Physics 169

Luis anchordoqui
Kitt Peak National Observatory
Monday, April 16, 18 1
 12.1 Ray Approximation
How Light Works in Geometric Optics
Ray optics

We just learned that light is a wave

Unlike particles + waves behave in funny ways
e.g. + they bend around corners
However + smaller wavelength l is ) weaker funny effects are
l of light is about 100 times smaller than diameter of human hair!
For a long time + no one noticed “wave nature” of light at all
This means that for most physics phenomena of everyday life
we can safely ignore wave nature of light
Light waves travel through and around obstacles
whose transverse dimensions are much greater than wavelength
and wave nature of light is not readily discerned
Under these circumstances + behavior of light
is described by rays obeying set of geometrical rules
This model of light is called ray optics
Ray optics is limit of wave optics
when wavelength is infinitesimally small
Monday, April 16, 18 2
 without transportin
tromagnetic waves propagate any time an electron is

rdoqui (CUNY)
Monday, April 16, 18
Conceptual Physics 10
3
 How Light Works Ray optics

To study more classical aspects of how light travels:

We will ignore time variations + (1014 Hz too fast to notice)

We will assume light travels through a transparent medium
in straight line
Light can change directions in 3 main ways:
1 Bouncing off objects (reflection)
2 Entering objects (e.g. glass) and bending (refraction)
3 Getting caught and heating the object (absorption)

In other words
We consider that light travels in form of rays
Rays are emitted by light sources
and can be observed when they reach an optical detector
We further assume that optical rays propagate in optical media
To keep things simple + we will assume that media are transparent
Monday, April 16, 18
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Conceptual Physics 10-3-2017 8 / 204
 12.2 Fermat’s Principle
When light ray travels between any two points
its path is one that requires smallest time interval

How Light Works Ray optics

When ray of light traveling through transparent medium

encounters boundary leading into another transparent medium
part of energy is reflected and part enters second medium

Ray that enters second medium

Obvious consequence
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) of this principle:
Conceptual
is bent Physics
at boundary and is said to be refracted 10-3-2017 18 / 20
paths of light rays traveling in homogeneous medium are straight lines
because
Incident ray,straight line
reflected ray, andisrefracted
shortestray alldistance
lie in samebetween
plane two points

Monday, April 16, 18 5

 medium, part of the incident light is
The ray approximation and the assumption that ! "" d are used in this ch
and in Chapter 36, both of which dealbeam of light incident
with geometric on aapproxima
optics. This smooth,
12.3 Reflection rays prisms,
very good for the study of mirrors, lenses, are parallel to eachoptical
and associated other,instrum
as
When light ray
suchtraveling in medium
as telescopes, encounters
cameras, reflected
with another ray
and eyeglasses. is in the plane perpendic
medium
part of incident light is reflected

Reflection of35.4 Reflection

light from smooth surface is called specular reflection

When a light ray traveling in one medium encounters a boundary with an

medium, part of the incident light is reflected. Figure 35.5a shows several ray
Reflected rays are parallel to each other as indicated in ☛
beam of light incident on a smooth, mirror-like, reflecting surface. The refl
rays are parallel to each other, as indicated in the figure. The direction
reflected ray is in the plane perpendicular to the reflecting surface that contai
(a)
Reflection from rough surface is known as diffuse reflection

If reflecting surface is rough

surface reflects rays not as a parallel set
Courtesy of Henry Leap and Jim Lehman
but in various directions as shown in ☛

(a) Normal (b)

Surface behaves as smooth surface
Incident Reflected
if surface variations are much smaller than
raywavelength of incident
ray light
Monday, April 16, 18 6
Difference between these two kinds of reflection
explains why it is more difficult to see while driving on a rainy night
If road is wet ☛ smooth water surface
specularly reflects most of your headlight beams away from your car
(and perhaps into eyes of oncoming drivers)
When road is dry ☛ its rough surface
diffusely reflects part of headlight beam back towards you
allowing to see highway more clearly

We’ll concern ourselves only with specular reflection

and use term reflection to mean specular reflection
Monday, April 16, 18 7
 Law of reflection

Consider light ray traveling in air and incident at angle on flat smooth surface

Incident and reflected rays make angles ✓1 and ✓10 with respect to normal

Normal
Incident Reflected
ray ray

Experiments and theory show that

θ1 θ 1′
angle of reflection equals angle of incidence

✓10 = ✓1

(Normal is a line drawn perpendicular to surface at point where incident ray strikes surface)

Monday, April 16, 18

incident ray. Reflection of8 l
 normal.
ray is bent If the the
away from ray normal.
moves from a material in which light moves slowly to a material in
The which it moves more rapidly, as illustrated in Figure 35.11b, ! 2 is greater than ! 1, and the
12.4 Refraction behavior of light as it passes from air into another substance and then re-
ray is bent away from the normal.
emerges into air is often a source of confusion to students. When light travels in air,
The behavior of light as it passes from air into another substance and then re-
emerges into air is often a source of confusion to students. When light travels in air,
When light ray traveling in medium encounters with another medium
part of energy is reflected and part enters second medium

