A Psychology Toolbox: Creative Activities

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ISBN: 978-1-941804-73-5

Suggested Reference Format

We suggest the overall text be referenced in this fashion:

Beyer, A., & Cerniak, J. (Eds.). (2023). A psychology toolbox: Creative class activities
that support students’ growth and development. The Society for the Teaching of
Psychology. https://teachpsych.org/ebooks/psytoolbox

Individual chapters may be referenced in this fashion:

Lighter, R. (2023). Setting the tone. In A. Beyer & J. Cerniak (Eds.), A psychology
toolbox: Creative class activities that support students’ growth and development.
The Society for the Teaching of Psychology. https://teachpsych.org/ebooks/psytoolbox
3

Table of Contents

Introduction to the Book…………………………………………………………….………...….…5

Alisa Beyer & Jessica Cerniak

Chapter 1 Setting the Tone………………………………………………………….……….…....11

Robin Lighter

Chapter 2 The Best Possible Term………………………………………………………….…...16

Stacy Bjorkman

Chapter 3 Teaching About Loneliness in Introductory Psychology………..…………..…23

Laura Freberg

Chapter 4 Effective Strategies for Reading a Textbook………………………....…………...32

Richard Miller

Chapter 5 Engaged Learning Approaches: Dynamic Processes for Effective Study

Habits………………………………………………………………………………………..…….….40
Karen Moroz & Kristin Bransford

Chapter 6 Encouraging Retrieval Practice…………………………………….…………….…51

Melissa Paquette-Smith, Courtney Clark, & Megan Imundo

Chapter 7 Name That Source! A Series of Scaffolded Assignments to Build Students’

Ability to Identify Reliable Sources of Information About Psychological Science……..57
Annie Ditta

Chapter 8 Identifying Limitations in Research Activity…………………..……………….…68

Courtney Clark,Megan Imundo, & Melissa Paquette-Smith

Chapter 9 Mindful Meditation: A Vessel for Teaching Core Concepts in Psychology....73

Elizabeth Duraney, Sarah Prieto, Natalie Noble, & Melissa Beers

Chapter 10 Handing Over the Keys to Success: An Activity for Combining Self-
Concordant Goals and Implementation Intentions……………………………….…………...81
Ryan Goffredi

Chapter 11 Building the Skills of Self-Compassion in Introductory Psychology……..…88

Christie Cathey

Chapter 12 Learning to Accept as a Strengthening Tool…………….………………………98

Samantha Zipp Dowd

Chapter 13 Teaching Empathy Through Role-Playing: A Multifaced Approach…...…..103

Mike Corcoran

Chapter 14 Demystifying Anxiety: A Teaching Tool to Destigmatize Mental Health and

Enhance Students’ Resilience…………………………………………..………………………110
Amanda Kracen, David Mothersill, Éabha McClean, & Sinéad Woods
4

Chapter 15 The Students Stress Scale and Coping Mechanisms…………………..……119

Kayla Boepple

Chapter 16 Dog Therapy for Stress Reduction in Introduction Psychology……..…….125

Meghan Gangel, Sam Castelblanco & Alleyne Broomell

Chapter 17 Counting Sheep and Counting the Consequences of Sleep Loss: A Personal
Reflection n How Losing Sleep Harms Your Competence………………………..………..132
Kevin Grobman & Navid Amarlou

Chapter 18 Core Values Activity for Increase Self-Awareness: Identification, Alignment, &
Reflection………………………………………………………………………………………...….139
Ashley Waggoner Denton

Chapter 19 Confronting Fear of Career Exploration Through Exposure………….….....146

Daniel Niederjohn

Conclusion: Where Do We Go from Here?........................................................................152

Julie Lazzara & Alisa Beyer
5

Introduction: Beyer & Cerniak

Introduction to the Book

The Why

I (Alisa Beyer) dreamt of this book while working on a SoTL project focused on building a
toolbox to enhance student resilience and success (Beyer, 2022). While working on that project,
I realized I wanted to compile activities to infuse into introductory psychology courses that can
strengthen students' mental toolbox. I also was inspired by the work coming from the APA
Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI; Gurung & Neufeld, 2021) and APA’s (2023) Principles of
Quality Undergraduate Education in Psychology. Activities included in this book can be adopted
for different undergraduate introductory level courses, with authors noting the connected APA
Pillar Model (APA, 2014) and the introductory psychology student learning outcomes from the
APA IPI (APA, 2021) in each chapter.

Figure 1. APA revised Pillar Model (APA, 2021)

This book also comes with good intentions of a strengths-based approach. We learn and grow
while working with students, and we know they come to the classroom with their own strengths
and areas for growth and development. As instructors we have some flexibility, choice, and
opportunity to enhance students’ lives and what better way to do so than by using class content
and class time to support their growth and development as students and as individuals. We
hope you find this book offers new ideas for application and inspiration for you, your students,
and your classes.
6

Organization of the Book

Chapter Overview
In each chapter, authors provide some background information for instructors to help students
apply the concepts reflected in each activity, including application in students’ lives outside the
classroom, and authors discuss all relevant materials needed to use the activity in class. Most
activities discussed in the book have been tested in the classroom, with authors providing
evidence of effectiveness and student feedback as they share their tool.

Shared Materials by QR Code and Weblinks

All materials shared in this volume are available via Quick Release (QR) code and/or a weblink
that is in the Wrap Up section at the end of the chapter. We realize you might be reviewing this
book on a computer or tablet so let us explain how you can access the QR code when reading
on these devices. The first option is to take a screenshot of the QR code. If using a device
running macOS, take a screenshot and then press Command + Shift + 4. For Windows 10 (or
higher) users, do a screen capture by pressing Windows button + Shift + S. Then the screen
capture can be read via a digital QR reader, such as the one available at this free website:
https://qrcodescanner.net/scan-from-image . If readers do not want to use the QR code, the web
address link at which the materials are located is available at the end of each chapter, too.

Sections and Topics

The book is organized into five sections by topic connections.
● The first section includes activities to consider at the start of the course. These include
social aspects of community building that support skills for collaboration and inclusivity.
● The second section provides tools for critical thinking and study habits, including developing
analytical thinking and information management skills.
● The third section connects mindset, mindfulness, and motivation. While these areas can
be connected to specific course content, they also enhance students’ personal skills,
including self-regulation.
● The fourth section helps students with emotion regulation and stress relief. These topics
connect with introduction to psychology course content as well as adaptability and self-
regulation.
● The fifth and final section of the book connects students to life skills such as value
affirmation and building connections. Our final chapter also helps to pull together the
tools shared in each chapter and offers a compendium of more activities for students’
toolboxes.

Section 1: Starting off the Semester

In Section 1, we have three chapters with activities connected to getting the semester started.
Robin Lighter shares three activities for students to work through that can be completed in one day,
that can be used as stand-alone activities, or that can be spread across different class meetings the
first week. More specifically, students discuss the impact of different study strategies, compete to
make a list of ways that college differs from high school, and consider two scenarios to normalize
the challenges associated with the first few weeks of college. These activities are a way to build
community, to convey norms about successful behaviors, and to let students know the instructor
wants them to be successful. On the first day of class, Stacy Bjorkman asks students to describe
their "Best Possible Term" (BPT; similar to a "Best Possible Self" exercise), and students save their
descriptions for the duration of the term. Before exams, students are assigned to review their BPT
document and to envision success as they study. Finally, Laura Freberg offers a toolbox activity to
address loneliness to help students feel less disconnected. In her introductory psychology class,
7

students define loneliness, take a loneliness assessment, and compare individual data with class
data and published data, which helps to connect these topics to research concepts). Students also
explore what loneliness does to our behavior (it makes us selfish), and they brainstorm and practice
some activities designed to reduce loneliness. We included this as a “starting off” activity, in that it is
a theme to carry throughout the semester and one that ties to the learning of research methods that
occurs at the start of the semester in many introductory courses.

Section 2: Critical Thinking and Study Habits

Section 2 has five chapters focused on building study habits and critical thinking skills. Richard
Miller shares reading comprehension techniques for college courses including what works well
and what does not. He offers 12 strategies to share with students that are connected to
efficiently reading the text, comprehension, and active engagement. Karen Moroz and Kristin
Bransford offer three learning strategies to deepen students’ learning. They share more about
K-W-L (Know-Want to Know-Learned), Double Entry Journaling, and a Connections Grid, with
the intent that each is modeled and practiced within the classroom. These engaged learning
strategies ultimately serve as powerful before, during, and after reading strategies that increase
individual learning, allow students to actively participate in classroom discussions, and further
enhance content understanding. Melissa Paquette-Smith, Courtney Clark, and Megan Imundo
dig into specifics for retrieval practice (self-testing). They share three activities to teach students
how to study effectively using retrieval practice, including an in-class activity, a midterm
preparation activity through which students generate their own multiple-choice practice
questions, and another tool to use retrieval practice for their studying.

In the next chapter, Annie Ditta shares how discussions and a series of take-home assignments
can help students become stronger critical readers. In her activities, students tackle myths in
psychological science by comparing primary and secondary sources, and by learning about
peer-reviewed empirical articles and different sources of information found in literature reviews
(e.g., dissertations and meta-analyses). Throughout the process of completing and discussing
these assignments, two themes are emphasized: 1) some article types are more reliable
sources of information than others, and 2) research skills (i.e., searching for & vetting
information) are crucial for everyone, even if they are not continuing down an academic path for
their future careers. The last chapter by Melissa Paquette-Smith, Courtney Clark, and Megan
Imundo helps strengthen students’ understanding of research design and limitations in
research. Using an instructional module, students are encouraged to think critically and to
identify limitations that are plausible and specific to the study at hand. The module first asks
students to evaluate examples of reasonable and flawed limitations and then to consider how
the flawed ones could be improved. After receiving automated feedback conditional on their
responses, students generate limitations for a novel study and plot hypothetical alternative data
showing how the results of the study might change if the limitation were addressed (e.g., if the
experimenters tested a different sample or if they implemented a longer delay before a final
test).

