubricant.
Fullerenes: Fullerenes was discovered collectively by three scientists namely E. Smalley, R.F.
Curl and H.W. Kroto.
Preparation:
Fullerenes is prepared by heating of graphite in an electric arc in the presence of inert gas such as
helium or argon.
The sooty material formed by the condensation of vapourised Cn small molecules consists of
mainly with smaller quantity of C70 and traces of other fullerenes consisting of even number of
carbon atoms up to 350 or above.
Fullerenes are cage like molecules. C60 molecule has a shape like soccer ball and called
Buckminsterfullerenes. It is the most stable.
It contains 20 six-membered rings and 12 five-membered rings.
Six-membered rings are fused to both the other six-membered rings and five-membered rings but
the five-membered rings are connected only to six-membered rings.
All the carbon atoms are equal and they undergo sp2-Kybridization.
Properties:
(i) Fullerenes being covalent are soluble in organic solvents.
(ii) It also forms platinum complexes.
Amorphous allotropic forms of carbon coke: It is a greyish black hard solid and is obtained by
destructive distillation.
Wood charcoal: It is obtained by strong heating of wood in a limited supply of air.
Animal charcoal: It is obtained by the destructive distillation of bones.
Uses of carbon:
(i) Graphite fibre are used for making superior sports goods such as tennis and badminton
rackets, fishing rods.
(ii) Being good conductor graphite is used for making electrodes for batteries and industrial
electrolysis.
(iii) Being highly porous, activated charcoal is used for absorbing poisonous gases in gas masks.
It is used to decolourize sugar.
(iv) Carbon black is used as black pigment in black ink and as filler in automibile tyres.
(v) Coke is extensively used as reducing agent in metallurgy.
(vi) Diamond is a precious stone.
• Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon
Carbon Monoxide
Preparation: It is prepared by direct oxidation of C in limited supply of oxygen.

Properties:
(i) Carbon monoxide is a colourless and odourless gas.
(ii) It is almost insoluble in water.
(iii) It is powerful reducing agent and reduces almost all metal oxides except alkali and alkaline
earth metal oxides.
(iv) In CO molecule there are one σ (sigma) and two π bonds between carbon and oxygen.
:C=O:
(v) It is highly porous in nature. It forms a complex with haemoglobin which is about 300 times
more stable than the oxygen-haemoglobin complex. This prevents haemoglobin in the red blood
corpuscles from carrying oxygen round the body, there by causing suffocation ultimately leading
to death.
Carbon Dioxide
Preparation: It is prepared by complete combustion of carbon and carbon containing fuels in

Properties:
(i) It is a colourless and odourless gas.
(ii) It is slightly soluble in water. When C02 dissolves in water only some of the molecules react
with water to form carbonic acid.
(iii) It is not poisonous like CO.
But increase in combustion of fossil fuels and decomposition of limestone for cement
manufacture increase of C02 in the atomosphere is one of the main reasons of green house effect.
Silicon dioxide (Si02)
Silicon dioxide, commonly known as silica, occurs in various crystallographic forms.
For example, Quartz, Cristobalite and thermite are some of the crystalline forms of silica.
Structure:
Silicon dioxide is a covalent three dimensional network solid.
Each silicon atom is covalently bonded in a tetrahedral manner to four oxygen atoms.
Each oxygen atom in turn covalently bonded to another silicon atoms as shown below:

Properties:
(i) In normal form silica is very less reactive.
(ii) At elevated temperature it does not reacts with halogens, dihydrogen and most of the acids
and metals. But it reacts with HF and NaOH.
Si02 + 2NaOH —–> Na2Si03 + H2O
Si02+ 4HF ——–> SiF4+ 2H20
Uses:
(i) Quartz is extensively used as a piezoelectric material.
(ii) Silica gel is used as adsorbent in chromatography.
(iii) An amorphous form of silica, kieselghur is used in filtration plants.
• P-Block elements: Contains, metals, non-metals and metalloids.
• General configuration: ns2np1-6
– Boron is a typical non-metal and the other members are metals.
– Boron halides are considered to behave like Lewis acids.
– Boric acid is a Lewis acid.
– Borax is a white crystalline solide formula is Na2 [B4O5(OH)4] . 8H20
– Aluminium exhibits +3 oxidation state.
– Allotropy: The important allotropes of carbon are diamond, graphite, and fullerenes.
– The members of carbon family exhibit +4 and +2 oxidation state. The tendency to show +2
oxidation state increases among heavier elements.
– Lead in +2 state is stable whereas in +4 oxidation state it is a strong oxidising agent.
– Carbon monoxide is neutral whereas C02 is acidic in nature.
– Carbon monoxide having lone pair of electrons on C forms metal carbonyls.
– Carbon monoxide forms a haemoglobin complex which is deadly poisonous due to its higher
stability.
– Zeolites are complex aluminium silicates.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes

Organic Chemistry Some Basic Principles and
Techniques Chemistry Chapter 12
• Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of hydrocarbons and their
derivatives.
The Shapes of Carbon Compounds:
In organic or carbon compounds, s and p orbitals are involved in hybridisation. This leads to y
three types of hybridisation which are sp3(in alkanes) – Tetrahedral in shape sp2(in alkenes) –
Planar structure sp(in alkynes) – Linear molecule
Functional Group: The functional group are atom or group of atoms joined in a specific manner
which determines the chemical properties of the organic compound. The examples are hydroxyl
group (—OH), aldehyde group (—CHO) and carboxylic acid group (—COOH) etc.