Incident Normal Reflected

ray Incident Normal rayReflected
ray ray
A !! "
"
A
θ 1′ %%
θ1 θ 1′
θ1

Air Air v1 v1
Glass Glass v2 v2

Henry Leap and Jim Lehman

Henry Leap and Jim Lehman

θ2 θ2 ## $
$
B
B
Refracted
Refracted ray
ray
(a) (b)
Figures link
6.com, vary
nk (a)
Active Figure (b)
35.10 (a) A ray obliquely incident on an air–glass interface. The re-
yandRay
see Active
the fracted35.10
Figure ray is bent
(a) toward
A ray the normalincident
obliquely because von v 1.air–glass
2 #an All rays and the normal
interface. Theliere-
in
cted and that enters
the samesecond
plane. (b)medium is bent
Light incident on theat boundary
Lucite block bends and
bothiswhen
saidit enters
to betherefracted
he fracted ray is bent toward the normal because v 2 # v 1. All rays and the normal lie in
block and when it leaves the block.
the same plane. (b) Light incident on the Lucite block bends both when it enters the
Incident ray, reflected ray, and refracted ray all lie in same plane
block and when it leaves the block.
Monday, April 16, 18 9
 How Light Works Ray optics

Light only travels at c ' 3 ⇥ 108 m/s in vacuum

In materials + it is always slowed down
Index of refraction + how fast light travels through material
speed of light (in vacuum)
index of refraction = n =
speed of light (in medium)
The bigger the n + the slower the light travels

L.April
Monday, A. Anchordoqui
16, 18 (CUNY) Conceptual Physics 10-3-2017 910
/ 20
 The behavior of light as it pa
emerges into air is often a source

Angle of refraction ✓2
depends on properties of two media and on angle of incidence

Incident Normal Reflected

ray ray
speed of light in second medium
A
sin ✓2 v2 θ 1′
θ1
= = constant
sin ✓1 v1 v1
Air
Glass v2
speed of light in first medium
θ2

B
Refracted
ray
Path of a light ray through a refracting surface is reversible
At the Active Figures link (a)
For example ☛ rayatshown in figure travels
http://www.pse6.com, from point
vary A toFigure
Active point35.10
B (a) A ray oblique
the incident angle and see the fracted ray is bent toward the normal b
If ray originated ateffect
B ☛on it the reflected
would traveland theline
to left along same
BAplane. (b) Light
to reach incident
point A on
refracted rays. block and when it leaves the block.
and reflected part would point downward and to left in glass
Monday, April 16, 18 11
 ownward and to the left in the glass.
θ1 > θ2 θ1 < θ2
Behavior
v
θ
1 of light as it passes v θ
from air into another substance
1 1
1

ick Quiz
Air 35.2 If beam ! is the incoming
Glass
and re-emerges into air is often source of confusion
beam in Figure 35.10b, which
e other Glass
four red lines are reflected beams and
Airwhich are refracted
v 2 >beams?
v1

When light θ travels in air its speed

v <v
2
2 θ
is 3.00 ⇥ 108 m/s
1 2
At the Active Figures link
but this 8
inferspeed
that when is
lightreduced
moves from ato ⇥ its10
⇡ in2which passes m/s when
layers oflight enters block of glass
at http://www.pse6.com, light
m Equation 35.3, we can material through three
s high to a material material. You can vary the
(a)in which its speed is lower, as shown (b)in Figure 35.11a, the angle
incident angle and see the
action is less(a)than the angle of moves
incidence , and the ray isslows
bent toward the
When
ive Figure
. Ifonthe
wn
! 2 35.11
ray the
entering moves
light
When
glass from
re-emerges
the
and its a
light
path
beam
material
from
in which
is bent toward
into
! 1into
air
light (b)
the normal.
air
glass,
moves
the light
Whenslowly
the beam
effect on the refracted rays for
to a material in
a variety of values of the index
8
ves from glass
t moves moreintorapidly,
y from the normal.
air, the light
its speed instantaneously
speeds up oninentering
as illustrated Figurethe air and!its path
35.11b, 2 is increases
is bent than ! , and the
greater 1 to its original value
of refraction (page 1104) of the
three materials.
of 3.00 ⇥ 10 m/s
ent away from the normal.
e behavior of light as it passes from air into another substance and then re-
es into This
air is is
often far different
a source of confusion from whatWhen
to students. happens
light travels when
in air, bullet is fired through apple