Section 3: Motivation, Mindset & Mindfulness

This section is focused on motivation and mindfulness. In the first chapter, Elizabeth Duraney
and colleagues share various ways to incorporate mindfulness into the classroom and
throughout the semester with an aim of creating a welcoming learning space. They use
principles of mindfulness to guide learning and they share examples of mindfulness research in
the class, including weaving in meditation to teach students about self-care, non-judgmental
awareness, and acceptance. In the next chapter, Ryan Goffredi shares a two-step process for
working to obtain a personally meaningful goal based on self-determination theory and
implementation intentions. The aim is to help students cope with daily stresses, including
8

managing academic stress, which improves long term health. Christie Cathey helps students
use self-compassion to improve academic performance and motivation in the next chapter.
Students complete a midterm wrapper self-reflection activity that was shown to impact students’
academic motivation levels. Finally, Samantha Zipp Dowd has an activity called, “I am where I
am supposed to be,” to help with mindset. The activity connects to ACT and builds upon
openness and flexibility.

Section 4: Emotion Regulation & Stress Relief

The fourth section of the book combines tools for emotion regulation and stress relief. Mike
Corcoran uses three activities focused on empathy to help students better understand and
cultivate empathy via emotions and perspective-taking. Students alternate between being in
role-plays and interacting with the role-playing group. Role plays include aspects of perspective
taking and sharing emotions whereby students complete informal assessments on identifying
the emotion and emotional reaction. Next, Amanda Kracen and Davide Mothersill, a counseling
psychologist and a neuroscientist, respectively, share a series of brief activities to normalize and
demystify anxiety for students. Their goal is to enhance emotion regulation and resilience by
equipping students with knowledge of psychological and biological aspects of anxiety in a
learning module that consists of: learning about emotions and about anxiety as a common
human emotion/experience; basic skills for coping with normative anxiety (i.e., deep breathing,
exercise, acceptance); research that assesses anxiety; and public health campaigns to enhance
well-being. Students are actively engaged during the module with hands-on activities like clay
modeling and developing mental health promotion posters to demonstrate their learning and to
normalize and demystify anxiety for their peers. Next, Kayla Boepple shares an activity through
which students assess their stress levels, learn about the impact of stress on their bodies, and
learn about coping strategies. Students complete a positive/negative stress coping strategies
worksheet, and they identify a new strategy they plan on using based on that worksheet. The
last tool in this section is from Meghan Gangel and colleagues who use a dog therapy activity to
connect research and stress concepts. Students learn about the General Adaptation Model and
autonomic nervous system before engaging in a discussion about an assigned empirical article
focused on dog-assisted therapy. Then, students complete a stress checklist as a pre-
intervention measure before being introduced to the well-trained or therapy dog(s) that are
brought to the classroom by an owner or handler. Finally, students complete the post-
intervention stress measure.

Section 5: Life Skills

The last section includes a wide variety of activities related more generally to life skills. Kevin
Groban and Navid Amarlou share an online learning activity that applies concepts learned about
sleep and personal reflection. They created a reliable, valid, and new measure for sleep loss
that describes everyday degrees of sleep deprivation. The measure is incorporated into an
activity for understanding sleep loss that is available on a free website. The website was
created to spark self-reflection about psychology concepts by making them personally relevant.
Next, Ashley Waggoner Denton shares an activity for students to better understand the role that
values play in our lives. In this activity, students are guided through the process of identifying
their core values and creating a core values wheel to help them reflect on how their daily
behaviors and activities align with what is most important to them. Students then submit a
related written reflection paper. Our last chapter, written by Daniel Niederjohn, focuses on
strategies that help students overcome avoidance when considering career and post-graduation
plans. This activity uses specific teaching techniques to increase career self-efficacy for
students in a psychology class, and it includes a pre-test, a desensitizing activity (e.g.,
identifying transferable skills, self-exploration, and classroom discussion), and a post-test.
Findings from this exercise can be used to help students experience less fear of their career.
9

In the closing chapter, Julie Lazzara and Alisa Beyer share ideas about how to use as many of
these tools as possible in a given introductory course. An additional compendium detailing more
helpful toolbox activities and resources that are connected to the APA pillars and introductory
psychology learning outcomes is offered as well.

Conclusion
In conclusion, we hope you find helpful the range of topics and tools shared in this volume, in
addition to the first-hand teaching experience shared by our colleagues. We also hope you feel
inspired to integrate one or more of these tools into your approach to teaching various
psychology courses. Thank you for investing time and energy into developing creative teaching
methods that offer students meaningful opportunities to connect course content to their lives,
ultimately strengthening them as students and as individuals.

We thank all authors for their contributions, timely submissions, and openness to feedback and
collaboration. Finally, thank you to the STP Editorial Board for their guidance and feedback,
from proposal to publication of this volume.

Wrap-Up

● Enjoy and use these great activities!

● Each chapter ends with a wrap up section that includes additional resources shared via
the QR code.
● Alisa Beyer also compiled authors’ resources in a Google drive folder.

References

American Psychological Association. (2014). Strengthening the common core of the

introductory psychology course. https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/intro-psych-
report.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)
student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2023). Principles for quality undergraduate education
10

in psychology. https://www.apa.org/about/policy/principles-quality-undergraduate-
education-psychology.pdf
Beyer, A.A. (12 July, 2022). A toolbox to enhance student resilience and success. STP
E-xcellence in Teaching Blog. https://teachpsych.org/E-xcellence-in-Teaching-
Blog/12846066
Gurung, R. A., & Neufeld, G. (2021). Transforming introductory psychology: Expert advice on
teacher training, course design, and student success. American Psychological
Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000260-000

Author Contact Information

Alisa Beyer, PhD

Residential Faculty
Social & Behavioral Sciences
Chandler-Gilbert Community College
[email protected]

Jessica Cerniak, PsyD

Associate Professor
Master of Arts in Psychology Department
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology
[email protected]
11

1 Lightner

Setting the Tone

Summary
Shared in this chapter is a set of three activities that set the tone for the course on the first day
of class. Students work in groups to (a) compete to make a list of ways that college differs from
high school, (b) work through an active learning checklist in small groups to discuss the impact
of different study strategies, and (c) offer advice for scenarios about college challenges. These
activities are similar to those used in Walton and Cohen (2011) to normalize the challenges
associated with the first few weeks of college, especially for students who have doubts about
college. The activities build community, convey norms about successful behaviors, encourage
self-reflection, and let students know that the instructor wants them to be successful.

The Importance of Setting the Tone

As one of the first classes that students take in college, Introductory Psychology can play a
formative role in students’ college experience. The topics themselves can inform student
success, and instructors can integrate the concepts of psychology into their pedagogical
choices, for example by building empathy, belongingness, and an opportunity to socialize into
the very first days of a course. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning expert Linda Nilson (2010)
describes the main purpose of the first day of class, “[to] lay out these expectations and lead the
kind of class activities that model the level of student engagement you have in mind for the rest
of the course” (p.45).

Some instructors delve into chapter 1 content the first day, and depending on class length,
doing that still may be possible when including one or more of these activities. However, I
choose to use the first day’s class time on activities more generally focused on the college
experience to create an opening class that is welcoming, empathic, and self-reflective. I make
this choice largely because my college is a two-year, open-access, public institution that is part
of a larger university system. Over half of the students are first-generation college students, and
50% are Pell-eligible. A third of the students at this college also are from underrepresented
racial or ethnic groups. As with most open-access institutions, student ability and preparedness
for college varies greatly, and many students have doubts about college and whether it is right
for them. In particular, students from stigmatized groups have concerns about belongingness
that can affect their motivation, achievement, and beliefs about their college potential (e.g.,
Walton & Cohen, 2007; Walton et al, 2023), and instructors’ caring and peer interactions in the
classroom affect belonging and subsequently self-efficacy and engagement in academic work
(Zumbrunn et al., 2014). Thus, the use of some class time upfront to help students feel like they
belong and to have some social interaction with peers can be an important investment.

While not covering psychology content directly, these activities touch on the American
Psychological Association’s (APA, 2023) IPI integrative themes: D. Psychology values diversity,
promotes equity, and fosters inclusion in pursuit of a more just society. and F. Applying
psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways.
An intervention similar to the Scenarios with Advice has been shown to improve the
belongingness of under-represented college students from stigmatized groups (Walton &
Cohen, 2010). Furthermore, all three of the activities can be connected to content in the field,
12

particularly, schemas (College vs. High School), study habits and memory (Active Learning
Checklist), and empathy (Scenarios with Advice).

First-Day Activities

Before starting these activities, I assign students into groups of four or five students. In my
classes of around 30 students, I do this quickly by gesturing to each student while counting off,
“1-2-3-4-5” and then assigning a part of the classroom for each group. It is important to assign
groups to break up cliques and create a situation that leaves no one out. I like to do all three of
these activities during the first day, but readers may choose just one activity or spread them out
over the first week. I have done these activities both in-person and online, and while they can
work in both modalities, there is more conversation and joviality during the class when used in-
person.

College vs. High School

This is a quick and easy activity during which students have ten-minutes to list the ways that
college classes and high school classes differ. I project a slide that offers two columns, one
titled “College” and the other titled “High School” (see Appendix A). I offer a starter suggestion
e.g., “students can leave quietly if needed” vs. “students need to ask permission or get a hall
pass”. And then, in groups, students generate the rest of the list. At minute seven or eight, when
conversation slows, I throw out some prompts, such as “think about handling absences,” “think
about the role of parents,” or “how will reading assignments differ?” I debrief the activity by
typing each group’s responses on the projected slide. Groups give themselves a point for each
conceptually unique item that they produced, and the group with the most points wins some
candy. In the 5-minute debriefing, we cover many ground rules and expectations for the class
including cell phones, disruptions, on-time homework submissions, and handling absences. I
refer to sections of the syllabus as needed, and we also discuss how expectations vary across
professors. This is a fairly light, easy discussion in which every student has experience to draw
from, and some of their comments are typically pretty funny. Not only does it break the ice and
cover course policies, but this discussion also allows students to get to know each other and the
professor.

Active Learning Checklist

In this activity, students are given 5 minutes to complete a handout containing a modified
Student Success Checklist taken from the text by Gardner and Jeweler (2005) (see Appendix
B). Here are a few sample items:

I make notes about vocabulary words in the text or lecture that I do not understand.

I save my “skip days” for real emergencies.