• Homologous Series
A homologous series may be defined as a family of organic compounds having the same
functional group, similar chemical properties and the successive members differ from each other
in molecular formula by —CH2 units.
The members of a homologous series can be represented by same general molecular formula.
• Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
Common name (Common system): Before the IUPAC system of nomenclature, organic
compounds were named after the sources of origin, for example, urea was so named because it
was obtained from the urine of mammals. Formic acid was so named since it was extracted from
red ants called formica.
• I UP AC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) System
According to IUPAC system, the name of an organic compound contains three parts: (i) word
root, (ii) suffix, (iii) prefix.
(i) Word root: Word root represents the number of carbon atoms present in the principal chain,
which is the longest possible chain of carbon atoms.

(ii) Suffix: Suffix are of two types, primary suffix, secondary suffix.
(a) Primary Suffix: It indicates the type of bond in the carbon atoms.

(b) Secondary Suffix: Secondary suffix is used to represent the functional group.
(iii) Prefix: Prefix is a part of IUPAC name which appears before the word root. Prefix
are of two types:
(a) Primary prefix: For example, primary prefix cyclo is used to differentiate cyclic compounds.

(b) Secondary prefix: Some functional groups are considered as substituents and denoted by
secondary prefixes.
For example:
Substituted Group Secondary prefix.
—F Flupro
— Cl Chloro
— Br Bromo
— NO Nitroso
— NO2 Nitro
— CH3 Methyl
— OCH3 Methoxy
Naming of Compounds Containing Functional Groups: The longest chain of carbon atoms
containing the functional group is numbered in such a manner that the functional group is
attached at the carbon atoms possessing lowest possible number in the chain.
In case of polyfunctional compounds, one of the functional group is selected as principal
functional group and the compound is named on that basis. The choice of principal functional
group is made on the basis of order of preference.
The order of decreasing priority for the functional group is

• Isomerism
When there are two or more compounds possessing the same molecular formula but different
structural formula and different physical and chemical properties, the phenomenon is called
isomerism. Such compounds are called isomers.
It is of two types:
(1) Structural Isomerism
(2) Stereoisomerism
(1) Structural Isomerism: Structural isomerism is shown by compounds having the same
molecular formula but different structural formulae differing in the arrangement of atoms.
(2) Stereoisomerism: When isomerism is caused by the different arrangements of atoms or
groups in space, the phenomenon is called stereoisomerism. The steroeoisomers have same
structural formula but differ in arrangement of atoms in space. Stereoisomerism is of two types:
(i) Geometrical or Cis-Trans Isomerism
(ii) Optical Isomerism
• Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism
Fission of a covalent bond: A covalent bond can undergo Fission in two ways:
(i) By Homolytic Fission or Homolysis
(ii) By Heterolytic Fission or Heterolysis
Homolytic Fission: In this process each of the atoms acquires one of the bonding electrons.

Heterolytic Fission: In this process one of atoms aquires both of the bonding electrons when the
bond is broken.
If B is more electronegative than A which thereby aquires both the bonding electrons and
becomes negatively charged.

The products of heterolytic fission are ions.

Reaction Intermediates: Heterolytic and homolytic bond fission results in the formation of
short-lived fragments called reaction intermediates. Among the important reaction intermediates
are carbonium ions, carbanions, carbon free radicals and carbenes. Carbonium Ions
(carbocations): Organic ions which contain a positively charged carbon atom are called
carbonium ions or carbocations. They are formed by heterolytic bond fission.

where Z is more electronegative than carbon.

Tertiary carbonium ion is more stable than a secondary, which in turn is more stable than a
primary because of +1 effect associated with alkyl group.

Carbanion: Organic ion which contains a negatively charged carbon atom are called carbanions.
They are also formed by heterolytic bond fission.

Where Z is less electronegative than carbon. A primary carbanion is more stable than a
secondary, which in turn is more stable than a tertiary, because of +1 effect associated with alkyl
group.

Electrophile: It is positively charged or neutral species which is electron deficient, e.g.,

He–, H20+, CH3 , NH4+, AICl3 , S03 , CHCl2 , CCI3.
Nucleophile: It is negatively charged or neutral species with lone pair of electrons e.g., (HO –),
Cyanide (C = N), H20: R3N, R2NH etc.
Electron Displacement Effects in Covalent Bonds: Electronic displacements in covalent bonds
occurs due to the presence of an atom or group of different electronegativity or under the
influence of some outside attaching group.
These lead to a number of effects which are as follows:
(i) Inductive effect (ii) Elecromeric effect
(iii) Resonance or Mesomeric effect (iv) Hyperconjugation effect.
Inductive Effect: It involues c electron. The a electrons which form a covalent bond are seldom
shared equally between the two atoms. Due to different electronegatively electrons are displaced
towards the more electronegative atom.
This introduces a certain degree of polarity in the bond.
The more electronegative atom acquires a small negative charge (δ–). The less electronegative
atom acquires a small positive charge (δ+).
Consider the carbon-chlorine bond
As chlorine is more electronegative, it will become negatively charged with respect to the carbon
atom.

Structure I- indicates the relative charges on the two atoms.

Structure II- indicates the direction in which the electrons are drawn.
Atoms or groups which lose electrons towards a carbon atom are said to have a +1 effect. Those
atoms or groups which draw electrons away from a carbon atom are said to have a -I Effect.
Some common atoms or groups which cause +I or -I effects are shown below:

The inductive effect of C3 upon C2 is significantly less than the effect of the chlorine atom on C.
Resonance Structure: A number of organic compounds cannot be accurately represented by one
structure.
For example, benzene is ordinarily represented as

Carbon-carbon double bond length = 1.34 A

Carbon-carbon single bond length = 1.54A. But it has been determined experimentally that all
carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are identical and have same bond length (1.39A).
Thus the structure of benzene cannot be represented by single structure. It can be represented
equally well by ‘he energetically similar structures I and II. The two structures are called
resonance structures.
Actual structure of benzene is resonance hybrid of structures I and II.
Another example of resonance is provided by nitromethane (CH3N02) which can be represented
by two Lewis structures.