In this case speed of bullet is reduced as it moves through apple

speed is 3.00 ! 108 m/s, but this speed is reduced to approximately 2 ! 108 m/s
en the light enters a block of glass. When the light re-emerges into air, its speed
because some of its original energy is used to tear apart apple fiber
tantaneously increases to its original value of 3.00 ! 108 m/s. This is far different
m what happens, for example, when a bullet is fired through a block of wood. In S E C T I O N 3 5 . 5 • Refraction 1103
Normal Reflected
s case, the speed of the ray bullet is reduced as it moves through the wood because
When bullet enters air once again it emerges at speed it had just before leaving apple
me of its original energy is used to tear apart the wood fibers. When the bullet
ers the air once again, it emerges at!the speed it had just " before leaving the
ck of wood.θ ′
%
To see
1
θ 1 why light behavesNormal as it does, consider Figure 35.12, which represents Normala
am of light entering a piece of glass from the left. Once inside the glass, the light
y encounter an electron v1 bound to an atom, indicated as point A. Let us assume
t light is absorbed by v2 the θ
1 > θ 2this causes the electron to oscillate (a detail
atom; θ1 < θ2
Henry Leap and Jim Lehman

resented v 1by the double-headed vertical arrows). The # oscillating electron

$ then
θ2
s as an antenna and θradiates
1 the beam of light toward an atomv 1at B, where θ 1the
ht is again absorbed. The details of these absorptions and radiations are best
B
plained in Airterms of quantum mechanics (Chapter 42). For now, it is sufficient to
Glass
Refracted
nk of light passing from one atom to another through the glass. Although light
vels from Glass ray
one glass atom to another at 3.00 ! 108 m/s, the Air absorption and v2 > v1
iation that(a) take place cause the average light speed through (b)the material to fall to
v2 < v1 θ
Figure
out 2 !35.10 8
10 m/s.(a) A Once θ
ray obliquely
the 2lightincident
emergesoninto an air–glass interface. The
the air, absorption radiation 2
andre-
ray is bent
se and thetoward
speed of thethe
normal
light because
returns to # voriginal
v 2 the 1. All rays and the normal lie in
value. At the Active Figures link
e plane. (b) Light incident on the Lucite block bends both when it enters the at http://www.pse6.com, light
nd when it leaves the block.
passes through three layers of
material. You can vary the
Monday, April 16,(a)
18 (b)
incident angle and see the 12
 travels
As light from one one
travels from medium
medium toto another, its frequency does n
another From this definition, we see that
ts wavelength does. itsTofrequency
see why doesthis
not is so, but
change
numberconsider Figure
its wavelength
greater than 35.1
unity does
because
n observer
Waves pass at pointatApoint
observer in Amedium
in medium 1 withcertain
1 with a tocertain
unity for frequency
frequency and ao
vacuum. The indices
in Tablemedium
and are incident on boundary between 35.1. 1 and medium 2
As light travels from one me
change but its wavelength does.
n1 = c
v1 Waves pass an observer at point A i
λ1
efractiona A Table 35.1
1 v1
2 Indices of Refractiona
Index of λ2 v2 Index of
B
Refraction Substance Refraction
Index of
Substance Refraction
n2 = c
v2
C Liquids at 20°C
Solids at 20°C
Frequency with which Figure
waves 35.14
pass As a wave moves
observer at point B in Cubic
medium 2
zirconia 2.20
a 2.20 from medium 1 to Benzene
medium 2, its
Diamond (C) 1.501 2.419
must
wavelength changes butequal
its frequency at which they pass point A
2.419 Carbon
frequency remains constant. disulfide
If this were not the case energy would be piling up Fused
Fluorite (CaF2) 1.628
at boundary ☛
1.434
SECTION
quartz (SiO2) (E =1.458
hf )
2) Because relationship
1.434 Carbon tetrachloride Gallium phosphide1.461 3.50
v = f must be valid in both media
t on the
(SiO 2) boundary1.458
between medium 1 and Ethylmedium 2. The
alcohol frequency
Glass, crown 1.361with 1.52
f1 observer
he waves pass an = f2 =atfpoint ☛ B f 1 and
v1in=medium v2 equal
2 must =Glass,
f the2 frequency
flint 1.66
phide 3.50 Glycerin Ice (H O) 1.473 1.309
h they pass point A. If this were not the case,
Because v1 then
6= venergy
2 would be
it follows
2 piling1up
that 6
= 2 1.49
1.52 Water Polystyrene
boundary. Because there is no mechanism for this to occur, the frequency 1.333
Monday, April 16, 18 Sodium chloride (NaCl) 1.54413
a constant as a light ray passes from one medium into another. Therefore,
 Relationship between index of refraction and wavelength

1 v1 c/n1 n2
= = =
2 v2 c/n2 n1
This gives ☛ 1 n1 = 2 n2

If medium 1 is vacuum (or for all practical purposes air) then ☛ n1 = 1

vacuum
How Light Works Ray optics
Index of refraction of any medium ☛ n =
Summary of reflection and refraction
n
Because ☛ n > 1, n <