They do this individually, and then students share and compare their checklists in small groups
for 5 minutes. Next, as a group, they select the top two items that would make the largest
improvement in their academic performance. In the debriefing, each group reports their top two
and the rationale for selecting these items. During this discussion, the class is asked to think of
ways to make it easier to do these things. For example, in one class, a group of students
suggested studying with a classmate. As we discussed how we could make this easier, the
class asked interested peers to sign up for a group chat which was then used often throughout
the term.
13

Scenarios with Advice

Jean Twenge and colleagues (2019) found that college students in 2017 spent far less social
time with peers than previous cohorts, and time spent with peers was correlated with loneliness.
Since then, the pandemic may have exacerbated this trend. This next activity, Scenarios with
Advice, gives students an opportunity to socialize and reassures students that their feelings
about college are normal (Appendix C). The activity helps students take a growth mindset
toward the challenge of adjusting to college rather than questioning either or both their ability to
thrive in college or their choice of college. This activity, based on an experimental manipulation
in Walton and Cohen (2010), is a bit more involved than the last two discussions. Students are
provided five scenarios (See Wrap-Up section) which were written by other real students who
were actually struggling to adjust to college and questioning their belonging in different ways, as
discussed in the following sample scenario:

I really want to attend college and get a degree. I want to, my family wants me to,
and my friends are in school too. But last semester I just could not get motivated.
I am in classes but not sure what I want to study. I just found it hard to “get
psyched” to go to class, do the work, use resources, etc. Now I am on academic
alert, afraid of failing out of school, afraid of losing my aid, afraid of disappointing
my parents and afraid of being embarrassed in front of my friends (Lighter, para.
2).

In this activity, students individually read and take notes on the advice they would provide, using
about 5 minutes to do so. Students then discuss the scenarios in their groups and come up with
best advice for two of the five scenarios. Each group reports on the one scenario for which they
think they have the best advice. During the debriefing, the instructor has the opportunity to pull
up the institution’s website to show students where to get mental health support, where to go for
tutoring, or where to look for clubs and other social organizations, in case these things are not
brought up by other groups. If there is time, the instructor also can solicit comments on any of
the scenarios that were not chosen. Finally, the instructor can emphasize how normal and
expected these challenges are when making the transition to college.

Useful and Worthwhile

The evidence that these activities work comes from the products of the activities themselves.
Students have generated, on average, ten items per group in the College vs. High School
discussion. Each term, the debriefing included a productive opportunity to discuss ground rules
in a respectful, collaborative way. The Active Learning Checklist has resulted in lively
discussions about the best ways to study, in addition to some concrete plans to share and
compare study guides or create a group chat. In some classes, some students have been
shocked by the effective, albeit effortful, academic habits of other students. One student even
commented, “I can’t believe other students do these things. I thought I was just slower, but
maybe I just wasn’t doing as much to learn the stuff.”

The Scenarios with Advice activity has resulted in helpful suggestions from students for peers
that are shared out in the class. It also provides an opportunity for me to show students where
different resources on campus are located on the college’s website. Some students also
commented that they did not feel as alone after reading the scenarios and talking about how
common these problems were.

I also use an informal, midterm course check-in survey to get some feedback on certain
elements of the course and to remind students of the various activities and their purposes. I had
14

students rate the usefulness of various classroom activities from 1 (not at all) to 10 (extremely),
and the average over the last three fall semesters for these activities has been 6.8 (College vs.
High School), 8.1 (Active Learning Checklist) and 8.2 (Scenarios with Advice). In the end-of-
term course evaluations, students also regularly comment on these activities specifically,
generally remarking that I have shown a great deal of concern for their success.

Conclusion

In the first class session, it is important to set expectations, show respect, encourage self-
reflection, and foster connections among students. The activities described here provide an
opportunity for these important skills that can serve as a foundation for the entire course. The
activities are easy to facilitate, even if students are somewhat reluctant to engage on the first
day. First-day reciprocal interviews with similar goals of connection and reflection have shown
an improvement on evaluations of courses and even course performance (Hermann et al.,
2010). While the evaluation for the exercises described in this chapter were not as extensive,
the products of the activities and informal course surveys show that students find them valuable.
Furthermore, they could be referenced later in the course in discussions about memory and
study habits, schemas for class and how they differ from high school to college, and in
discussions about empathy in therapy and effective relationships.

Wrap-Up

● On the first day of class, addressing belongingness and showing empathy toward students’
adjustment challenges are important ways to set the tone for the course.
● Three activities using small groups help students reflect on their transition to college.
● Students compare high school to college, reflect on their academic strategies, and respond
to scenarios that show challenges with adjusting to college.
● QR code with materials (Appendices) (or click here Google drive)

References

Gardner, J. N., & Jeweler, A. J. (2005) Your college experience: Strategies for success, (6th
ed.). Thomson Wadsworth.

Hermann, A. D., Foster, D. A., & Hardin, E. E. (2010). Does the first week of class matter? A
quasi-experimental investigation of student satisfaction. Teaching of Psychology, 37(2),
79–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/00986281003609314
15

Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors
(3rd ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Twenge, J. M., Spitzberg, B. H., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Less in-person social interaction
with peers among U.S. adolescents in the 21st century and links to loneliness. Journal of
Social and Personal Relationships, 36(6), 1892–1913.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519836170
Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2007). A question of belonging: Race, social fit, and
achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(1), 82–
96. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82
Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves
academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331(6023), 1447-
1451. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1198364
Walton, G. et al. (2023). Where and with whom does a brief social-belonging intervention
promote progress in college?. Science, 380,499-505.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ade4420
Zumbrunn, S., McKim, C., Buhs, E., & Hawley, L. R. (2014). Support, belonging, motivation,
and engagement in the college classroom: a mixed method study. Instructional Science,
42, 661–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-014-9310-0

Author Contact Information

Robin Lightner, PhD

Dean & Professor of Psychology
Blue Ash College
University of Cincinnati
[email protected]
https://www.linkedin.com/in/robin-lightner-4168374b/
16

2 Bjorkman

The Best Possible Term

Summary
Many emotions accompany the start of each new term for students. How can instructors help
them enhance positive feelings and reduce negative feelings about the term? What can be done
to refresh enthusiasm throughout the semester and combat midterm fatigue? How can we help
students self-motivate to improve persistence and retention? Founded in Positive Psychology,
the Best Possible Term activity, created as a variation of King’s (2001) Best Possible Self
Intervention, has shown promise as an exercise to help students focus on positive outcomes at
the start of the class and throughout the term. In approximately 10 minutes near the start of the
term and via a few reminders offered during the course, instructors can guide students through
a simple exercise of visualizing an end of the semester when all has gone according to plan and
ended positively, potentially helping to improve motivation and expectations for success and
minimize anxiety and overwhelm.

A small, self-selected sample of undergraduate students from online courses at two universities
reported overall positive experiences with the Best Possible Term activity, specifically thinking
positively about completing the course and other aspects of life and reducing course-related
nervousness. Students also reported they would consider using the Best Possible Term activity
on their own in the future. This activity has been used successfully in both face-to-face and
online delivery models. The instructions, linked video, and transcript can be used as-is or can be
adapted as desired by instructors.

A Positive Start to the Semester

Undergraduate students start each new term and enter each new course with various goals and
possible outcomes in mind. Perhaps they are exploring a potential degree major or aim to
increase their understanding of content that is impactful to their personal lives or professional
goals. Maybe they just want to pass the course and complete a general education requirement.
Regardless of the goal, emotions accompany the first day of class, with some being positive and
motivating and others being negative and anxiety-provoking. And, as the term wears on,
students may lose connection with those emotions (for better or worse) and, perhaps along with
them, their drive to persist. One of my goals as an instructor is to help students stay connected
to their own short-term (e.g., passing the course, mastering content) and relative long-term
(e.g., graduating college, pursuing a profession) goals and to foster the growth of their academic
self-concept. What can instructors do to get students started on the right foot and guide them
along a path that will maximize positive outcomes and minimize negative ones? What can we
do at midterm to revive the “fresh” feeling of the term’s start and reconnect students with the
goals that will move them successfully through the end of the class?

Starting class with a motivational activity helps connect instructors to students on a personal
level, demonstrating an instructor’s commitment to students’ success above and beyond the
classroom content. A positive learning environment is also critical for student success; without
such an environment, students can lose interest or fall behind quickly. Activities that go beyond
the course materials help students see that the instructor is invested in their overall success and
wellbeing, and this provides a springboard for conversations about how the instructor can be
accessed as a source of support for both content-related academic assistance, as well as
17

enhancement of academically supportive behaviors related to time-management, study skills,

engagement, motivation, and interpersonal skills. Indeed, DiPerna and Elliot (2000), for
example, have linked these skills, which they call academic enablers, to academic achievement
in younger children; might such relationships hold true for college students as well? My hope is
to present a strategy students can add to their toolkit of emotional regulation, stress reduction,
and expectations of positive outcomes. Additionally, the activity illustrates a variety of
psychology concepts and it supports the American Psychological Association’s (APA, n.d.) Pillar
Model and Introductory Psychology Initiative Student Learning Outcomes for Introductory
Psychology (APA, 2021).

Rooted in Research
One way I attempt to improve students’ motivation is by kicking off each term with an activity
aimed at helping them create a strong foundation of confidence, motivation, and visualized
success: the Best Possible Term activity. The Best Possible Term activity is rooted in Positive
Psychology, whose aim is to build on an individual’s framework of strengths to enhance
happiness and wellbeing (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). This specific activity is founded
on the work of Markus and Nuruis (1986) who proposed the Possible Selves theory, which
acknowledges individuals’ integration of the past and present reality with multiple potential
future selves. These possible selves, or potential future versions of oneself, can fuel behavior by
connecting knowledge of the past and present with potential positive future outcomes. Focusing
on positive future selves is related to improved positive outcomes. In essence, the Best Possible
Self serves as a goal, potentially acting as an incentive for behaviors that are consistent with
that version of the self. That is, the notion of the Best Possible Self helps link the present
version of self with the idealized future version of self.

Related to the Possible Selves theory, King (2001) proposed the Best Possible Self intervention,
with resulting research showing improvements in physical and emotional wellbeing for
individuals who wrote about their Best Possible Self. Since then, multiple researchers have
found supporting evidence for a variety of positive outcomes related to writing about one’s Best
Possible Self (see Loveday et al., 2018). Overall, research shows strong connections between
consideration of positive possible selves and increased positive outcomes and decreased
negative outcomes.

