Current Electricity

Due to circular motion of a charge

Current produced by motion of uniformly charged thin sheet

Current produced by motion of uniformly charged volume charge

 In a conductor, valence band
and conduction band overlap
each other as shown in figure.
Therefore, there is no forbidden
gap in a conductor

Metals such as copper, silver,

iron, aluminum etc . are good
conductors of electri city.

The forbidden gap between the valence band

and con duction band is very large in
insulators. The energy gap of insulator is
greater th an 3 electron volts (eV).

Rubber, wood, diamond, plastic

are some examples of insulators.

In semiconductors, the forbidden gap

between valence band and conduction
band is very small. It has a forbidden
gap of about 1 electron volt (eV).

Silicon, germanium and graphite a re

some examples of semiconductors.
Behaviour of conductor in the absence of potential difference

The small dots represent the free

electrons and the red arrows
represent the random thermal
motion of the electrons
Behaviour of a conductor in the presence of external potential difference
 The last result shows that the electrons move with an average velocities which is
independent of time, although the electrons are accelerated. This is the
phenomenon of drift and this average velocity of the electrons in the presence of
external electric field is called d rift velocity.
Note: The electron drift speed is estimated to be only a few mm/s but currents in the
range of a few amperes established almost instantaneously because electric field is
established throughout the circuit, almost instantly with the speed of light causing at
every point a local electron drift. Establishment of current does not have to wai t for
electrons from one end of the conductor travelling to the other end. However , it does
take a little while for the current to reach its steady state value.
Note: Each ‘free’ electron does accelerate, increasing its drift speed until it collided
with a positive ion of the metal. It loses its drift speed after collision but starts to
accelerate and increases its drift speed again only to suffer a collision again and so on.
On the average, therefore, electrons acquire only a drift speed. Therefore electrons
attain drift speed even when they are accelerated by electric field.

Note: The electron drift speed is so small, and the electron’s charge is s mall but we still
obtain large amounts of cu rrent in a conductor because the electron number density is
of the order of
Note: Electrons drift in a metal from lower to higher potential, it doesn’t mean that all
th e ‘free’ electrons of the metal are moving in the same direction. Because the drift
velocity is superposed over the large random velocities of electrons.

Note: In the absence of electric field path of the electrons

between two consecutive collisions is a straight line. But
in the presence of an electric field path of th e electrons
are generally curved.

Relation between current and drift velocity

 If current density is uniform, then

Ohm’s Law
 Resistance of a Conductor :

Resistance R of a conductor depends on the following factors:

(a) Length ‘l’ of the conductor: R ∝ l, That is, resistance of conductor varies directly as
its length.

As potential difference is applied across the two ends, free electrons move from the
end at lower potential to the end at a higher potential. In this process they collide
against each other and undergo retardation. A greater length of conductor results in
greater number of collisions, thereby producing greater retardation and hence
greater resistance.

(b) Area of cross-section ‘A’: R∝1/A. Resistance of a conductor varies inversely as its
area of cross-section.

For a conductor having greater area of cross-section, more free electrons cross that
section of conductor in one second, thereby giving a large current. A large current
means a lesser resistance.

Combining the two factors together, we get

Since
Mobility
Conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers. In metals, these mobile charge carriers are
are electrons; in an ionised gas, they are electrons and positive charged ions; in an
electrolyte , these can be both positive and negative ions.
An important quantity is the mobility µ defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity
per unit electric field
We have,

So,
Some materials like Nichrome (which is an alloy of nickel, iron and chromium) exhibit a
very weak dependence of resistivity with temperature. Manganin and constantan have
similar properties. These materials are thus widely used in wire bound standard resistors
since their resistance values would change very little with temperatures.

Unlike metals, the resistivities of semiconductors decrease with increasing temperatures.

A typical dependence is as shown in figure.
 We have the temperature dependence of resistivity of conductors,

ρ thus depends inversely both on the number n of free electrons per unit volume and on
the average time τ between collisions. As we increase temperature, average speed of the
electrons, which act as the carriers of current, increases resulting in more frequent
collisions. The average time of collisions τ, thus decreases with temperature.
In a metal, n is not dependent on temperature to any appreciable extent and thus
the decrease in the value of τ with rise in temperature causes ρ to increase as we have
observed.
For insulators and semiconductors, however, n increases with temperature. This increase
more than compensates any decrease in τ, so that for such materials, ρ decreases with
temperature.
 LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW
Although Ohm’s law has been found valid over a large class of materials, there do exist
materials and devices used in electric circuits where the proportionality of V and I does
not hold. The deviations broadly are one or more of the following types:
(a) V ceases to be proportional to I
(b) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. In other words,if Iis the current
for a certain V, then reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude fixed, does not
produce a current of the same magnitude as I in the opposite direction.
(c) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V for
the same current I. A material exhibiting such behaviour is GaAs.
Resistance of a spherical shell of conductor
A
 Electric Power and Energy
Consider a conductor with end points A and B, in which a current I is flowing from A to B. The
electric potential at A and B are denoted by V(A) and V(B) respectively. Since current is flowing
from A to B, V(A) > V(B) and the potential difference across AB is V = V(A) – V(B) > 0.
In a time interval Δt, an amount of charge ΔQ = I Δt travels from A to B.
The potential energy of the charge at A, by definition, was Q V(A) and
similarly at B, it is Q V(B). Thus, change in its potential energy ΔU is

If charges moved without collisions through the conductor, their kinetic energy would also
change so that the total energy is unchanged. Conservation of total energy would then imply
that,
Thus, in case charges were moving freely through the conductor under the action of electric
field, their kinetic energy would increase as they move. We have, however, seen earlier that on
the average, charge carriers do not move with acceleration but with a steady drift velocity.
This is because of the collisions with ions and atoms during transit. During collisions, the
energy gained by the charges thus is shared with the atoms. The atoms vibrate more
vigorously, i.e., the conductor heats up. Thus, in an actual conductor, an amount of energy
dissipated as heat in the conductor during the time interval Δt is,

as the power loss (“ohmic loss”) in a conductor of resistance R carrying a current I. It is this
power which heats up, for example, the coil of an electric bulb to incandescence, radiating
out heat and light.