If we replace v2 /v1 in refraction angle relation with

n1 /n2
Snell’s law of refraction ☛ n1 sin ✓1 = n2 sin ✓2
Monday, April 16, 18 14
 point I behind the mirror. Point I i
of the system under study, we alway
12.5 Images Formed by Flat Mirrors
36.1 Images For
to a point at which they intersect
which rays of light actually dive
diverge. Because the rays in Figure
Images are classified as real or virtual
q behind the mirror, this is the loc
Real image ☛ formed when light rays image distance.
We begin by considering
pass through and
Images are classified as real or v
diverge fromand
pass through image point
diverge from th
point source of light placed
the light rays do not pass throug
Virtual image ☛ formed when light rays from that point. The image formed
The image
don’t pass through distance p is called th
of an object seen in a flat mirror is
point
butreflected
only appear tofrom thethat
diverge from mirror
point

Image of object seen in flat mirror apart).

is always The
virtual dashed lines in
p q

point of intersection at I. T
O I

point I behind the mirror.

of the system under study,m Fi

Mirror pe
to a point
Real images can be displayed on screen (e.g. movie) at which they di
th

but virtual
H A P T E R 3 6 • Image Formation
which rays
images cannot be of light
displayed actua
on screen
Monday, April 16, 18 15
 r in front of the mirror would trace the two reflected rays back to
y appear to have originated, which is point P! behind the mirror. A
Properties of images of extended objects formed by flat mirrors
rocess for points other than P on the object would result in a virtual
There are infinite number of choices of direction
y a yellow arrow) behind the mirror.
in which lightBecause triangles
rays could PQR
leave each and
point on the object
PQ " P !Q. We conclude that the image formed by an object
we need only two rays to determine where image is formed
flat mirror is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front
One ray starts at P 1128
follows horizontal
C H A P T E R 3 6 •path mirror and reflects back on itself
ImagetoFormation

veals thatray
Second the object
follows height
oblique path hPequals the image
R and reflects height
according h!.ofLet
to law us
reflection
fication M of an image as follows: screen (as at a movie), but virtual im
q
an example of a real image in Sectio
P p Q P′
We can use the simple geometr
Image hheight R h! images of extended objects formed
M! θ " h′
number of (36.1)of direction in w
choices
ObjectObject
height θ
h Image we need to choose only two rays to
rays starts at P, follows a horizontal
nition of the lateral magnification for an image from secondany type ofthe oblique path
ray follows
on is also valid for images
Active Figureformed
36.2 A by lenses,
geometric
reflection.
which we An observer
study in in front of th
An observer in front of mirror would trace two reflected raysatback
the point whichto they
pointappear to ha
at mirror,atMwhich " 1 forconstruction
any image that is used
because to locate
h! " h.
they appear to object
have placed in ☛ which
originated is point of behind mirror
0
the image of an continuation P this process for poin
a flat mirror produces front ofan image
a flat mirror.
0 that
Because hasthe an apparent
image left–right
(represented
0 by a yellow arr
Because triangles Ptriangles
QR andPQR P and
QRP!QR are are
congruent ☛ P Q = P Q
his reversal by standing in front of a mirror con- and raising
P !QR are your right PQ " P !Q. W
congruent,
gruent, " p " " " q " and h " h!.
gure 36.3. The
Image formed by objectimage youplaced
see raises
in frontits ofleft placed
hand.
flat in frontyour
Likewise,
mirror of a flat mirror is
rted on the side opposite At the
your Active
realFigures
part,
is as far link
and ofmirror
a mole
behind the
onmirror.
your right is in front
as object
Monday, April 16, 18 at http://www.pse6.com, you Geometry also reveals that 16 the
on your left cheek.
 ve originated, which is point P! behind the mirror. A
ts other than P on the object would result in a virtual
ow) behind the mirror. Because triangles PQR and
Geometry reveals that object height h equals image height h0
e conclude that the image formed by an object
as far behind
Define themagnification
lateral mirror as the object
M ofisimage
in front
as follows
1128 C H A P T E R 3 6 • Image Formation

object height h equals the image height h!. Let us

an image as follows: screen (as at a movie), but virtual images cannot be d
q
an example of a real image in Section 36.2.
P p Q P′
We canImage
use the height
simple geometry h0in Figure 36.2
Image hheight R h! M =of extended objects formed
images = by flat mirrors. E
θ " h′
number of (36.1)ofheight
Object
choices h light rays cou
direction in which
ObjectObject
height θ
h Image we need to choose only two rays to determine where
rays starts at P, follows a horizontal path to the mirro
ateral magnification for an image from secondany type ofthe oblique path PR and reflects
ray follows
d for Active
images Figureformed by lenses, which
36.2 A geometric
reflection. An observer
we study in in front of the mirror would t
the point at which they appear to have originated, whi
forconstruction
" 1 This that is used to locate
is general definition of lateral magnification
any image because h! " h.
the image of an object placed in continuation of this process for points other than P on
produces
front ofan image
a flat mirror. that
Because has
the an apparent left–right by a yellow arrow) behind the m
image (represented
for image from any type of mirror
standing
triangles inPQR
frontandof a mirror
P!QR are con- and raising your right PQ " P !Q. We conclude that t
P !QR are congruent,
gruent, " p " " " q " and h " h!.
e image you see raises its left hand. placed in frontyour
Likewise, of a flat mirror0 is as far behind the
For flat
At the
mirror
Active M
Figures =
link 1 for
of any
the image because h = h
mirror.
e opposite your real part, and a mole on your right
at http://www.pse6.com, you Geometry also reveals that the object height h e
eek.Monday,
can move the object and see
April 16, 18
define lateral magnification M of an image as follow
17
 point I. They then continue to diverge from I
point I we have a Mirror
real image of the light source
12.6 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors
Center
Spherical mirror has shape of section of
of sphere Mirror