The actual structure of nitromethane is a resonance hybrid of the two canonical forms I and II.
Resonance energy: The difference in the energy between the most stable contributing structure
for a compound and its resonance hybrid is called as resonance energy or resonance stabilisation
energy.
Resonance Effect: The polarity produced in the molecule by the interaction of two π-bonds or
between a π-bond and a lone pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom. There are two types
of resonance or mesomeric effects designated as R or M effect.
Positive Resonance Effect (+R effect):
Those atoms which lose electrons towards a carbon atom are said to have a +M effect or +R
effect. For example:
—Cl, —Br, —I, —NH2, —NR2, —OH, —OCH3
Negative Resonance Effect (-R effect): Those atoms or groups which draw electrons away from
a carbon atom are said to have a -M effect or -R effect.
For example:

Electromeric Effect (E Effect):

The electrom’eric effect refers to the polarity produced in a multiple bonded compound when it
is attacked by a reagent when a double or a triple bond is exposed to an attack by an electrophile
E+ (a reagent) the two π electrons which from the π bond are completely transferred to one atom
or the other. The electromeric effect is represented as:

The curved arrow shows the displacement of the electron pair. The atom A has lost its share in
the electron pair and B has gained this share. Therefore A acquires a positive charge and B a
negative charge.

Hyperconjugation or No Bond Resonance: When the alkyl group is attached to an unsaturated

system such as —CH=CH2 group the order of inductive effect gets reversed. The behaviour can
be explained by hyperconjugation effect.
Such structures are arrived at by shifting the bonding electrons from an adjacent C —H bond to
the electron deficient carbon. In this way, the positive charge originally on carbon is dispersed to
the hydrogen.
This way of electron release by assuming no bond character in the adjacent C—H bond is called
No-Bond Resonance or Hyperconjugation.

• Orbital Concept of Hyperconjugation

It involues delocalisation of o electrons of C—H bond of an alkyl group which is attached
directly to an atom of unsaturated system or to an atom with an unshared p-orbital.
Let us consider CH3CH2 (ethyl cation) in which the positively charged carbon atom has an empty
p-orbital. One of the C—H bonds of the methyl group can align in the plane of this empty p-
orbital and electron constituting the C—H bond in plane with this p-orbital can then be
delocalised into the empty p-orbital as in Fig.
In general, greater the number of alkyl groups attached to a positively charged carbon atom, the
greater is the hyperconjugation.

• Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds

Detection of Carbon and hydrogen: Put Copper Oxide Test:
The organic substance is mixed intimately with about three times its weight of dry copper oxide.
The mixture is then placed in a hard glass test-tube fitted with a bent delivery tube. The other end
of which is dipping into lime water in another test tube.
The mixture is heated strongly and the following reactions take place.

Thus if carbon is present it is oxidised to carbon dioxide which turns lime water milky. If
hydrogen is also present, it will be oxidised to water droplets on the cooler wall of the test tube.
Detection of other elements
Lassaigne’s test: Nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus present in an organic compound
are detected by ‘Lassaigne’s test’. Covalent compounds are converted into ionic form by fusing
the compound with sodium metal. Following reaction occurs:

Test for Nitrogen:

(i) The substance is heated strongly with sodium metal.
Na + C + N ———–> NaCN
(ii) The water extract of the fused mass is boiled with ferrous sulphate solution

(iii) To the cooled solution is then added a little ferric choride solution and excess of
concentrated hydrochloric acid.

The formation of prussian blue or green colouration confirms the presence of nitrogen.
Test for sulphur:
Sodium Test: Sulphur, if present, in the given organic compound, upon fusion with sodium
reacts to form sodium sulphide

Thus the sodium extract obtained from the fused mass is tested as:
(i) Add freshly prepared sodium nitroprusside solution. A deep violet colouration indicates
sulphur.
(ii) Acidify the portion of the extract with acetic acid and then add lead acetate solution. A black
precipitate of lead sulphide confirms the presence of sulphur.

If nitrogen and sulphur both are present in an organic compound, sodium thiocyanate is formed.
It gives blood red colour and no prussian blue since there are no free cyanide ions.

Test for Halogens

Sodium Test: Upon fusion with sodium, the halogens in the organic compound are converted to
sodium halides.
Cl + Na ——-> NaCl
Br + Na ———> NaBr
I + Na ———>NaI
Acidify a portion of ‘sodium extract’ with dilute nitric acid and add to it silver nitrate solution.
White ppt. soluble in ammonia indicates Chlorine.
Yellow ppt. sparingly soluble in ammonia indicates Bromine.
Yellow ppt. insoluble in ammonia indicates Iodine.
When nitrogen or sulphur is also present in the compound, the sodium extract before testing for
halogens is boiled with strong nitric acid to decompose the cyanide and the sulphite formed
during the sodium fusion. If not removed, these radicals will form a white and black precipitate
respectively on the addition of silver nitrate.
Test for phosphorous
The compound is heated with an oxidising agent (sodium peroxide). The phosphorous present in
the compound is oxidised to phosphate.
The solution is boiled with HN03 and treated with ammonium molybdate. A yellow coloured ppt.
indicates the presence of phosphorous.

• Quantitative Analysis
Estimation of Carbon and Hydrogen
Both carbon and hydrogen are estimated together in one operation. A known weight of an
organic compound is burnt in the presence of excess of oxygen and copper (II) oxide. Carbon
and hydrogen are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water respectively.