Altintas and colleagues (2020) extended this activity into the academic arena. Undergraduate
students who utilized the Best Possible Self intervention to imagine an ideal future academic life
were found to have higher levels of positive affect, situational motivation, and academic
commitment when compared to a control group who was instructed to think about a neutral
topic. Interestingly, positive affect emerged as a mediator of the relationship between use of the
Best Possible Self intervention and motivation, whereas academic commitment did not act as a
mediator. That is, positivity matters!

Let’s now take a look at how this research, and hopefully the associated positive outcomes, can
be integrated into our classes and added to our Skill-building Toolkit for Students.

Connections to Course Content, Learning Outcomes, and APA Pillars

Fostering motivation, reducing stress, and increasing positive thought connects to a variety of
psychology course content, learning outcomes, and skill-building. In addition to helping students
increase motivation and decrease stress at the start of the term, this activity can be used in any
course to help students achieve a variety of course- and program-level goals as well. For
example, the Best Possible Term activity can be used to illustrate strategies to achieve optimal
motivation – the “sweet spot” between overstimulation/stress and boredom – where learning is
maximized. Many introduction to psychology textbooks include chapters on stress and health,
18

which can be influenced by positive thinking such as visualizing positive life outcomes, both at
school and outside of academics. In this way, the activity helps students meet learning
outcomes in the areas of Psychology Content and Scientific Thinking, and in terms of several
Key Themes including C: Psychological, biological, social, and cultural factors influence
behavior and mental processes, E: Our perceptions and biases filter our experiences of the
world through an imperfect personal lens, and F: Applying psychological principles can change
our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways (APA, 2021).

Several of the APA Pillars are also embodied in the Best Possible Term activity (APA, n.d.). For
example, instructors can help students make connections between the Best Possible Term
activity and consciousness (Pillar 1) when they are asked to draw awareness to the thoughts
and sensations associated with envisioning a successful end to the term. The activity can
illustrate the relationship between emotions and motivation (Pillar 4) and goal-setting for a
positive term, as well as the link between mindfulness and health (Pillar 5).

Instructors could extend the Best Possible Term activity to illustrate research methods and basic
statistics, the foundation of the APA Pillars, by collecting classroom data to compare an
outcome or two for students who did engage in the activity to those who chose not to
participate. For example, during the unit on research methods, the instructor could distribute a
two-item survey asking 1) if students participated in the Best Possible Term activity at the start
of class, and 2) their current level of motivation for the class or their expectations for earning a
“good grade” on a scale of 1 to 10. An independent-samples t-test would be quick and easy to
complete, and the exercise could spark a lively discussion about research questions,
hypotheses, methods, validity of measures, and error.

Indeed, the Best Possible Term activity is a starting point that can be tweaked and tailored in
myriad ways to meet instructors’ goals and address course outcomes. Instructors can present it
at the start of the term and provide reminders to review it at midterm and near the end of the
class, as I do. Alternatively, instructors can infuse components of the activity throughout the
term to illustrate psychological concepts and make connections between real-life strategies and
the theoretical and applied field of psychology.

Description of Activity

The Best Possible Term activity can be utilized in both face-to-face and online courses; the
activity is virtually the same in both delivery formats, though instructions will vary slightly. I am
sharing two versions for synchronous and asynchronous classes.

Synchronous Classes
At the end of the first day of a face-to-face class, students’ arousal levels vary from low (e.g.,
death by review of the syllabus, this required course doesn’t seem relevant to my goals and
interests) to high (e.g., how am I ever going to pass this class? I’ve been waiting for years to
take this awesome course!) and everywhere in between (e.g., this class could be fun but
challenging, and the professor seems really cool *chuckle*). The Best Possible Term activity is
one quick way to help anchor students right in the middle of the Yerkes-Dodson curve as they
leave the first day of class, and it takes only about ten minutes of class time (Yerkes & Dodson,
1908).

First, I explain that the purpose of the activity is to improve academic and emotional outcomes
in the class and other areas of their life by envisioning success. Depending on how much time is
available and the prevailing mood of the room, instructors also could describe some of the
19

specific research findings I shared here in this chapter before asking students to engage with
the activity. In face-to-face classes, I provide brightly colored construction paper because it is
easier for students to locate than notebook paper or a computer file when they are asked to
review the activity later in the semester.

Next, I tell students to take two minutes to imagine the end of the term when everything has
gone exactly right; school, work, home, and relationships have all fallen into place. Then I
prompt them to go beyond simply thinking about that ideal scenario by visualizing what that
perfect term looks like, feels like, smells like. I encourage them to feel themselves living that
positive outcome of satisfaction – to be immersed in the best possible term.

Finally, I direct students to take an additional 5 minutes (more or less) to describe that
visualization on paper. They might use sentences and paragraphs, a bulleted list, or a drawing –
whatever speaks to them. I encourage students to include details – to make it feel as real as
possible. When most students appear to be finished, I instruct them to put the paper into their
course folder or to tuck it into their textbook and to refer to it whenever they need a motivational
boost or a reminder of how great the end of the term can be if everything falls into place.

Asynchronous Classes
Timing this activity in an asynchronous online class requires a bit more finesse. Even in the
most thoughtfully-developed online classroom, the start of a term typically requires many
introductions, navigation of a new course setup, and several announcements and reminders.
Students are working through the classroom on their own time and might be preoccupied with
acclimating to the logistics. Another activity, and an optional one at that, could be overwhelming
if not well-timed. I usually let students get a week of class under their belts before proposing this
activity, then I present it as an embedded video or weblink (Bjorkman, 2023) with a written
transcript (Bjorkman, 2023; see also QR code in Wrap-Up section).

Revisiting and Reminding

In both face-to-face and online courses, I remind students to review their Best Possible Term
activity at midterm and before major exams or assignments are due, and then again at the end
of the course. Of course, instructors can mention it at other times, too, such as when the activity
supports course content as described above. Instructors also can prompt students to revisit and
review it as formally or informally as they like, such as sending an email or announcement
reminding students to review what they wrote or drew at the start of the term and revisiting how
the act of positive thinking and planning for success relates to improved outcomes. At the end of
the term, instructors also might consider asking students to reflect on their experience with the
Best Possible Term activity. Was it a useful, worthwhile exercise? What key takeaways might
they carry forward to infuse positive thinking, to motivate behavior, and to reduce stress in the
future? Might they consider starting each term with a revision to their existing Best Possible
Term activity, or starting a fresh one that meets their current needs?

Student Feedback

Though I have used this activity in a variety of face-to-face and online psychology courses over
the last four years, the data presented here were gathered from students in a recent term of my
online behavioral statistics classes at two universities. The Best Possible Term activity has been
generally well-received by students. Students spontaneously commented that they used the
activity throughout the term. Here are a few of the responses I received:
20

“Another day and another assignment closer to my "Best Possible Term" vision
results :0)”

“I have been meaning to tell you that I really enjoyed your activity for having the best
possible term. I visualize a successful semester every time I sit down to work on
statistics, it's really helpful!”

“I incorporated my best possible term vision into my nightly meditation… would have
never added it otherwise, thank you! Really appreciated your optimism this whole
semester!”

“Thinking about the positive aspects of something challenging is very helpful in relieving
associated anxieties.”

Informal classroom survey data also suggest that students use this activity and find it to be
useful. A small, self-selected sample of eleven online students completed the survey, all of
whom reported engaging with the Best Possible Term activity. Eight (73%) of those students
reviewed the Best Possible Term activity when prompted at midterm, 11 (100%) reviewed it
when prompted at the end of the term, and 5 (45%) reviewed the activity without prompting at
other times during the term. Students also reported their perceptions of the utility of the Best
Possible Term activity (Table 1).

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics of Perceived Utility of the Best Possible Term (BPT) Activity

Perceived Utility n M(SD)

The BPT activity helped me think positively about completing this 11 4.27(.90)
course successfully
The BPT activity helped reduce my nervousness about this class 11 3.91(1.14)
The BPT activity helped me think positively about other aspects of my 11 4.09(1.14)
life this term
Overall, the BPT activity was a useful exercise 10 4.3(.95)
I would consider using the BPT activity on my own in the future 11 4.09(1.30)
Note. Scale range is 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

Results of this small sample indicate that students who engaged in the Best Possible Term
activity found it to be a useful tool for guiding positive thinking about coursework and other
areas of their personal and academic lives and reducing course-related nervousness. It is
potentially interesting to note that, because data were collected from students in online courses,
the Best Possible Term activity was introduced in a private YouTube video, meaning viewership
is limited to only those who have a direct link to the video (i.e., the video is not searchable on
YouTube). Approximately 200 students have been invited to view the video and engage with the
activity asynchronously. This video was viewed over 200 times, suggesting more students
watched the video (and may have engaged in the activity) than the eleven who participated in
the end-of-term survey.

More directly assessing the relationships between use of the Best Possible Term activity and
students’ use of academic enablers and final grades could be an interesting next step to
investigate. Additionally, Altintas and colleagues (2020) found that students reported higher
levels of positive affect, academic motivation, and academic commitment than controls
immediately after engaging in a similar activity, but do these positive outcomes persist over
21

time? Comparing outcomes for students who do and do not engage in the Best Possible Term
activity using a repeated-measures design (e.g., start of the term and end of the term) could
help answer that question.

Conclusions

College students today wear many hats: student, parent, employee, and caregiver, among
others. How does their “student self” integrate with their other roles? Visualization can help
students see the big picture and exercise autonomy over how they define a successful term. As
such, the Best Possible Term activity can be purposefully integrated into a variety of courses.
For example, I most frequently teach introductory statistics. Students begin the class terrified,
having heard horror stories about how challenging and useless the content is. This activity might
have a regulatory effect on their anxiety and increase confidence and motivation to engage with
challenging course content.

One strength of this activity is that it is tangible. The picture of the perfect term is literally within
reach. Students can see and read how they envisioned an ideal outcome. They can edit and
expand their ideas over the course of the term (or longer). Helping students routinize positive
thought by prompting them to review their activity could combat overwhelm and burnout and
promote resilience and persistence. Since students do report finding the exercise useful,
perhaps including additional nudges to review, revise, and elaborate on their initial Best
Possible Term activity would further enhance positive outcomes.