curvature
Concave Mirror
Center of
R curvature
R

C V

C V
Principal
axis

Mirror has a radius of curvature

Principal
R and its center of curvature is (a) point C
1134 C H A P T E R 3 6 • Image Formation axis
Figure 36.9 (a) A concave mirror of radius R. The
principal axis of mirror ☛ line through V and C
the principal axis. (b) A point object placed at O in
of radius R, where O is any point on the principal ax
Convex Mirror surface,Front
forms a real image at I. If the rays diverge fr
Back
(a)
reflect through the same image point.

Figure 36.9 (a) A concave mirror of radius R. The

the principal axis. (b) A Opoint object placed I F
at O C
in
Image in convex of
mirror is virtual
radius R, where O is any point on the principal a
p q

because reflectedsurface,
rays only forms a
appear Figure
to real
originate image
36.13 Formation an at
atofimageimageI. aIf
point
by the
spherical rays
convex diverge
mirror. The image formef
by the real object is virtual and upright.
reflect throughisthe
Image always same uprightimage and smaller
point.than object
Monday, April 16, 18 18
Convex Mirrors
Calculate image distance q
from knowledge of object distance
and radius of curvature R p
By convention these distances are measured from center point V
Consider two rays leaving tip of object Figure 36.10 Rays diverging from
the object at large angles from the
First ray passes through center of curvature C of mirror principal axis reflect from a
spherical concave mirror to
hitting mirror perpendicular to mirror surface andintersect
reflecting back on
the principal axisitself
at
Second ray strikes mirror at V and reflects obeying law of reflection
different points, resulting in a
blurred image. This condition is
Image of tip of arrow is located at point where these twocalledrays
spherical aberration.
intersect

tan ✓ = h/p and tan ✓ = h0 /q

C H A P T E R 3 6 • Image Formation
Negative sign is introduced because image is inverted so h0 is taken to be negative

h
α I θ V
O C α h′ θ
Principal
axis Figure 36.11 The image
formed by a spherical concave
q mirror when the object O lies
outside the center of curvature
R
C. This geometric construction
p is used to derive Equation 36.4.
Monday, April 16, 18 19
 Magnification of image is h0 q
M = =
h p
Two triangles have ↵ as one angle

h h0
tan ↵ = and tan ↵ =
p R R q

h0 R q R q q
= ☛ =
h p R p R p

Simple algebra reduces this to mirror equation

1 1 2
+ =
p q R

If p R ) 1/p ⇡ 0 ) p ! 1 and so q ⇡ R/2

Monday, April 16, 18 20

 36.4 that Mq "! R/2. " # That is, when the object (36.2) is ver
h p
point is halfway between the center of curvature an
We also note from theas
twoshown
triangles in Figure
in Figure 36.1136.12a.
that have The incoming
% as one angle that rays from
When object is very far from mirror h h$
tan % " and tan % " #
image point is halfway between center of curvature and center point on mirror p#R R#q
from which we find that
h$ R#q
"# (36.3)
h p#R
If we compare Equations 36.2 and 36.3, we see that
R#q q
C F
"
p#R p
C F
Image point in this special case is @ focal point
Simple algebra reduces thisF
to
1 1 2
Mirror equation in terms of & " (36.4)
and image distance is focal length f
radius of curvature p q R

Henry Leap and Jim Lehman

This expression is called the mirror equation.
If the object is very far from the mirror—that is, if p is so much greater than R

Henry Leap and Jim Lehman

that p can be said to approach infinity—then 1/p ! C F from Equation
0, and we see
R f the image
36.4 that q ! R/2. That is, when the object is very far from the mirror,

f = point is halfway between the center of curvature and the center point on the mirror,
as shown in Figure 36.12a. The incoming rays from the object are f
R essentially
S E C T I O N 3 6 . 2 • Im
parallel
2 S E C T I O N 3 6 . 2 • Imag

R
(a)

Henry Leap and Jim Lehman

Figure 36.12 (a)(a) Light rays from a distant obje
Focal length is parameter particular to given mirror mirror through the focal point F. In thisS Ecase, th
CTION 36.2
C F
Figure 36.12 (a) Light rays from a distant object
f is the focal length of the mirror. (b) Reflection
and can be used to compare one mirror to another
C F
mirror through the focal point F. Inf this case, the
f is the focal length of the mirror. (b) Reflection o
in this figure because the R source is assum
Mirror equation can be expressed in terms of focal length
inthe
thisimage
figurepoint
because in this special iscase
the source the
assume