The weight of carbon dioxide and water thus formed are determined and the amounts of carbon
and hydrogen in the original substance calculated.

Estimation of Nitrogen
(i) Dumas method: This method is based on fact that the nitrogenous compounds when heated
with copper oxide in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide yield free nitrogen,
The traces of oxides of nitrogen, which may be formed in some cases, are reduced to elemental
nitrogen by passing over heated copper spiral.
Apparatus can be shown as:

(ii) Kjeldahl’s Methods: Kjeldahl’s method is based on the fact that when an organic compound
containing nitrogen is heated with con. H2S04 the nitrogen in it is converted to ammonium
sulphate. The resultant liquid is then treated with excess of alkali and the liberated ammonia gas
absorbed in excess of standard acid. The amount of ammonia is determined by finding the
amount of acid neutralised by back filtration with some std. alkali.
• All organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen as essential constituents.
• In a homologous series two successive members differ in their molecular formula by -CH2 unit.
• Aliphatic Compounds are open chain compounds contain straight or branched chain of carbon
atoms.
• Alicyclic Compounds: Compounds containing closed ring of carbon compounds.
• Aromatic Compounds: Benzene and its derivatives are called aromatic compounds.
• Functional group: A functional group is an atom or group of atoms bonded together in a
unique fashion and which determines the physical and chemical properties of the compounds.
• Homolytic Bond Fission: It leads to the formation of free radicals.
• Crystallisation is used to purify organic solids by dissolving them in suitable solvents.
• Simple distillation is used to purify liquids with non-volatile impurities.
• Steam distillation is used to purify organic compounds which give sufficient vapours at the
boiling of water and are insoluble in water.
• Chromatography is used to purify and separate the constituents from a sample.
• Lassaigne’s test is used to detect carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and halogen in organic compound.
• Dumas or Kjeldahl’s method: Nitrogen is estimated by this method.
• Halogens: Halogens are estimated by Carius method.
• Sulphur and phosphorous: Sulphur and phosphorous are estimated by oxidising them to
sulphuric and phosphoric acid respectively.
• Oxygen: The percentage of oxygen is usually determined by difference between the total
percentage (100) and the sum of the percentages of all other elements present.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes

Filed Under: CBSETagged With: Environmental Chemistry Class 11 Notes
Hydrocarbons Class 11 Notes Chemistry Chapter
13
• Hydrocarbon
A compound of carbon and hydrogen is known as hydrocarbon.
• Saturated Hydrocarbon
A hydrocarbon is said to be saturated if it contains only C—C single bonds.
For example: Ethane CH3—CH3
• Unsaturated Hydrocarbon

• Aromatic Hydrocarbon
Benzene and its derivatives are called aromatic compounds.
Example:

• Alicyclic Compounds
Cyclic compounds which consist only of carbon atoms are called alicyclic or carboeyclic
compounds.

• Heterocyclic Compounds
Cyclic compounds in which the ring atoms are of carbon and some other element (For example,
N, S, or O) are called heterocyclic compounds.

• Alkanes
Alkanes are the simplest organic compounds made of carbon and hydrogen only.
They have the general formula CnHC2n+2 (where n = 1, 2, 3, etc.)
The carbon atoms in their molecules are bonded to each other by single covalent bonds. Since
the carbon skeleton of alkanes is fully saturated’ with hydrogens, they are also called saturated
hydrocarbons. Alkanes contain strong C —C and C —H bonds. Therefore, this class of
hydrocarbons are relatively chemically inert. Hence they are sometimes referred to as paraffins
(Latin parum affinis = little affinity). First three members of this class can be represented as
Structure:

In methane carbon forms single bonds with four hydrogen atoms. All H—G—H bond angles are
of 109.5°. Methane has a tetrahedral structure. C—C and C—H bonds are formed by head-on
overlapping of sp3 hybrid orbitals of carbon and Is orbitals of hydrogen atoms.
• Nomenclature Guidelines
Use the following step-by-step procedure to write the IUPAC names from the structural
formulas. Consider the following structural formula:

Step 1. Identify the longest chain: In the given example, longest chain has seven carbons. The
seven carbon chain is heptane.

Step 2. Number the chain: The chain is numbered from left to right. This gives lowest numbers
to the attached alkyl group.
Step 3. Identify the alkyl group: There are two methyl groups at C-2 and C-3, there is one ethyl
group of C-4.
Step 4. Write the IUPAC name: In this case the IUPAC name is 4-Ethyl-2,3-dimethyl heptane.
Always keep in mind (a) Numbers are separated from each other by commas. (b) Numbers are
separated from names by hyphens, (c) Prefixes di, tri are not taken into account in alphabetising
substituent names.
• Newman Projections
In this projection, the molecule is viewed at the C—C bond head on.
• Relative Stability of Conformations
In staggered form of ethane there are maximum repulsive forces, minimum energy and
maximum stability of molecule. On the other hand, when the staggered form changes in the
eclipsed form the electron clouds of the carbon hydrogen bonds come closer to each other
resulting in increase in electron cloud repulsions, molecule have to possess more energy and thus
has lower stability.
Torsional Angle: Magnitude of torsional strain depends upon the angle of rotation about C—C
bond. This angle is also called dihedral angle or torsional angle.
• Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) in their molecule.
They have the general formula
Structure:
Let us consider (H2C=CH2) for illustrating the orbital make up of alkenes.
In ethylene the carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized- They are attached to each other by a a bond and
a σ bond.
The a bond results from the overlap of two sp2 hybrid orbitals. The π bond is formed from
overlap of the unhybridized p-orbitals. Ethylene is a planar molecule.