Indeed, using the Best Possible Term activity allows instructors to engage with students in a
different way, beyond classroom content. My hope is to help students connect emotional
regulation, stress reduction, and expectations of positive outcomes. Dedicating a few minutes to
do this at the start or end of each week could be a worthwhile use of a few minutes of class
time. A key takeaway for me is that students appreciate instructor support of their overall
wellbeing in addition to content-related expertise.

Wrap-Up

● The Best Possible Term activity can be used on Day 1 of synchronous courses or near
the start of the term in asynchronous courses.
● The Best Possible Term activity takes less than 10 minutes of class time at the start of
the term.
o Students spend two minutes visualizing the end of the term when everything has
gone right and fallen into place at school, work, home and in relationships.
o Students spend another 5-7 minutes writing or drawing what their Best Possible
Term looks and feels like.
● Instructors remind students to revisit their Best Possible Term activity at key points in the
semester and prompt reflection on the activity at the end of the term.
● Previous research and preliminary data suggest positive outcomes for students who
engage in the Best Possible Term activity.
● The QR code links to a Google Drive that contains the Best Possible Term Video file and
Transcript
22

References

Altintas, E., Karaca, Y., Moustafa, A., El Haj, M. (2020. Effect of Best Possible Self intervention
on situation motivation and commitment in academic context. Learning and Motivation,
69, 1-7. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA IPO SLOs including integrative
themes.. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/undergrad/introductory-psychology-
initiative/including-integrative-themes
American Psychological Association. (2021, October). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative
(IPI) student learning outcomes for introductory
psychology [Handout].. https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-
initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
Bjorkman, S. [StacyBjorkman]. (2023, January 28). Best Possible Term activity [Video].
YouTube. https://youtu.be/_fUBlWGu_Q8
DiPerna, J.C., & Elliott, S. N. (2002). Promoting academic enablers to improve student
achievement: An introduction to the mini-series. School Psychology Review, 31(3), 293-
297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2002.12086156
King, L.A. (2001). The health benefits of writing about life goals. Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 27, 798-807. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167201277003
Loveday, P.M., Lovell, G.P., Jones, C.M. (2018). The Best Possible Selves Intervention: A
review of the literature to evaluate efficacy and guide future research. Journal of
Happiness Studies, 19, 607-628. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9824-z
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954
Seligman, M.E.P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction.
American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Yerkes, R.M. & Dodson, J.D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-
formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18(5), 459-482.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/cne.92018503

Author Contact information

Stacy M. Bjorkman, PhD

Academic Program Coordinator
BS in Psychology Program, College of Psychology and Community Services
Walden University
[email protected]
23

3 Freberg

Teaching About Loneliness in Introductory Psychology

Summary
Incorporating the topic of loneliness provides instructors in introductory psychology with
opportunities to improve student mental health and well-being, seamlessly integrate material
across the recommended five pillars and cross-cutting themes, and demonstrate the power of
applying psychological science to everyday life. This chapter provides a rationale for covering
loneliness and offers materials for presenting and assessing loneliness content. Sample student
responses are included. An e-file accessible with the QR code at the end of the chapter includes
a copy of a loneliness presentation PowerPoint and background scholarly papers.

Why Teach About Loneliness?

A common complaint from instructors of introductory psychology courses is the amount of

content they are expected to cover. Whether an instructor is working at an institution using
quarters or semesters, time is short. Priorities must be established, and decisions about
whether to prepare students for subsequent courses in psychology or provide a more general
overview are hard to make. Why, then, would we ever suggest that even more content should
be covered? In response to these concerns, I argue that covering loneliness in introductory
psychology achieves three important goals. One, it provides useful skills for students to
enhance their engagement with the campus community and, thus, improves their mental health.
Two, the topic of loneliness provides an engaging theme for integrating across the major pillars
of introductory psychology: biological, cognitive, developmental, social/personality, and mental
and physical health. Cross-cutting themes of ethics, application, variation, and diversity can also
be viewed through the lens of loneliness. Finally, using psychology to unpack and address
loneliness convinces students that the study of psychology can be useful in meeting their
everyday challenges.

The Importance of Student Mental Health

Human beings are, above all, members of a quintessential social species. For our hunter-
gatherer ancestors, maintaining connections with a group usually meant the difference between
life and death, and we take any disruptions quite seriously. One of the worst things humans can
do to other humans is to use solitary confinement as a punishment. Loneliness, or perceived
social isolation, makes people irritable, self-centered, and depressed, and leads to a 26%
increase in premature death (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2018). Loneliness also poses about the
same risk of death as smoking and obesity (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010).

College students report high levels of loneliness. The idea that loneliness is epitomized by the
older adult on a park bench feeding pigeons is an unfortunate stereotype. Yes, older people can
indeed be lonely, but adolescents and young adults are more so (Cigna, 2018). COVID-19
restrictions exacerbated existing levels of loneliness and poor mental health among teens and
young adults. Students returning to on-campus living are uprooted from their homes,
communities, and friendship networks, representing a high level of disruption that can interfere
with their academic success. It takes time to restore a sense of belongingness, yet social media
can make students feel like everyone is connected except themselves. The so-called “social
brain” is the last part of the brain to mature, ensuring that traditional college students (18-23
24

years of age) are still in a period of enhanced sensitivity to peers and social connection. This
also makes them hypersensitive to rejection.

Loneliness operates against a troubling background of poor mental health in undergraduates.

Rates of depression among undergraduates is higher than among their same age peers who
are not attending college (Sheldon et al., 2021). Suicide rates among college students are
increasing, and they are especially vulnerable in the period of transitioning to college life. This
often coincides with a developmental transition to emerging adulthood, with all of its associated
challenges, and is a period of peak onset for many psychological disorders.

Students often enroll in introductory psychology courses early in their academic careers,
reinforcing the benefits of providing them skills for coping with their associated challenges in a
timely manner.

Loneliness as a Means for Addressing Integrative Themes

As many readers are aware, work by the American Psychological Association’s (APA)
Introductory Psychology Initiative teams has identified the need to provide an integration of
topics across a number of themes. This is a welcome push-back to an era of psychology
instruction featuring stand-alone, expendable modules that were taught in a siloed fashion.
While many of us immediately see the benefits of the integrated approach, implementing it
successfully is not so easy. Applying the themes to the topic of loneliness, however, provides
opportunities to highlight and compare the thematic approaches seamlessly over the course.

While a complete application of the themes is beyond the scope of this chapter, I can highlight
opportunities to connect the biological, cognitive, social/personality, developmental, and clinical
pillars. Materials in my e-files (a reference QR code appears later in the chapter) provide a more
thorough treatment of the themes.

The first of the five pillars (APA, 2014), biological, is my home turf, so I generally spend more
time on this pillar in my own classes than the others. One of my favorite papers illustrating the
biological approach to loneliness is also relevant to the COVID-19 pandemic. Cole et al. (2015)
demonstrated that people’s perceived levels of social connectivity acted as a stimulus for
downstream adjustments by the immune system. If we feel socially connected, our immune
system is instructed to prioritize responses to viruses. As we all know from COVID-19, viruses
love social settings, and social distance works to their disadvantage. In contrast, if we feel
socially isolated, the immune system is instructed to prioritize responses to bacteria. These
holdovers from our evolutionary past prepared the isolated hunter-gatherer to cope with the
inevitable scrapes and lacerations faced in a life in the wild alone.

The Cole et al. (2015) paper allows us to make two important points that are otherwise
challenging to students. First, the relationship between biology and behavior is reciprocal. We
understand easily that changes in our biology influence our behavior, but the reverse is often
hard to explain. Showing students that their mindset regarding social connectivity influences a
very physical reality, the immune system, makes this point in a memorable fashion. We are not
helpless captives of our biology. The way we think can have profound effects on physical
processes. Second, psychology has practical implications. While the COVID-19 lockdowns were
intended to keep us safe, the resulting isolation might have weakened our immune response to
viruses at the very time we needed it to be at its best. Critical thinking opportunities abound as
we discuss the costs and benefits of these public policies.

The cognitive pillar is again evident in the importance of mindset to the experience of loneliness.
Loneliness only occurs when we think our social connectivity is not okay. One of our key
25

takeaways in introductory psychology is that “reality is in the mind of the beholder.”

Understanding that it is our thoughts about our social connectivity, not our objective level of
connectivity, that matters demonstrates this principle beautifully.

We have already touched on some of the developmental aspects of loneliness by debunking the
“lonely old person” stereotype. Loneliness can be traced over the lifespan, while students can
ask questions about why some stages are more prone to loneliness than others. By reassuring
students that loneliness is not unusual for adolescents and young adults, we reduce the FOMO
anxiety they are probably experiencing on campus.

The social and personality pillar provides multiple opportunities for incorporating discussions of
loneliness. Loneliness by definition is a social phenomenon and an outgrowth of our status as
one of the most social species on the planet. Loneliness affects our interpretations of social
scenes, with lonely people being more sensitive to negative social stimuli, even at an implicit
level of processing (Cacioppo et al., 2009; Cacioppo et al., 2015). Loneliness impacts our social
behavior, making us less likely to expect help from others or to act generously ourselves
(Baumeister et al., 2005). Personality also plays a role in loneliness, as people differ in their
basic needs for social connectivity. The fact that much of the variance in this loneliness set point
can be attributed to genetics (Distel et al., 2010) provides a further tie with the biological
perspective.

In addition to exposing students to the many mental and physical health correlates of loneliness,
it is also helpful to compare and contrast loneliness and major depressive disorder, which are
distinct phenomena. The topic of loneliness also provides opportunities for discussing the APA
IPI’s cross-cutting themes of ethics, application, variation, and cultural and social diversity.

Ethics can be interpreted in many ways, but I generally focus on research ethics in this context.
For example, a classic study by Baumeister et al. (2005) artificially stimulated loneliness in
undergraduates by deceptively informing them that a personality test had indicated that they
would be somewhat socially disconnected throughout life. Wow. As a member of my campus
IRB, I’m not sure I would want to approve that. Nonetheless, students can stretch their critical
thinking and research methods skills by critiquing existing studies and proposing methods that
meet current ethical standards.

Application can be discussed in the context of interventions designed to reduce loneliness. It is

intriguing to students that the UK has a cabinet level Minister of Loneliness who is responsible
for reducing loneliness among the population. Among the many interventions for loneliness,
some of which form the basis of activities described later in the chapter, those that address
maladaptive social cognition have shown the greatest benefits (Masi et al., 2011).