Henry Leap and Jim Lehman

(a)
focal
the imagelength
pointf, where
in this special case the fo

Henry Leap and Jim Lehman

C F
Figure 36.12 (a) Light rays from a distant
1 1 1 focal
f
lengththrough
mirror f, where
the focal point F. In this cas
f"
+ = R f
f is the focal length of the mirror. (b) Reflec
p q f R
(a)
Light rays In
fromFigure
f" (b)

in this36.8, the colored beams areistra

enry Leap and Jim Lehman
Figure 36.12 (a)(a) a distant object (p : #) reflect (b)from athe
concave
figure because
mirror through the focal point F. In this case, the image distance q ! R/2 " f, where
source as
Figure 36.12 (a) Light rays mirror
from a distant
the reflects
object
image (p : all
#) three
reflect
point raysinfrom beams
a
fromthis concave to the foca
" f,special
whereare case
f is the focal length of theIn
F.Figure 36.8,
mirror. (b) Reflection ofthe colored
parallel a beams
concave mirror. trave
mirror through the focal point Inf this case, the image distance q ! R/2
Monday, April 16, 18 three
(b)focal beams intersect
length f, whereand the tocolors add
21 is
in this figure because mirror reflects all three beams the focal
f is the focal length of the mirror. Reflection of parallel rays from a concave mirror.
the
R source is assumed to be very far from the mirror. We cal
eQuantity
principal
the rays
asimage
image, Sign toand
locate
Positive
can for
Conventions
shown by the bethe
When image,
used
Mirrors
examples as results
toin1check shown
FigureNegativeby the examples
When
36.15.calculated in Figure
from the mirror 36.15.
and magnifica-
irror 2 1
hen
Object
lems location
tionNegative
Quantity
and
equations.
(p)the locations
When
Object is in
mirror
front
ofPositive
(real
Ray Diagrams for Mirrors
To draw a ray diagram, we need to know the position of the object
of
2
When focal
the mirror’s
object)
Object
of
isNegative
point
mirror
inand
back
(virtual
When of curvature. We then draw
3 center
object) 2
S E C T I O N 3 6 . 2 • Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors

efront
and36.1 three
of Object principal
Object is in rays
back
3 to locate the image, as shown by the examples in Figure 36.15.
mage location (q) location
ined Image (p) is inObject
front ofis in front Image
of isOObject
in backisof in back
3 C I F
eal object) of mirror (virtual object)
mirror (real object) of mirror (virtual object)
n
when
TION Conventions for Mirrorsmirror (real 1image) mirror (virtual image)
front of Image
ions. Image
Table location
36.1 isO(q)
in backImageof is in front of I axisImage
CPrincipal F isOin back of1 C I F
mage height
When (h!)
Negative Image
Whenis upright Image is inverted
eal
gns
antityimage) mirror
Positive (virtual image)
mirror (real image) mirror (virtual image) Front Back
pt at length (f ) Mirror isWhen Negative When
2
Focal Sign Conventions concave
for Mirrors Mirror is convex
eright
of
inand
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Principal
Image
Object axis
is (h!)
isininverted
back Image is upright Principal
Image is inverted 2
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1
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hing
ject
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(reallocation (p) length (f ) (virtual
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front
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Object is in is3 convex
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ncave
Magnification and Mirror
Quantity
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Image is inverted When
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Monday, AprilO16, 18 Front BackI O F C I F (c) C 22

3
 12.7 Images Formed
How Lightby
Works Thin
Ray opticsLenses

Geometry tells us (if walls are parallel) that q2 = q3

This means sin q2 = sin q3
So n1 sin qin = n2 sin q2 = n2 sin q3 = n1 sin qout
This means (compare far left with far right of equation)
sin qin = sin qout + which says qin = qout

θ1

n1

θ2
n2
θ2

n1
θ3 d

Monday, April 16, 18

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) (a)
Conceptual Physics 10-3-2017
23
15 / 20
 mage is
How Light Works Ray optics

What if you have glass with walls that are not parallel?
h" q
M!
This is idea behind lenses !#
h p
ch light rays from an object pass. As with mirrors (Eq.
As light enters + it is bent and rays come out different
Biconvex Convex–
ric construction to show that the lateral magnification concave
depending on where and how they strike
his expression, it follows that when M is positive, the image is upright and
(a)
me side of thelength
Focal lens asofthe object.
optical When M is negative, the image is inverted
system
side of the lens opposite
measures of the
howobject.
strongly system converges or 1145
S E C T I O N 3 6 . 4 • Thin Lenses
diverges
h" q
M ! light !#
h in Figurep 36.27. Note that a converging lens is
hapes are shown