Ppints to be noted
(i) The carbon-carbon double bond in alkenes is made up of one σ and one π-bond.
(ii) Alkenes are more reactive than Alkanes. This is due to the availability of n electrons.
• Nomenclature
In IUPAC system
(i) The name of the hydrocarbon is based on the parent alkene having the longest ‘ carbon chain
of which double bond is apart.
(ii) This chain is numbered from the end near the double bond and its position is indicated by the
number of the carbon atom not which the double bond originates,
(iii) The name of the parent alkene with the position number of the double bond is written first
and then the names of other substituents prefixed to it.

(iv) When there are two or three double bonds in a molecule, the ending-one of the
corresponding alkane is replaced by-a diene to get the name.

• Isomerism
Structural Isomerism: Ethene and propene have no structural isomers, but there are three
structures of butenes.
Of these, two are straight chain structures with the difference being in the position of double
bond in the molecules.
These are position isomers and third structure is a branched-chain isomer.
Geometrical Isomerism: It is known that a carbon-carbon double bond is made up of one σ bond
and one π-bond. The π-bond presents free rotation about the double bond.
This presentation of rotation about the carbon-carbon double bond gives rise to the phenomenon
of geometrical isomerism. An alkene having a formula RCH=CHR can have two stereoisomers,
depending upon whether the two alkyl groups are on the same or opposite sides of the double
bond. If they are on the same side, then it is called cis-isomer. If they are on opposite sides, then
it is called trans-isomer.
Due to different arrangement of atoms or groups in space, these isomers differ in their properties
like melting point, boiling point, dipole moment, solubility, etc.

• Alkynes
Alkynes are characterised by the presence of a triple bond in the molecule.
Their general formula is CnH2n-2.
The first and the most important member of this series of hydrocarbons is acetylene, HC=CH,
and hence they are also called the Acetylenes.
Structure: Let us consider ethyne (HC=CH) for illustrating the orbital make up of ethyne. In
ethyne, the carbon atoms are sp hybridized. They are attached to each other by a σ-bond and two
π-bonds.
The σ -bond results from the overlap of two sp hybrid orbitals. The π bonds are formed from the
separate overlap of the two p-orbitals from the two adjacent carbon atoms.
The other sp hybrid orbital of each carbon atom forms a σ bond with another carbon or hydrogen
atom. Ethyne is a linear molecule.
Points to be noted:
(i) The carbon-carbon triple bond in alkynes is made up of one σ and two π bonds.
(ii) Like alkenes, alkynes undergo addition reaction. These reactions are due to the availability of
more exposed π electrons.
• Nomenclature
IUPAC System: The IUPAC names of alkynes are obtained by dropping the ending-ane of the
parent alkane and adding the suffix-yne. Carbon chain including the triple bond is – numbered
from the end nearest this bond. The position of the triple bond is indicated by prefixing the
number of carbon preceding it to the name of the alkyne.

Preparation:
From calcium carbide: Ethyne is prepared by treating calcium carbide with water. Calcium
carbide is prepared as follows:

From vicinal dihalides: When reacted with vicinal dihalides, alcoholic potassium hydroxide
undergo dehydrohalogenation. One molecule of hydrogen halide is eliminated to form alkenyl
halide which on treatment with sodamide gives alkyne.
• Aromatic Hydrocarbons
These hydrocarbons are also known as ‘arenes’. Most of such compounds were found to contain
benzene ring.
Aromatic compounds containing benzene ring are known as benzenoids and those not containing
a benzene ring are known as non-benzenoids. Some examples of arenes are given below.

Nomenclature and Isomerism: Benzene and its homologous are generally called by their
common names which are accepted by the IUPAC system. The homologous of benzene having a
single alkyl group are named as Alkyl benzenes.
Structure of Benzene: By elemental analysis, it is found that molecular formula of benzene is
C6H6. This indicates that benzene is a highly unsaturated compound. In 1865, Kekule gave the
cyclic planar structure of benzene with six carbons with alternate double and single bonds.

The Kekule structure indicates the possibility of two isomeric 1,2-dibromobenzenes. In one of
the isomers, the bromine atoms are attached to the doubly bonded carbon atoms whereas in the
other they are attached to the singly bonded carbon.

In fact, only one ortho-dibromobenzene could be prepared.

To overcome this problem Kekule suggested that benzene was a mixture of two forms.

Failure of Kekule’s structure: Kekule structure of benzene failed to explain the unique stability
and its preference to substitution reaction than addition reactions.
Resonance Structure of Benzene: The phenomenon in which two or more structures can be
written for a substance which involve identical positions of atoms is called resonance. In
benzene’s Kekule’s structures (1) and (2) represent the resonance structures. Actual structure –
of the molecule is represented by hybrid of the these two structures.

Orbital structure of benzene: All six carbon atoms in benzene are sp2 hybridized. The
sp2 hybrid orbitals overlap with each other and with s orbitals of the six hydrogen atoms forming
C—C and C—H σ-bonds.

X-Ray diffraction data indicates that benzene is a planar molecule. The data indicates that all the
six C—C bond length are of the same order (139 pm) which is intermediate between (C—C)
single bond (154 pm) and C—C double bond (133 pm). Thus the presence of pure double bond
in benzene gives the idea of reductance of benzene to show addition reaction under normal
condition. The is, It explains the unusual behaviour of benzene.
Aromaticity: It is a property of the sp2 hybridized planar rings in which the p orbitals allow
cyclic delocalization of π electrons.
Conditions for Aromaticity:
(i) An aromatic compound is cyclic and planar.
(ii) Each atom in an aromatic ring has a p orbital. These p orbitals must be parallel so that a
continuous overlap is possible around the ring.
(iii) The cyclic π molecular orbital (electron cloud) formed by overlap of p orbitals must contain
(4n + 2) π electrons. Where n = integer (0, 1, 2, 3, etc.). This is known as Huckel rule.
Some Examples of Atomic Compounds are given below:
Preparation of Benzene: Benzene is commercially isolated from coaltar. However, there are
some synthetic methods which is applied in the laboratory for the preparation of benzene.