Variation really does cut across many of the personality and demographic variables that
influence a person’s sense of loneliness, and many opportunities to explore these in further
research remain.

Finally, cultural and social diversity issues are highly relevant to the experience of loneliness.
Here, the big message is that some of the usual demographics are NOT predictive of loneliness.
Gender and race do not predict levels of loneliness, nor does, in spite of exuberant headlines in
the popular press, social media use. Sometimes, it is useful to remind students that many
human behaviors are universal across the species.
26

The Power of Psychology

All too often, classes are viewed as checkboxes on the way to a degree and career path. Those
of us who are fortunate to have studied psychology in depth recognize the power it provides in
navigating our everyday lives. As the parent of an adult daughter diagnosed on the autism
spectrum disorder, I often reflect on how fortunate I was not only to have studied psychology,
but to have studied classic behaviorism with Robert Rescorla. If only all parents could embark
on their parenting journey with a psychological toolkit!

Introductory psychology offers us a unique opportunity to reach students from many different
majors who might otherwise not benefit from a better understanding of themselves and other
people. This might seem intuitive to us, but we actually need to sell this idea to students. By
using loneliness to demonstrate how psychological principles can lead us to a deeper
understanding of our challenges and insights about how to overcome our obstacles, students
will be encouraged to think of applications across the entire course.

Tools for Teaching Loneliness

If readers are now convinced that loneliness would be a great addition to their course, what are
the next steps? I will be sharing my process, but there is no one-size-fits-all. My
recommendation with new content or methods is always to start small, perhaps by adding a
single component, and then to build gradually. There is no need to restructure entire courses to
fit loneliness into the content.

I begin by administering a short version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Hughes et al., 2004). I
administer the scale in a Canvas activity (see the next section on Efficacy), but this could be
done in class using an audience participation tool. The instrument asks respondents to rate
three factors on a scale of 1 to 4, with 1 meaning “never” and 4 meaning “often.”

How often do you:

1. Feel that you lack companionship?
2. Feel left out?
3. Feel isolated from others?

Respondents can have scores between 3 and 12, with 10 being the cut-off for high loneliness. I
ask whether students think their score captures their current sense of loneliness, which can also
serve as a jumping-off point for discussions of context, validity, and reliability.

Following the administration of the loneliness scale, I provide a formal presentation on

loneliness. My slides are included in the folder that can be access with the QR code at the end
of this chapter. A recording that I use for my asynchronous courses can be viewed on YouTube:
https://youtu.be/wh_v7JAUZoo. If readers find this useful, please feel free to use it.

A basic outline of the topics covered in my presentation include:

1. Defining loneliness.
2. Dimensions of loneliness (intimate, relational, collective). Note: I often have a follow-up
question here asking students which of these types of loneliness is top of mind, and the
answer is always the intimate. I suppose Erik Erikson might have been on to something
with the “intimacy versus isolation” challenge of the young adult.
3. Demographics associated with loneliness.
4. Evolutionary and genetic roots of loneliness.
5. Behavioral outcomes of loneliness e.g., selfishness.
6. Interventions to reduce loneliness.
27

In addition to the formal presentation on loneliness, I follow up with relevant, organic

connections as the class progresses through each of the main topics of the course. For
example, I use the Cole et al. (2015) paper described earlier to introduce our discussion of the
biological psychology unit.

In addition to normal class discussion, loneliness lends itself to a variety of activities and
assessments, some of which I share below. Given the creativity of psychology instructors, I
imagine there are virtually endless ways to do this well.

Efficacy Evidence

Among the methods I have either attempted or considered are the following:
1. A pre-test/post-test administration of the short Loneliness Scale.
2. Self-reflection in a paper, video, group discussion, or online discussion.
3. A follow-up assessment in the form of a paper assignment or quiz.

The Activities
I administer two types of assessment. Complete details can be seen in the folder accessed
using the QR code at the end of the chapter. First, my presentation of information about
loneliness (currently an online recorded video) is followed by a low-stakes series of four
questions. This assessment factors into the students’ participation grade and the questions are
as follows:

1. What was your score on the Loneliness scale? (Answer in a text-box)

2. True/False: People have a loneliness "set point," which is like a setting on a thermostat.
This means that loneliness occurs any time you perceive that you have less connectivity
than you want. (The answer is “True.”)

3. Multiple Choice: Who is the most likely to feel lonely?

a. Correct: Younger adults
b. Incorrect: Children
c. Incorrect: Older adults
d. Incorrect: People of all ages are equally lonely.

4. True/False: Being lonely makes people behave in more unselfish ways. (The answer is
“False.”)

The second assessment takes the form of a self-reflection. I ask students to try out one
loneliness reduction activity from the list below:

1. Attend a campus event that you have wanted to try but haven't done yet. This can be
a speaker, concert, demonstration, club meeting, sporting event, or other similar activity.
Bring a friend or two along or just make some new friends!

2. Talk to strangers. Yes, I know, "stranger danger." Did you know the FBI reports fewer
than 100 stranger abductions of children each year? But you have still been taught to be
wary. If you're up for this activity, though, see if you can start a conversation with
someone you may normally ignore, such as the custodians in your dorm, your baristas,
or the person at the bus stop, among other possibilities. Kio Stark has a great TED talk
on talking with strangers.
28

3. Volunteer. Cal Poly maintains a list of volunteer activities or search out your own. See
if you can find something that really matches your interests and try it.

4. Be thankful. Is there a person in your life who really made a difference but you never
thanked them for it? Call, write, or visit that person and tell them why they matter.

Once the students have tried their chosen activity, they upload a one-page paper addressing
questions about whether they felt the activity impacted their loneliness and why. They also
complete a set of questions available using the QR code at the end of the chapter.

Sample Student Responses

It’s difficult to choose responses to share, but here are a few that have stood out. The students’
responses reflected themes of empathy, taking risks, and building community. If students are
comfortable sharing their responses, these can make an interesting basis for class discussion
centered around identifying common aspects of the experience.

For this activity, I chose to talk to strangers. I was in my friend's room and a decent
amount of people from the floor were coming in and a girl came in, she looked a bit
lonely and uncomfortable. I was not initially going to reach out to her but then I
considered how I would feel had it been me, and how I have felt that way in a handful of
situations since coming here, just hoping someone would reach out to me first. After
calling her over, we had a really good conversation and I went to her room. I then met
her roommate who was super cool as well. I felt so glad I wasn’t reluctant and closed off
and I instead went for it. I am now friends with her and her roommate and we’ve hung
out since. I think in terms of my social connectedness doing this really helped me realize
it’s easy to find people, they’re all around you and there’s no reason to mope around
over feeling lonely.

For this activity, I decided to call my high school best friend who I do not get to talk to as
often as I would like. I chose this activity because it allowed me to make a social
connection while still being able to be home and do my work. In my mind, it was easier
to incorporate into my otherwise busy schedule. I really enjoyed this activity! It felt great
to reconnect with a friend, even with it being on the phone and not in person. I do think
that this helped my social connectivity this week. I felt that I was able to work on my
studies and was a little happier after the phone call. I underestimated the impact that a
phone call would have on my loneliness. Talking to someone that I haven’t seen in a
while was a nice way to feel more connected.

One of my teammates, Aidan, regularly goes to Spikeball Club, and I really enjoy playing
spikeball, so I went to a club pickup game with him. I was nervous about going because
my teammate, Aidan, was going to be the only person I knew there. But, I reminded
myself that my goal was to put myself out there to make new friends, so that was
actually a good thing. I had a lot of fun at the club pickup game because everyone was
very inviting and friendly. This activity made me feel socially connected and I am glad I
went out of my comfort zone to further my friendship with Aidan and make new
connections with other students.

I chose activity #2, which was talking to a stranger. Every day, while getting my morning
coffee from Scout, I wait patiently for my drink and scroll through social media while I
wait. Since it’s still pretty early in the morning, everyone is fairly tired and quiet and in a
rush to get to their 8am class. Because of this, I normally don’t interact with the new
29

faces that I see in the coffee shop. However, this morning I realized that the girl standing
next to me was carrying the same tote bag as I was, and I did not hesitate to compliment
it. We both looked at each other and laughed as we noticed we were “twinning.” The
tote bag had been from my favorite jewelry store back home, called Gorjana. Since
Gorjana is a brand that originated in Laguna Beach and is incredibly popular amongst
teens in Orange County, I couldn’t help but ask her where she was from. I was
pleasantly surprised to find out that she was from my hometown. After getting deeper
into conversation with her, we found out we had plenty of mutual friends and went to
high schools 10 minutes away from each other. We exchanged numbers and will
definitely be keeping in touch! Although I have felt pretty socially connected throughout
this school year, this activity definitely contributed to that feeling. It was nice making a
new connection and beginning a new friendship over something as small as a tote bag.

The event invited Filipino clubs across the entire state of California (including Arizona) to
California State University Fullerton, we came together and celebrated our culture, built
a sense of community and gathering, and simply excited one another through unity.
There were games, food, dance, and performances. Although waking up at 5am, during
the event I was energetic, happy, and had no stressful thoughts. I was happy to be
there, especially since I saw some old friends back from elementary who went off to
different colleges. After the activity, though feeling more exhausted, I had so much fun. I
kept reminiscing about the day already. This activity had a huge impact on my social
connectedness. I met new people from different schools, while keeping in touch with old
friends I haven’t seen in years. It also gave me the opportunity to get to know members
in PCE a lot better.

I attended many different events throughout the week but for this activity I will focus on
KASA’s Wipeout Event. KASA is the Korean American Student Association on campus
and I joined this club because I wanted to meet more Korean people, especially being at
a PWI school. Also, you do not have to be Korean to join this club, it is just a cultural
club focused on Korean culture. I’ve been at Cal Poly for 2 months and have never gone
to the beach yet. I chose this activity because I thought it was a good opportunity to go
to the beach with a lot of new people that I can meet. On Saturday, we went to Grover
Beach to do games and activities with the club. I was on Team White and I competed in
the relay race game. Being involved in a game, especially a team game, brought me
closer with the people in my team and I got to meet more people. I felt happy that I was
spending my Saturday with a large group of people instead of staying in my dorm room
studying.

