Fundamentals of

Research
Dr. P. G. Tadasad
Professor of LIS and Registrar (Evaluation)
Karnataka State kkamahadevi Women’s
University, Vijayapura
[email protected]
 Meaning and Definitions
• Charles Pierce: 4 methods of knowing: Tenacity, Authority,
Intuition, Scientific research
• Etymology: late 16th century: from obsolete French recerche
(noun), recercher (verb), from Old French re- (expressing
intensive force) + cerchier ‘to search’.
• “Studious enquiry or examination especially investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of
facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new
facts or practical applications of such new or revised theories
or laws” (Merrium Webster Dictionary 2013)
Meaning and Definitions
• Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena
(Kerlinger)
• Few definitions: there are many, Bushler, Goode and
Hatt, and many more!!!
• Research, Discovery, Invention, Innovation
Features of Research

• Nature of research:
– Enquiry based on minute observation, critical analysis and
logical interpretation

• Purpose of research :
– Discovery of facts, interpretation of facts, modification of
existing principles and theories and applying existing
principles
– Process of establishing cause and effect relationship
Scientific Method
•Empiricism
•Verifiable evidences
•Precision
•Systematic data collection
•Objectivity
•Recording the observations immediately
•Controlled environment
•Application of logical reasoning
–Deductive
–Inductive
Steps in Scientific Method
• Identification and formulation of research
problem
• Reviewing literature with the research
problem
• Formulation of hypothesis
• Data collection
• Analysis and interpretation of data
Spiral of Scientific Method
Process
• Proposed by Dr. S. R. Ranganathan in 1967
• Nadir
– First step. Identification of research problem
• Ascendent
– Second step. Formulation of hypothesis
• Zenith
– Third stage. Formulation of fundamental laws
• Descendent
– Fourth stage. Testing of hypothesis
• Back to first step
– Restart
Types of Research
• Descriptive Vs Analytical – Development
• Applied Vs Fundamental – Exploratory
– Diagnostic
• Quantitative Vs Qualitative
– Longitudinal
• Conceptual Vs empirical – Feminist
• Primary Vs Secondary – Participatory
• Explanatory Vs Predictive – Simulation
– Decision oriented
• Experimental Vs Non-experimental
– Mission oriented
• Positivistic Vs Post positivistic
– Many more ...
Descriptive Vs Analytical
• Descriptive
– Surveys and fact finding enquiries
– Description of the state of affairs as it exists today
– Ex-post facto research
– Researcher has no control over the variables
• Analytical
– Use facts or information already available and analyse
these to make a critical evaluation of the material
Applied Vs Fundamental
• Applied
– Finding a solution for any immediate problem
facing a society
– Action research
– Studying human behaviour, events needing
solutions
• Fundamental (pure)
– Generalization of facts
– Knowledge for knowledge sake
– Research concerning natural phenomena
Quantitative Vs Qualitative
• Quantitative
– Based on quantitative measurements
– Applicable to phenomena concerned with
magnitude
• Qualitative
– Qualitative phenomena
– Important in behavioural sciences
– Difficult, requires experience
Conceptual Vs Empirical
• Conceptual (Theoretical)
– Related to abstract idea or theory
– Used by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts
• Empirical
– Relies on experience or observation
– Data-based research
– Can be verifiable
– Appropriate when proof is sought
PRIMARY Vs SECONDARY RESEARCH

Primary research
Refers to research that has involved the collection of original data
specific to that particular research project, for example through using
research methods such as questionnaires or interviews.

Secondary research
Refers to research where no such original data is collected, but the
research project uses existing (or secondary) sources of data, for
example census or archive data.
Explanatory Vs Predictive
• Explanatory
– This type of research is involved in explaining why
something happens, and assessing causal relationships
between variables.
• Predictive
– Forecasts future phenomena, based on the
interpretations suggested by explanatory research.
Experimental Vs Non-Experimental
• Experimental
– Always begins with some hypothesis
– Control of extraneous variable
– Cause and effect relationship
– Scope is narrow

• Non-experimental
– No necessity of hypothesis
– Little control over extraneous relationship
– Does not establish cause and effect relationship
– Scope is very broad
Positivistic Vs Post Positivistic
• Positivistic
– Based on the philosophical ideas of French philosopher August Comte.
– Emphasized observation and reason are means of understanding human behavior.
– True knowledge is based on experience of senses and can be obtained by observation
and experiment.
– Verified data (positive facts) received from the senses are known as empirical
evidence.
– Positivism is based on empiricism.
• Post Positivistic
– Advocates methodological pluralism.
– Based on the assumption that the method to be applied in a particular study should be
selected based on the research question being addressed.
Disciplinarities
• Intradisciplinary: working within a single discipline.
• Crossdisciplinary: viewing one discipline from the
perspective of another.
• Multidisciplinary: people from different disciplines working
together, each drawing on their disciplinary knowledge.
• Interdisciplinary: integrating knowledge and methods from
different disciplines, using a real synthesis of approaches.
• Transdisciplinary: creating a unity of intellectual
frameworks beyond the disciplinary perspectives.
Criteria of Good Research
• Systematic
• Logical
• Empirical
• Replicable
Qualities of a good researcher
• Analytical mind
• Ability to stay calm • Quick thinker
• A people’s person • Commitment
• Intelligence • Excellent written and
communication
• Curiosity
• Good listening skills
• Systematic
Problems in doing Research
• Lack of scientific training in the research methodology
• Insufficient interaction between researchers and other stakeholders
• Generating confidence among participants that the data provided by
them will not be misused
• Overlapping research
• No standard code of conduct
• Lack of secretarial assistance
• Lack of support from library and management
• Problem of conceptualization
• Culture, Societal norms, geo-political factors
• Language
• Financial support
Factors to be considered for
selecting a problem
• Avoid the following – Relevance to society
– Subject which is overdone – Original topic
– Subject too new – Should be solvable
– Controversial – Familiar and Feasible topic
– Too Narrow or too vague – Relevant and significant
– Availability of expertise and time
– Within the budget limitations
– Available infrastructure