Physical Properties of Benzene:

(i) Benzene is a colourless liquid.
(ii) It is’ insoluble in water. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform etc.
(iii) Benzene itself is a good solvent for many organic and inorganic substances e.g., fat, resins,
sulphur and iodine.
(iv) It bums with a luminous, sooty flame in contrast to alkanes and alkenes which usually bum
with a bluish flame.
Chemical Properties:
Benzene undergeos following types of chemical reactions.
(i) Electrophillic Substitution Reaction
(ii) Addition Reaction
Electrophillic Substitution Reactions:
Benzene on treatment with excess of chlorine in the presence of anhydrous AlCl3 can be
chlorinated to hexachlorobenzene (C6Cl6)

Mechanism of electrophilic substitution reactions:

All electrophilic substitution reactions follow the same three step mechanism.
Setp 1. Formation of an electrophile:
Step 2. The electrophile attacks the aromatic ring to form a carbonium ion.

Step 3. Loss of proton gives the substitution product.

Activating groups: These group activates the benzene ring for the attack by an electrophile.
Example, —OH; —NH2, —NHR, —NHCOCH3, —OCH3 —CH3 —C2H5 etc.
Deactivating groups: Due to deactivating group because of strong —I effect, overall electron
density on benzene ring decreases. It makes further substitution difficult.
Metadirecting group: The groups which direct the incoming group to meta position are called
meta directing groups. Some examples of meta directing groups are —N02, —CN, —CHO, —
COR, —COOH, —COOR, -S03H etc.
Let us consider the example of nitro group: Since Nitro group due to its strong -I effect reduces
the electron density in benzene ring. Nitrobenzene is a resonance hybrid of following structures.
Carcinogenicity and Toxicity: Some polynuclear hydrocarbons containing more than two
benzene rings fused together become toxic and they are having cancer producing property. They
are actually formed due to incomplete combustion of some organic materials like tobacco, coal
and petroleum, etc.
Some of the carcinogenic hydrocarbons are given below.

• Hydrocarbons: They are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only.

Open Chain saturated compound—Alkane
Unsaturated Compound—Alkenes and Alkynes Aromatic Compound—Benzene and its
derivatives Terminal alkynes are weakly acidic in nature.
• Conformation: Spatial arrangements obtained by rotation around sigma bonds.
• Eclipsed Conformation: Less stable because of more repulsion between bond pairs of
electrons.
• Staggered: It is more stable since there is less repulsion between bond pairs of electrons.
• Geometrical isomerism: Observed only in compounds containing a double bond.
• Stability of benzene. Is explained on the basis of resonance hybrid.
• Arenes: Take part in electrophilic substitution reaction.
Aromaticity is determined by Huckle’s rule (4n + 2) rule

Class 11 Chemistry Notes

Filed Under: CBSE
Environmental Chemistry Class 11 Notes
Chemistry Chapter 14
• Environmental Chemistry
It is the branch of science which deals with the chemical changes in the environment. It includes
our surroundings as air, water, soil, forest etc.
• Environmental Pollution
It is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on plants,
animals and human beings.
• Pollutants
A substance, which causes pollution, is known as pollutant. Pollutants can be solid, liquid or
gaseous substances. Present in higher concentration, it can be produced due to human activities
or natural happenings.
• Troposphere
The lowest region of atmosphere, in which the human beings along with other organisms live, is
called troposphere.
It extends to the height of about 10 km from the sea level. It contains air, water vapours, clouds
etc. The pollution in this region is caused by some poisonous gases, smoke fumes, smog etc.
• Stratosphere
It extends from height of 10 to 50 km above the sea level. Ozone and some other gaseous
substances present in this region are responsible for the pollution.
• Tropospheric Pollution
Pollution in this region is caused by the presence of undesirable gaseous particles like oxides of
sulphur, nitrogen and carbon, hydrocarbons along with solid particles like dust, mist, fumes,
smoke etc.
• Oxides of Sulphur
These are produced when coal containing sulphur is burnt.

It is also produced during volcanic eruptions.