Diagrams For for Thin Lenses

ter than at the edge, whereas a diverging lens is thinner at the center
optical system in air + focal length is distance over which
that
agrams when areMconvenient
is positive, initially thecollimated
for image is (parallel)
locating upright
the images raysformed
and are brought
on by thin to alenses
focus or syst
of Images
object.
es. They
ns through When lightM
whichalso isfrom
help
rays negative,
anclarify the
object pass. our image
As with mirrorsis
sign inverted
conventions.
(Eq. and Figure 36.28 shows such
Lens geometry usually looks complicated
Biconvex (and it
Convex– is!) Plano–
concave Biconcave
nalyze a geometric construction to show that the lateral magnification
he Convex–
forobject.
convex
three single-lens S E C T I O N 3 6 . 4 situations.
• Thin Lenses
but for thin lenses + result
1145
(a) is relatively simple
concave
locate
t a convergingthe lensimage
is of a converging
1
lens (Fig.
1
36.28a and b),1 the following
(b) three
h" q
wn
sesfrom the top
s thinner at the center
M !
h
! ofp thedistance
#
object
object: + image distance = focalFigure
length36.27 Various lens
(a) Converging lenses have
locating
ion,
L. A.
the
it follows that images
when
Anchordoqui
formed
M is positive,
(CUNY)
byisthin
the image uprightlenses
and on or systems
Conceptual Physics tive focal length16and
10-3-2017 / 20 are th
he lens as the object. When M is negative, the image is inverted and
s.our
As withsign
mirrors conventions.
(Eq. Figure 36.28 shows such
Biconcave dia-
Convex– the
e1 is magnification
drawnobject. parallel toConvex–
the principal axis. After being middle.by (b)the
Diverging
concave refracted lens, t
lens opposite the Biconvex Plano– Plano–
lateral concave convex concave
ons. have a negative focal lengt
passes through the focal point on the back side of the lens.
Monday, April 16, 18
for Thin Lenses
(a) (b) 24
 point I, the image point.
Figure 36.19 shows a single ray leaving point O and refracting to point I. S
Images Formed by Refraction
of refraction applied to this ray gives
n sin ! # n sin !
Consider two transparent media having indices of 1refraction1 2
n1 and
2
n2
boundary between
Because ! 1 two
and !media is a spherical
2 are assumed to be small,surface of the
we can use radius
small-angle
R appro
sin ! ! ! (with angles in radians) and say that
n 1! 1 #isn 2n
Object at O is in medium for which index of refraction ! 21

Consider rays leaving Now

O we use the fact that an exterior angle of any triangle equals the sum o
opposite interior angles. Applying this rule to triangles OPC and PIC in Figure 3
all such rays are refracted at spherical surface and !focus at single point I
1 # & $ "

" # !2 $ % image point

n1 < n2

n1 n2
R

O I

Figure 36.18 An image formed

refraction at a spherical surface.
making small angles with the prin
diverge from a point object at O
p q refracted through the image poin
Monday, April 16, 18 25
 Single ray leaving point O and refracting to point I
Snell’s law of refraction applied to this ray gives n1 sin ✓1 = n2 sin ✓2
Because ✓1 and ✓2 are assumed to be small we can use small-angle approximation
n1 ✓ 1 = n2 ✓ 2
S E C T I O N 3 6 . 3 • Image
An exterior angle of any triangle equals sum of two opposite interior angles
S E C T I O N 3 6 . 3 • Images Formed by

n1 P n2
θ1 θ2
n1 P n2
θ1 θ2
d
α β γ
d
O α β Cγ I
O C I
R
p R q
p q
Figure 36.19 Geometry
Applying used
this rule tototriangles
derive Equation 36.8,
andassuming that
givesn1 % n 2.
OP C
Figure 36.19 Geometry used to derive Equation 36.8, assuming that n1 % n 2.
P IC
✓1 = ↵ + = ✓2 +
If we combine all three expressions and eliminate ! 1 and ! 2, we find that
If we combine all three expressions and eliminate ! 1 and ! 2, we find that
Monday, April 16, 18 26
n 1" & n 2$ ' (n 2 ( n 1)# (36.7)
 If we combine all three expressions and eliminate ✓1 and ✓2

n1 ↵ + n2 = (n2 n1 )
In small-angle approximation
tan ✓ ⇡ ✓
d d d
tan ↵ ⇡ ↵ ⇡ tan ⇡ ⇡ tan ⇡ ⇡
p R q

substitute these expressions and divide through by d to give valuable equation

n1 n2 n2 n1
+ = Eq. ($)
p q R

For a fixed object distance p image distance q

is independent of angle that ray makes with axis

Monday, April 16, 18 27

 ommonly used to form I
images
Surface 1
by refractio
Surface 2
2

telescopes,
Thin lenses and microscopes. We can use
O
n

med by refracting surfaces to

p help t
Light passing through a lens experiences refraction at two surfaces
us C locate
1
1

ze that light passing through a lens ex

image formed by one refracting surface serves qas the object for second surface
1

eAnalyze
on development welet thickness
thick lens first and then shalloffollow p
is based
lens be approximately
(a)
2
zero o
n1 = 1 n1 = 1
R1 R2 R1 R2