I choose to speak with a stranger. I chose this opportunity because I work full time as
well as attending school so attending a club meeting sounds wonderful but unfortunately
does not work for my schedule. There is a woman who works at Cal Poly who takes the
bus back north every few days like I do so I found it perfectly aligned with my schedule
and an opportunity to make a new friend! We started to talk about where she works on
campus, my school experience so far, and where to find better-priced campus
merchandise. After talking with her a few times I do feel a sense of connection to her
and we now say goodbye every time she gets off the bus! :D

On the class’ discussion boards (I provide extra credit for participation), this additional exchange
was fun:

I wanted to hop on here today and say how helpful I found the loneliness activity to be. I
work full-time while attending school so I don't really have a lot of time set aside to meet
30

or bond with other people so this activity was just the little push I needed! (This was the
same student in the post above who then elaborated on her interaction on the bus.)

I recently had to go on a trip with the band at Cal Poly up to the Sacramento area (UC
Davis) for the football team. I thought about your post and decided to sit next to
someone I don't usually talk to as much in the group of 42 people in my section and I
really enjoyed getting to know them better. Now when I see them at rehearsal and on
campus, I have the push to say hi and catch up a little bit rather than just nod at them
like before. Thanks for the idea!

Wrap-Up

● The topic of loneliness can be merged seamlessly and with little effort with existing
course content.
● Understanding loneliness benefits student well-being.
● Loneliness illustrates all of the pillars and cross-cutting themes recommended by the
APA IPI.
● Loneliness demonstrates the power of psychology to improve everyday life.
● Ways of presenting and assessing loneliness material are unlimited.
● For a copy of my PowerPoint presentation and background articles, please use the QR
code below or navigate to https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1wmHhhpITb-
aiWiwMjuFB8XNyjVRM7gbl?usp=sharing:

References

American Psychological Association. (2014). Strengthening the common core of the

introductory psychology course. https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/intro-psych-
report.pdf
Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Twenge, J. M. (2005). Social exclusion
impairs self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(4), 589—604.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.589
Cacioppo, J.T., & Cacioppo, S. (2018). The growing problem of loneliness. The Lancet, 391,
426. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30142-9
Cacioppo, S.B., & Calogh, S., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2015). Implicit attention to negative social, in
contrast to nonsocial, words in the Stroop task differs between individuals high and low
in loneliness: Evidence from event-related brain microstates. Cortex, 70, 213—233.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2015.05.032
Cigna (2018). Cigna U.S. loneliness index: Survey of 20,000 Americans examining behaviors
31

driving loneliness in the United States.

https://www.cigna.com/assets/docs/newsroom/loneliness-survey-2018-updated-fact-
sheet.pdf
Cole, S. W., Capitanio, J. P., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2015). Myeloid differentiation architecture of
leukocyte transcriptome dynamics in perceived social isolation. PNAS, 112, 15142—
15147. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1514249112
Distel, M., Rebollo-Mesa, I., Abdellaoui, A., Derom, C. A., Willemsen, G., Cacioppo, J. T., &
Boomsma, D.I. (2010). Familial resemblance for loneliness. Behavior Genetics, 40(4),
480—494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-010-9341-5
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A
meta-analytic review. PLoS Medicine, 7(7), Article e1000316.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316
Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004). A short scale for
Measuring loneliness in large surveys: Results from two population-based studies.
Research on Aging,26(6), 655—672. https://doi.org/0.1177/0164027504268574
Masi, C. M., Chen, H-Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2011). A meta-analysis of
interventions to reduce loneliness. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 219—
266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310377394
Sheldon, E., Simmonds-Buckley, M., Bone, C., Mascarenhas, T., Chan, N., Wincott, M.,
Gleeson, H.,Sow, K., Hind, D., & Barkham, M. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors for
mental health problems in university undergraduate students: A systematic review with
meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 287, 282—292.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.03.054

Author Contact Information

Laura Freberg, PhD

Professor of Psychology
College of Liberal Arts
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
[email protected]
32

4 Miller

Effective Strategies for Reading a Textbook

Summary
The purpose of this chapter is to provide students with proven strategies that will enhance their
reading comprehension including activating their previous knowledge, questioning, analyzing
text structure, visualization, summarizing, effective underlining, keyword mnemonic, self-testing,
elaborative interrogation, the SQ3R method, distributed practice, and note taking, Also, the
chapter addresses techniques that are not effective but are commonly used such as
highlighting, rereading, and cramming.

Introduction

Reading comprehension is a critical skill for academic success (Law et al., 2008; Savolainen et
al., 2008), especially in a student’s freshman year (Yip & Chung, 2005). When students are
assigned a chapter to read before class, there are those who do not read the chapter, and
others who are not sure what or how to read to be prepared for class. Bauer, Bradley, & Clump
(2003) found that only 27.46% of students completed assigned reading before class. Instructors
have long felt that it is not possible for them to cover all the important material in lecture/
discussions, so reading assignments are a critical aspect of student learning (Afflerbach, 2002).

This chapter will provide students with empirically proven strategies to enhance their
comprehension of material in a typical college textbook. Textbooks differ from most other forms
of writing including features generally not encountered in novels, articles, or other types of texts.
Many of these features contain information and clues about what the reader will find in the text.
Some of the strategies described in this chapter will provide techniques to utilize these features
to facilitate learning the important concepts contained in the textbook. I also post a summary of
several of these strategies on my course website. In my courses, there are weekly quizzes that
are based entirely on material in the textbook. After the first few weeks, I email students to tell
them that, if they are not doing well on the quizzes, they should come talk with me about how to
improve those grades. I have noticed that the students who talk with me start to earn much
better scores on the quizzes afterward. In my discussions with students, I talk about strategies
that I have found helpful as well as strategies they may be using that do not work that well.

Commonly Used Techniques that Don’t Work Well

Many students have come to rely on strategies that have been shown to be relatively ineffective,
especially if students want to retain their understanding of the content after the course has been
completed. For example, Morehead et al. (2016) found that students' self-reported study skills
are often not the same as empirically supported study strategies, and that while instructors
endorsed several effective study skills, they also held several beliefs about how to study that
were inconsistent with research in learning and memory, for example, learning styles.

Some of these ineffective strategies are highlighting, rereading, and cramming (Bjork et al.,
2013). In the summary prepared by Dunlosky and colleagues (2013), the authors noted that
most studies found that highlighting provided little benefit beyond that of simply reading. While
some research suggests that highlighting can, under certain circumstances, be beneficial, I
33

have listed it as ineffective because students are not normally trained in what they should
highlight (Yue et al., 2015).

While rereading is a common study strategy that students use (Karpicke et al., 2009), the
effectiveness of rereading has been found to be negligible (Callendar & McDaniel, 2009) and
can lead students to falsely believe they are gaining a deeper understanding of the material
when they are not (Brown et al., 2014). In fact, Dunlosky et al. (2013) suggest that:

although rereading is relatively economical with respect to time demands and

training requirements…, rereading is also typically much less effective. The
relative disadvantage of rereading to other techniques is the largest strike
against rereading and is the factor that weighed most heavily in our decision
to assign it a rating of low utility (p. 29)

Cramming can be a particularly poor choice of studying, especially if students sacrifice sleep to
cram. According to a longitudinal study conducted by O’Neel et al. (2012), students who lose
sleep as a result of cramming will have more trouble understanding material taught in class and
be more likely to do poorly on a test the following day.

So why are these strategies commonly chosen by students? According to Dunlosky (2013),
students often choose ineffective strategies for two reasons. First, teachers generally focus on
course content and not on how to best learn that content. Second, many educational
psychology textbooks do not adequately cover the research about which learning strategies are
most effective. Finally, some of the strategies that students choose take little planning, are easy
to do, do not require strenuous cognitive effort, and give students the illusion of mastery (Brown
et al., 2014).

The Basic Steps

Activate Background Knowledge. Research has shown that when students are engaged in
activities that bridge their old knowledge with the new, reading comprehension improves
(Starke, 2021). Students can ask themselves: What do I already know about this topic? This
simple question will help them connect their current reading to their already existing knowledge
and experience, which can make the new reading more engaging and allow the student to work
on expanding an already existing schema, instead of starting a new one.

Questioning. This is one of the methods that I tell students about, and I have found from both
improved performance and anecdotal comments that it seems to make a positive difference. In
this method, students should frame questions before, during and after reading to increase their
comprehension. This strategy allows students to monitor their understanding of the text
(Berkeley et al, 2011; Joseph et al., 2016). In addition to monitoring their understanding, self-
questioning leads to positive learning outcomes (Joseph et al., 2016). Prior to reading a section
of a textbook, students should look at the heading and consider what the author is most likely
trying to share. This provides the student with a question in mind when they read the text. In
addition, Brown and Pyle (2021) suggest that students should ask three types of questions
when reading a textbook. First, ask a “right now question” that focuses on the material
presented. For example, what are the essential facts mentioned? Second, students should ask
an “analytical question,” such as what does the author want me to understand from this
material? Finally, students should ask a “research question” that goes beyond the information in
the text and promotes more active learning, such as are their gender or cultural differences that
affect this finding?
34

Analyzing Text Structure. Textbooks tend to follow one of the following patterns in presenting
information: cause-effect, problem-solution, or a descriptive pattern like a list, web, or a matrix.
Students should analyze the structure of a text prior to reading the material. They can do this by
skimming some of what they are to read to identify how the authors organize their material.
Understanding the pattern in which the material is presented allows students to better
comprehend the information (Block & Pressley, 2002).

Visualization. Based on his dual encoding theory, Paivio (1986) suggested that the formation of
mental images aids learning and emphasizes the importance of visualizing material. Students
should try to form visual images as they read the text to increase comprehension. It is best if
students visualize concepts as structural images, charts, tables, or diagrams instead of mere
pictures since pictures tend to fade (Duke & Pearson, 2002; Pressley & Duke, 2002).

Summarizing. The ability to articulate a concise summary of the material that outlines only the
main points has been shown to enhance reading comprehension (Calfee & Patrick, 1995). Block
and Pressley (2002) defined this technique as “the ability to delete irrelevant details, combine
similar ideas, condense main ideas, and connect major themes into concise statements that
capture the purpose of a reading for the reader” (p.117).