Harmful effects:
(i) It is poisonous to both animals and plants.
(ii) A very high concentration of S02 may cause respiratory diseases e.g., asthma,bronchitis,
emphysema in human beings.
(iii) It causes irritation to the eyes, resulting in tears and redness.
(iv) Its high concentration leads to the stiffness of flower buds.
(v) Particulate matter present in the air can catalyse the formation of sulphur trioxide from
sulphur dioxide.
• Oxides of Nitrogen
Main oxides of nitrogen are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Major Sources:
(i) Lightning discharge results in the combination of N2 and 02 to form NO.
(ii) Combustion of gasoline in automobilies, burning of hydrocarbons and coal etc.
Harmful effects:
Nitric oxide itself is not harmful to human beings, but it is very unstable and changes to nitrogen
dioxide which is toxic in nature. These effects are as follows:
(i) It reacts with Ozone (03) present in the atmosphere and thus decrease the density of Ozone.
(ii) It affects the respiratory system and damages the lungs.
(iii) Higher concentrations of N02 damage the leaves of plants and retard the rate of
photosynthesis.
(iv) It causes cracks in rubber.
(v) Nitrogen dioxide is also harmful to various textile fibres and metals.
• Hydrocarbons
Incomplete combustion of fossil fuel in industry and thermal power plants and the exhaust of
automobiles release hydrocarbons into the atmosphere constantly causing pollution. Harmful
Effects:
(i) They cause cancer.
(ii) Methane is one of the greenhouse gases.
(iii) They harm plants in various ways like breakdown of tissues, shedding of leaves etc.
• Oxides of Carbon
Carbon dioxide:
0.03% C02 is present in air by Volume.
Major Sources:
(i) By burning of fossil fuels.
(ii) By the decomposition of limestone during the manufacture of cement.
(iii) Emitted during volcanic eruptions.
(iv) C02 is released into the atmosphere by respiration.
Harmful effects:
Deforestation and burning of fossil fuel increases the C02 level which is mainly responsible for
global warming.
Carbon Monoxide: Carbon Monoxide is a colourless and odourless gas.
Major Sources:
(i) Released by the automobile exhaust.
(ii) Incomplete combustion of coal, fire wood, petrol etc.
(iii) By the dissociation of C02 at high temperature.
Harmful effects:
(i) It binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin which is more stable than oxygen-
haemoglobin complex. Its concentration in blood when reaches to 3-4%, the oxygen carrying
capacity of blood is greatly reduced.
The oxygen deficiency, results into headache, weak eyesight, nervousness etc.
(ii) It has harmful effects on plants when its concentration is (100 ppm or more).
• Global Wanning and Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse Effect:
Some gases like carbondioxide, methane, ozone, water vapours, CFCs have the capacity to trap
some of the heat radiations that are released from the earth or from sun. These gases are known
as greenhouse gases and the effect is called greenhouse effect. This leads to global warming.
Consequences of global warming:
(i) It leads to melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low lying areas all over the earth.
(ii) Global rise in temperature increases the incidence of infectious diseases like dengue, malaria,
yellow fever, sleeping sickness etc.
• Acid Rain
When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6, it is known as acid rain.
Normal rain is slightly acidic due to dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide in water.

Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur released as a result of combustion of fossil fuels dissolve in water
to form nitric acid and sulphuric acid.

Harmful Effects of Acid Rain:

(i) It has harmful effects on trees and plants as it dissolves and washes away nutrients needed for
their growth.
(ii) It has very bad effect on aquatic ecosystem.
(iii) Acid rain damages buildings and other structures made of stone or metal. Taj Mahal in India
has been affected by acid rain.

• Particulate Pollutants
Viable Particulates: They are minute living organisms that are dispersed in the atmosphere.
e.g., bacteria, fungi) moulds, algae etc.
Non Viable Particulates:
(i) Smoke: It is the mixture of solid and liquid particles formed during combustion of organic
matter,
Example: Cigarette smoke, smoke from burning of fossil fuel.
(ii) Dust: Composed of fine solid particles (over 2gm in diameter).
It is produced during crushing, grinding and attribution of solid particles.
(iii) Mist: These are produced due to the spray of liquids like herbicides and pesticides over the
plants. They travel through air and form mist.
(iv) Fumes: They are generally released to the atmosphere by the metallurgical operations and
also by several chemical reactions.
Harmful Effects of Particulate Pollutants:
(i) Fine particles less than 5 microns penetrate into the lungs. Inhalation of such particles can
lead to serious lung diseases including lung cancer.
(ii) Suspended particles of bigger size can hinder the sun rays from reaching the earth surface.
This can lower the temperature of earth and make the weather foggy.
• Smog
This is the common form of air pollution which is combination of smoke and fog.
Smog exists in two types:
(i) Classical Smog: Occurs in cool humid climate. It contains smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide. It
is also called as reducing smog.
(ii) Photochemical Smog: This type of smog result from the action of sunlight on unsaturated
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides released by the vehicles and industries. It has high
concentration of oxidising agents and is therefore, called as oxidising smog.
Formation of Photochemical Smog

Harmful effects of photochemical smog:

(i) It can cause cough, bronchitis, irritation of respiratory system etc.
– To control this type of pollution the engines of the automobiles are fitted with catalytic
converters to check the release of both oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere.
– Some plants like Vitis, Pinus, Juniparus, Quercus, Pyrus can metabolise nitrogen
oxide and therefore, their plantation can be done.
• Stratospheric Pollution
Formation of Ozone: Ozone in the stratosphere is produced by UV radiations. When UV –
radiations act on dioxygen (02) molecules, Ozone is produced.

Ozone is thermodynamically unstable and decomposes to molecular oxygen. Thus there exists an
equilibrium between production and decomposition of Ozone molecules.
Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone blanket in the upper atmosphere prevent the harmful UV
radiations from reaching earth.
But in recent years, there have been reports of depletion of this layer due to presence of ,certain
chemicals in the stratosphere. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrogen oxides, chloride, CCl 4 etc.
are the chemicals responsible for depletion.

Chlorofluorocarbons dissociate in the presence of light gives chlorine free radicals which
catalyse the conversion of ozone into oxygen.
Effects of the depletion of Ozone layer:
(i) This leads to many diseases like skin cancer, sunburn, ageing of skin, cataract etc.
(ii) UV radiations can kill many phytoplanktons, damage the fish productivity.
(iii) It can decrease moisture content of the soil by increasing the evaporation of surface water.
(iv) UV radiations can damage paints and fibres, causing them to fade faster.
• Water Pollution
Presence of undesirable materials in water which is harmful for the human beings and plants is
known as water pollution. Normal properties of the water can be changed by the presence of
these foreign materials.