I1 Surface 1 Surface 2 Surface 1 Surface 2

n n

O O I1
t C1 t C1
p1 p1
p2
q1

p2 q1

(a) (b)
n1Virtual
=1 image Real image
R1 R2
Monday, April 16, 18 28
Surface 1 Surface 2 formed by one refracting surface serves a
Using Eq. ($) and assuming n1 = 1 because lens is surrounded by air
we find that image I1 formed by surface 1 satisfies

1 n n 1
+ =
p1 q1 R1

Apply Eq. ($) to surface 2 taking n1 = n and n2 = 1

Taking p2 as object distance for surface 2 and q2 as image distance gives

n 1 1 n
+ =
p2 q2 R2

Introduce mathematically fact that image formed surface 1 acts as object for 2

Virtual image p2 = q1 + t (q1 is negative)

Real image p2 = q1 + t (q1 is positive)

t ☛ thickness of lens

Monday, April 16, 18 29

 O
R1 R2 For thin lens
(one whose thickness is small compared to radii of curvature)
I we can neglect t
C2 C1
In this approximation
p2 = q1 for either type of image from surface 1
p q
Figure 36.24 Simplified geometry for a thin lens.
If image from surface 1 is real ☛ image acts as a virtual object so p2 is negative
n
where t is the thickness of the lens. For
1 1 n
+a thin lens= (one whose thickness is small
compared to the radii of curvature), q1we canqneglect
2 t. InRthis
2 approximation, we see
that p 2 ! " q 1 for either
n type of image from surface 1. (If the image from surface 1
Substituting
is real, the image acts as from surface
a virtual object, so1 pequation and
2 is negative.) rearranging
Hence, terms
Equation 36.11 gives
becomes q1
1 n 11 1"n ⇣ 1 1 ⌘
"+ $ =
! (n 1) (36.12)
p1 1 q 2 2
q q R2 R1 R2
Adding Equations 36.10 and 36.12, we find that
For a thin lens ☛ we can omit subscripts on q and p
1
p
$
1
q
! (nand
1
! R R " distance
2
1
" 1) call "
1
object
1 2
p and image distance
(36.13) q
1 1 ⇣ 1 36.131and⌘call the
For a thin lens, we can omit the subscripts on p 1 and q 2 in Equation
object distance p and the image distance
+ q,=as (n in Figure1) 36.24. Hence, we can write
Equation 36.13 in the form p q R1 R2
Monday, April 16, 18
1
p
$
1
q
! (n " 1) ! R1
1
"
1
R2 " (36.14) 30
Focal length f of thin lens is image distance
that corresponds to infinite object distance ☛ just as with mirrors

Letting p approach 1 and q approach f

☛ inverse of focal length for thin lens gives

1 ⇣ 1 1 ⌘
Lens makers’ equation ☛ = (n 1)
f R1 R2

If index of refraction and radii of curvature of lens are given

lens makers’ equation enables calculation of focal length

1 1 1
Thin lens equation ☛ + =
p q f

h0 q
Magnification of Images M = =
h p
Monday, April 16, 18 31
 etheback side
lateral of the lens.
magnification
ck side of the lens. concave
(a) convex
q focal point of a converging lens, the image is real, inverted, and on
of! the (a)
heq # lens and continues in a straight
lens
# p theand
backcontinues
theinlens.
side ofRay a straight
(b) When
diagrams forthe object
Thin is between the focal
Lenses
p 1 3
ntM on point
the andside
front a converging
of the lens lens,
(or asthe
if image is virtual,
upright, larger
Back
2
is positive, the image is upright and on 1
n
and the than
front
emerges theside
from object,
of
3 the and
lenson theasfront
(or if side ofF2 the lens.I (c) When an O
positive,
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en Mimage isthe image
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is negative, theandisthe
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and
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ive,
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isimage from
isthe
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the
onandislens
inverted
Oand inverted
1
inand
frontto
Fparallel 2
of a diverging
the
Biconcave Convex–lens, the image is virtual,
Plano– I F1 O
he imageupright,
Biconcave Convex– Plano– concave concave 2
smaller
is inverted and than the object,
Biconcave
concave andConvex–
concave on the front
Plano– side of the lens.
F2 I
Front 3 Convex–
Biconcave
(b)
Plano– (b) concave concave Front
concave Figure concave
36.27 Various
O Figure 36.27 Various F lens shapes. (b) lens shapes. I F
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C H A P T E R 3 6 • Image Formation 1146
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 How Light Works Ray optics

How do you know where objects are? How do you see them?
You deduce direction and distance in complicated ways
but arises from angle and intensity of bundle of light rays
that make it into your eye
Eye is adaptive optical system
Crystalline lens of eye changes its shape to focus light
from objects over a great range of distances

L. A. Anchordoqui
Monday, April 16, 18 (CUNY) Conceptual Physics 10-3-2017 17 / 2033
Monday, April 16, 18 34