• Select
What is LR?
• Literature reviews are secondary sources.
• Do not report any new or original experimental work.
• Can be interpreted as a review of an abstract
accomplishment.
• Associated with academic-oriented literature, such as
a thesis, a literature review usually precedes a research
proposal and results section.

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What is LR?
A ‘good’ literature review….. A ‘poor’ literature review is…..

….. is a synthesis of available research …..an annotated bibliography

….. is a critical evaluation ….. confined to description
….. has appropriate breadth and depth ….. narrow and shallow
….. has clarity and conciseness ….. confusing and longwinded
….. uses rigorous and consistent ….. constructed in an arbitrary way
methods

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Why write LR?
 In the context of a research paper on a thesis, the literature
review provides a background to the study being proposed.
 The background may consider one or more of the following
aspects depending on the research question being posed:
 Theoretical background – past, present or future
 Clinical practice – previous or contemporary
 Methodology and/or research methods
 Previous findings
 Rationale and/or relevance of the current study

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 Purpose of LR?
 Its purpose is to:
 Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the
subject under review
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration
 Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort
 Point the way forward for further research
 Place one's original work (in the case of theses or dissertations) in the context of
existing literature

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Organizing the body
 Create an organizational method to focus this section even further.
 To help you come up with an overall organizational framework for your review,
consider the six typical ways of organizing the sources into a review:
 Chronological
 By publication
 By trend
 Thematic
 Methodological
 Questions for Further Research

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Hypothesis
• Formulate a tentative explanation or solution of that problem in the
form of a proposition
• Hypo= Less than; Thesis = Generally held view
• Prediction
• Sources for hypothesis formulation
– Existing theory related to the proposed problem
– Previous reports of research
– Beliefs of others
– One’s own belief’s
Hypothesis ...
• Advantages
– Builds researchers confidence in his/her results
– Sound hypothesis gives direction to the enquiry
– Good hypothesis enriches theory

• Good hypothesis
– Must provide tentative answer to the proposed problem
– Should be operational
– Should be simple
– Should be specific
– Must always be stated in advance of collecting evidence
Types of Hypothesis ...
• Descriptive hypothesis
– Those propositions which tentatively state the existence, size, form, or distribution of
some variable, subject to verification by research
• Relational hypothesis
– Those propositions which state the relationship between two variables
• Null Hypothesis
– Hypothesis in a research is generally expressed in the form of a null hypothesis
– Hypothesis of no difference
– Formulated for the express purpose of being rejected; If rejected alternative hypothesis
may be accepted
– Alternative hypothesis = operational statement of experimenter’s research hypothesis
Few sample questions…
1. Which of the following is NOT the characteristic of a
research?
(A) Research is systematic
(B) Research is not a process
(C) Research is problem oriented
(D) Research is not passive
2. Which of the following statement is correct?

(A) Discoveries are researches

(B) Researches lead to discovery

(C) Invention and Research are related (

D) None of the above

3. Read the following differences between research and Discovery…..
I. Research is systematic but discovery is not systematic.
II. Research can be conducted by one researcher while discovery involves team
of researchers.
III. Research is problematic in nature but discovery is not so.
IV. Research is conducted by following well defined and sequenced steps while it
is not so in the case of discovery.
Of these the correct differences are:
• (A) I, III and IV (B) I and III
• (C ) II and IV (D) II, III and IV
4. Which of the following options are the main tasks of
research in modern society?
(I) to keep pace with the advancement in knowledge.
(II) to discover new things.
(III) to write a critique on the earlier writings.
(IV)to systematically examine and critically analyze the
investigations/sources with objectivity.

(A) IV, II and I (B) I, II and III (C) I and III (D) II, III and IV
5. What do you consider as the main aim of inter disciplinary research?

(A) To bring out holistic approach to research.

(B) To reduce the emphasis of single subject in research domain.
(C) To over simplify the problem of research.
(D) To create a new trend in research methodology.
6. One of the aims of the scientific method in research is to :
(A) improve data interpretation
(B) eliminate spurious relations
(C) confirm triangulation
(D) introduce new variables
THANK YOU