We need an external source to keep a steady current

through the conductor. It is clearly this source which
must supply this power. In the simple circuit shown
with a cell it is the chemical energy of the cell which
supplies this power for as long as it can.

Consider a device R, to which a power P is to be

delivered via transmission cables having a resistance
Rc to be dissipated by it finally.
If V is the voltage across R and I the current through
it, then P = VI
The connecting wires from the power station to the
device has a finite resistance Rc.
The power dissipated in the connecting wires, which
is wasted is Pc with,
Thus, to drive a device of power P, the power wasted in the connecting wires is inversely
proportional to . The transmission cables from power stations are hundreds of miles long
and their resistance Rc is considerable. To reduce Pc, these wires carry current at enormous
values of V and this is the reason for the high voltage danger signs on transmission

Power Relations

The SI unit of electric power is same as for any kind of power, the watt (W). 1W = 1J/s.
 COMBINATION OF RESISTORS

equivalent resistance is greater than the maximum value of resistance in the combination

Series c ombination is ca lled voltage divider circuit

Parallel combination is called current divider circuit
Example:
For a n ideal cell internal resistance is ze ro.
 Power is maximum when, Is minimum, therefore

Thus,

Thus generally power transferred to the external circuit is maximum, when external resistance
is equal to the internal resistance. This is called “maximum power transfer theorem “
Note:
Example:
In the circ uit shown,
 external

When m cells are wrongly con nected, equ ivalent EMF = ( n - 2m ) E

Parallel Combination of Cells

For n cells in parallel combination

m identical cells in parallel combination

( in external circuit )
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
The arrangement of four resistors in the circuit shown is called the Wheatstone bridge. The
bridge has four resistors . Across one pair of diagonally opposite points (A
and C in the figure) a source is connected. This (i.e., AC) is called the battery arm. Between the
other two vertices, B and D, a galvanometer G (which is a device to detect currents) is
connected. This line shown as BD in the figure, is called the galvanometer arm. For simplicity,
we assume that the cell has no internal resistance.

Generally a current will flow through the galvanometer,

but in a balanced Wheatstone-Bridge current through
galvanometer is zero.
When current current through galvanometer (Ig) is
zero, the currents I

From Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loops ADBA and

CBDC. For first loop,
 For the second loop

Therefore

From the above equations, the ratio of the resistors is

This last equation relating the four resistors is called the balance condition for the
galvanometer to give ze ro or null deflection.
The Wheatstone bridge and its balance condition provide a practical method for
determination of an unknown resistance
In the given situation the unknown resistance

At balancing condition potentials at points B and D are equal I.e.

. On mutually changing the position of cell and galvanometer balancing condition will not
change.
• The bridge is most sensitive when the resistance in all the four branches of the bridge is of
same order.
. The measurement of resistance by Wheatstone bridge is not affected by the internal
resistance of the cell.
If the temperature of the conductor placed in the right gap of metre bridge is increased, then
the balancing length decreases and the jockey moves towards left.
The percentage error in R can be minimised by adjusting the balance point near the
middle of the bridge,
Note:

Balancing condition is independent of t he resistance connected in series to the galvanometer. Because at balancing
condition current through this resistance is zero.

To obtai n balancing length primary EMF must be greater than the secondary E MF.
The potentiomete r has the advantage that it draws no current from the voltage sourc e being measured. As such it is
unaffected by the internal resistance of the sourc e.
Nodal Method of Circuit Analysis

Example:
The resistances and batteries are connected as shown in
the figure. Find out the potential at point A.
Answer:
Example:

Answer:
 Example:

Solution:

Example:
Example:
2
 3

The points of same potential can be found out by symmetry techniques. The most
common symmetry are

Parallel axis of symmetry

Perpendicular axis of symmetry
Shifted symmetry or assymmetry
Path symmetry

Parallel axis of symmetry

This symmetry is along the direction of current flow.
About this axis, all characteristics such as current and potential should be symmetrical.
Points lying along the parallel axis of symmetry can never have same potential.
The network can be folded about the parallel axis of symmetry, and the overlapping
nodes have same potential.
Perpendicular Axis of Symmetry
It is perpendicular to the direction of current. Here circuit diagram is symmetric except
for the fact that the input and output are reversed.
Points lying on the perpendicular axis of symmetry may have same potential.

Path Symmetry
According to path symmetry, if all the paths from one point to another point have the same
configuration of resistance or capacitance, then the charge or current into the beginning of
the path must be same.

Example:
Find out the effective resistance between M and N
A

B
Example:

The circuit has perpendicular axis

of symmetry. Thus the circuit can
be redrawn as shown

Example:
Resistance across B and C
 Example:

From symmetry Answer:

B
2, 8, 4

2, 4, 8
 Example

Example:

Example

Solution:

Solu tion:
Example:
Find out the effective resistance between A and B