Causes of Water Pollution:

(i) Pathogens: Pathogens are the bacteria and the other organisms that enter water from domestic
sewage and animal excreta.
Human excreta contain bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis. It causes
gastrointestinal diseases.
(ii) Organic Wastes: Organic matter such as leaves, grass, trash etc. can pollute water.
– Excessive growth of phytoplankton within water also pollute water.
– Large numbers of bacteria in water can consume oxygen dissolved in water by decomposing
organic matter present in water.
– If the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is below 6 ppm, the growth of fish gets
inhibited.
– If too much of organic matter is added to water, all the available oxygen is used up. This can
cause the death of the aquatic life.
• BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)
It is defined as the amount of oxygen required by bacteria for the breakdown of the organic
matter present in a certain volume of a sample of water.
The amount of BOD in water is a measure of the amount of organic material in the water. Clean
water has BOD value of less than 5 ppm.
Highly polluted water could have a BOD value of 17 ppm or more.
• Chemical Pollutants
(i) Industrial Wastes: Chemical reactions carried in the industrial units also pollute water to a
great extent. For example, lead, mercury, nickel, cobalt etc. These chemicals give very bad effect
to the groundwater and waterbodies are polluted due’ to the chemical reactions known as
leaching.
Organic chemicals like petroleum products also pollute many sources of water e.g., major oil
spills in oceans.
(ii) Pesticides: These are mostly chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates and metallic salts
etc. They dissolve in water to small extent and pollute it. Since all the pesticides are toxic in
nature, they are injurious to both plants and animals.
(iii) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBS): These are the chemical compounds used as fluids in
transformers and capacitors. These are released in atmosphere as vapours. They mix with rain
water and thus contaminate the water.
(iv) Eutrophication: The process in which algae like organisms reduce dissolved oxygen in
water is called as eutrophication. It is harmful for aquatic life.
• International Standards for Drinking Water
Fluoride: Concentration of fluoride up to 1 ppm or 1 mg dm-3, is not harmful for human
beings if it is used as drinking water. The F~ ions make the enamel on teeth much harder by
converting hydroxyapatite [3Ca3(P04)2- Ca(OH)2] the enamel on the surface of the teeth, into much
harder fluorapatite, [3Ca3(P04)2- CaF2]. Concentration of F~ above 2 ppm causes brown mottling
of teeth. Excess of fluoride is harmful to bones also.
Lead: Upper limit concentration of lead in drinking water is about 50 ppm. Lead can damage
kidney, lever, reproductive system etc.
Sulphate: At moderate level it is harmless but excess is harmful.
Nitrate: The maximum limit of nitrate should be 50 ppm. Excess nitrate in drinking water can
cause diseases such as methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome).
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Water is treated with K2Cr207 in acidic medium to oxidise
polluting substance which cannot be oxidised by microbial oxidation. The remaining is
determined by back titration with suitable reducing agent.
From the concentration of K2Cr207 consumed, the amount of O2 used in the oxidation is
calculated.
• Soil Pollution—Sources of Soil Pollution
Pesticides: It can be classified as:
(i) Insecticide: The most common insecticides are chlorinated hydrocarbons like DDT, BHC etc.
As they are not much soluble in water, they stay in the soil for long time. They are ‘ absorbed by
the soil and contaminate root crops like radish, carrot etc.
(ii) Herbicides: These are the compounds used to control weeds, namely, sodium chlorate
(NaCl03) and sodium arsenite (Na3As03) are commonly used herbicides but arsenic compounds,
being toxic are no longer preferred.
Fungicides: Organo-mercury compounds are the most common fungicides. Its dissociation in
soil produces mercury which is highly toxic and harmful for the crops. i Industrial Waste: It has
seen that most of the industrial wastes are thrown into water or dumped into the soil. These
industrial wastes contain huge amounts of toxic chemicals which are mostly non-bidegradable.
For example, metal processing industries, mining cement, glass industries, petroleum industry
etc., fertilizer industry produce gypsum.
The disposal of non-biodegradable industrial solid waste is not done by suitable methods i and
cause many serious problems.
Strategies to control environmental pollution:
(i) The improper disposal of wastes is one of the major causes of environmental I degradation.
The management of wastes is very important.
(ii) All domestic wastes should be properly collected and disposed.
• Green Chemistry
Green Chemistry is a way of thinking and is about utilising the knowledge and principles of
chemistry that would control the increasing environmental pollution.
Green chemistry in day-to-day life:
(i) Dry-Cleaning of clothes and laundary: Replacement of halogenated solvent like (CCl 4) by
liquid C02 which is less harmful to groundwater.
Hydrogen peroxide (H202) is used for the purpose of bleaching clothes.
(ii) Bleaching of Paper: In place of chlorine H202 is used for the bleaching of paper,
(iii) Synthesis of Chemicals: Ethahal (CH3CHO) is prepared by step oxidation of ethene. Such as,

• Environmental pollution: It is the effect of undesirable changes in the surroundings that have
harmful effects on plants, animals, and human beings.
• Troposphere: The lowest region of atmosphere which extends up to the height of 10 km from
sea level in which man and other living organism exists.
• Stratosphere: It is above troposhere between 10 to 50 km above the sea level.
• Acid rain: It is caused by the presence of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and C02 in the
atmosphere. The pH of the rain drops below 5.6, and it becomes acidic.
• Greenhouse gases: Some gases like carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, water vapours, CFCs
have the capacity to trap some of the heat radiations from the earth or from the sun. This leads to
global warming.
• Eutrophication: When phosphate ion increases in water it increases the growth of algae which
consume the dissolved oxygen in water consequently aquatic life is adversely affected. This
results in loss of biodiversity and the phenomenon is known as Eutrophication.
• COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand): It is calculated as the amount of oxygen required to
oxidise the polluting substances. It is measured by treating the given sample of water with an
oxidising agent, generally K2Cr207in the presence of dil. H2S04.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes

Filed Under: CBSE