Additional Steps to Improve Comprehension

Effective Underlining. Most students underline while studying (Blanchard & Mikkelson, 1987;
Brown & Smiley, 1978; Pressley, 2002). While underlining has received mixed reviews,
underlining can be effective if the student concentrates more on general statements and less on
examples and conclusions (Yue et al., 2015). Also, students should limit the number of words
and sentences that they underline for key points. Schnell and Rocchio (1978) describe three
ways to effectively underline including:

(1) underline the right amount by selecting keywords and phrases which, when read
together, make sense, (2) underline completely to be sure all main ideas are included;
and (3) underline correctly so that the information underlined and read in review will
reveal in capsule form the same information as the original passage” (p. 107).

They also suggest that teachers provide instruction on effective underlining starting with short
paragraphs that have been underlined in various ways and asking students to select the most
effective style.

Keyword Mnemonic. To create a keyword mnemonic, students first choose a keyword that
sounds like the word they are trying to understand and then form a mental image of that
keyword connecting it to the new word. Research on the use of keyword mnemonics has
frequently been used when students are confronted with unfamiliar terms. This technique has
been shown to be superior to several other approaches (Anari et al., 2015). For example, in a
study designed to teach science material, students were assigned one of the following
strategies: free study; pegword, where you link words with numbers; a method of loci, where
you associate what you are trying to memorize with a particular location with which you are
extremely familiar; and the keyword mnemonic. The students in the keyword mnemonic method
performed significantly better on the test as compared to the other three groups (Richmond et
al., 2008)

SQ3R Method. I was introduced to this method my first semester in college. I had never thought
about reading in a special way and so it was an eye opener and very helpful my freshman year.
35

This is one of the techniques that I provide to my students who have frequently thanked me.
The SQ3R method involves the following five steps.
1. Survey: Skim the chapter and take notes on headings, subheadings, images, or other
standout features like charts and graphs.
2. Question: Formulate questions about the chapter’s content. These could include what is
this chapter about or what do I already know about this topic?
3. Read: Read the full chapter and look for answers to the questions that were formulated.
4. Recite: After reading a section, summarize what was read. Try to recall and identify
major points and answer the questions that were formulated in step 2.
5. Review: After completing the reading of the chapter, it’s important to review the material
to fully understand it. Quiz yourself on the questions that were created and re-read any
portions, if needed.

Active Engagement

The Testing Effect. When I talk with students, I explain that this is one of the most effective
ways of improving long-term memory of what is read and is known as the testing effect,
sometimes referred to as retrieval practice, active recall, practice testing, or test-enhanced
learning. Without knowing anything about the research, I began to use a version of this when I
was a senior in high school. I recorded what I thought were key questions and then before bed I
would play back the recording and answer the questions. I include information about this
technique on my course website as well.

When students test themselves on what they have read, it can be more effective than repeated
studying (Butler, 2010). Self-testing seems to work because it creates multiple retrieval routes
for memory, allowing students to form lasting connections among concepts (McDaniel &
Fischer, 1991) while blocking unnecessary information, all of which leads to improved retention
(Schneider et al., 2002) and improved schema recall (Martin, 1968). It also seems to work best
when students wait awhile before testing themselves (Karpicke & Roediger, 2008). So, if
students read the material in the morning, they should test themselves that evening. According
to Roediger and colleagues (2021), the benefits of student self-testing include the following:

● Aids later retention

● Identifies knowledge gaps
● Aids future related learning
● Prevents interference from prior material in future learning
● Aids transfer of knowledge to new contexts
● Aids knowledge organization
● Aids retrieval of untested information
● Improves metacognitive monitoring
● Encourages study intentions

Elaborative Interrogation. The key to elaborative interrogation involves generating an

explanation for why an explicitly stated fact or concept is true. This can take the form of Why
does it make sense that…? or Why is this true? or simply Why?, although most of the research
on this technique had students ask: Why would this fact be true of this [X] and not some other
[X]? (Dunloski et al., 2013). Elaborative interrogation seems to enhance learning by supporting
the integration of new information with existing prior knowledge. During elaborative
interrogation, learners presumably “activate schemata . . .which in turn, help to organize new
information which facilitates retrieval” (Willoughby & Wood, 1994, p. 140). According to
Rawson & VanOverscheide (2008), elaborative-interrogation effects are larger when
36

elaborations are precise, when prior knowledge is higher, and when the students generate
their own elaborations.

Distributed Practice. Many students mass much of their studying prior to tests and believe this
popular cramming strategy is effective. Research on distributing learning over time (either in a
single session or across sessions) typically benefits long-term retention more than massing
study activities in relatively close succession (see Benjamin & Tullis, 2010). The distributed-
practice effect is robust. In a review of 254 studies, Cepeda et al. (2006) found that students
recalled significantly more after spaced study than after massed study.

Note Taking. Several studies have shown that taking notes increases students’ attention while
they read, which has been shown to increase their comprehension (Taraban et al., 2004;
Phakiti, 2006; Motallebzadeh & Mamdoodi, 2011). According to Kiewra and colleagues (1995),
summarizing one’s notes is more beneficial when the students first highlight fundamental words,
sentences, or phrases before writing them in their own words. Note taking also can enhance
students’ interest in the material and cause them to read more carefully. Research by Piotat and
Olive (2004) found that students are more focused on the sorting and coding of the information
when they take notes. One valuable approach to taking notes is the Cornell Note Taking System
available at https://lsc.cornell.edu/how-to-study/taking-notes/cornell-note-taking-system/

Wrap-Up
To improve reading comprehension students can use several techniques including:
● Activate background knowledge
● Questioning
● Analyzing text structure
● Visualization
● Summarizing
● Effective Underlining
● Keyword Mnemonic
● The SQ3R Method
● Self-testing
● Elaborative Interrogation
● Distributed practice
● Note Taking

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Author Contact Information

Richard L. Miller, Ph. D.

Piper Professor of Psychology
Department of Psychology and Sociology
Texas A&M University – Kingsville
[email protected]
40

5 Moroz & Bradsford

Engaged Learning Approaches: Dynamic Processes for Effective Study Habits

Summary
Three specific engaged learning approaches will be described, K-W-L, Double Entry Journal,
and Connections Grid. Once students understand each strategy they will find value in using
them as ongoing study tools that assist in deepening comprehension. The engaged learning
approaches shared here ultimately serve as powerful before, during, and after reading
strategies that increase individual learning and allow students to actively participate in their
deepened understanding of content throughout a unit of study. The approaches enhance overall
student understanding by helping them learn to set a purpose for their interaction with content.
This content may be delivered through various formats including text reading, media viewing,
listening to a lecture, or any combination of these formats. Authors recommend that instructors
work to fully understand each approach themselves and then, through modeling, work to show
students how the strategy can enhance students’ ability to independently increase content
understanding.

Introduction: Why Use Engaged Strategies?

Teaching psychology requires extensive content knowledge, but it is equally essential that
instructors are steeped in “effective teaching pedagogies that meet the diverse needs of
today's… students who expect to be involved in their learning and to see the relevancy of the
coursework” (Bransford et al., 2011, p. 8). To this end, within this chapter three specific
engaged learning approaches are described. These engaged approaches allow students to
practice “analyzing a large amount of text to determine what ideas are most critical to their
understanding of the material” (Bransford et al., 2011, p. 114). The intent is that each approach
should be modeled and practiced within online or face-to-face classrooms. Once students
understand each approach, they can use them independently or in small group study as
effective ongoing study tools that assist in deepening understanding throughout an entire unit of
study, not solely as a tool for an upcoming assessment. The engaged learning approaches
shared here will ultimately serve as powerful before, during, and after reading approaches that
increase individual learning and allow students to actively participate in content comprehension
further enhancing content understanding. The dynamic nature of these approaches move
students beyond rote memorization of terms and concepts as they, instead, manipulate
essential key concepts in ways that show the interconnectedness and relevancy of each.

Connections to APA IPI Integrative Themes

The American Psychological Association’s (APA) Introduction to Psychology Initiative (IPI)
website highlights effective components of studying. An important skill that is addressed is the
need for full attention on the content to be learned and students understanding that multitasking
is not effective in the learning process. The website also emphasizes that learning takes time
and effort. A study technique that is described is elaboration, which encourages students to
make meaningful associations with the content by connecting material to things that they
already know, creating examples, and asking questions. Metacognition is also highlighted and is
a student’s awareness of their own level of understanding of the learning material. The website
emphasizes that students new to a content area struggle the most with metacognition. One
effective metacognition technique is to encourage students to teach the material to someone
else or to write down what they know and check it against the content material. The study
techniques shared in this article parallel the recommendations mentioned above.
41

Importance of Engaged Learning Approaches as Study Tools

The following engaged learning approaches are derived primarily from reading comprehension
research and emphasize how critical it is to teach students to be deliberate at all stages of
reading, ultimately being able to be used as effective independent and small group study tools.
Each approach heightens engagement with the content as students actively participate in their
learning process and learn to set a purpose for their reading. This setting of a purpose
enhances understanding. Applying these approaches allows one to make their implicit thinking
more explicit. This explicit thought process leads "... readers [to] think not only about what they
are reading but about what they are learning" (Harvey & Goudvis, 2007, p. 15). With this
increased focus on intentional reading, students are able to pose relevant questions, connect to
prior knowledge, and identify pertinent details or main themes. Students are then able to
synthesize the reading and extend their understanding as they move from passive reading to
active engagement with the content, intentionally slowing down their reading to make
connections, ask questions, and create ongoing purpose for their reading. This active
engagement leads to higher level thinking and ultimately higher levels of motivation to deepen
understanding through ongoing reading, research, discussion, and independent and group
study.

To guide students through specific engaged learning approaches, it is recommended that this
type of active engagement is modeled by the instructor as they use gradual release, as
described below, ensuring students know how to effectively use each approach. The ultimate
goal is that once modeled, students are eager and able to utilize the approaches independently
as they either prepare for class or as they study on their own or in a small group. “Gradual-
release is a technique that allows instructors to model the strategy, share the thought
processes, and guide understanding as instruction gradually moves from instructor-directed to
independent student work” (Bransford et al., 2011, p. 15). Through effective gradual release,
rather than “simply” assigning a given approach (i.e. K-W-L), instructors use class time to walk
students through a given engaged learning approach, modeling their own process of content
engagement that occurs prior to, during, and after the assigned reading. For example, part of
this dynamic thought process that instructors could model would be how different types of
questions can be generated and how questions may continue to arise as students begin
engaging with the content. By seeing this explicit type of metacognition modeled by a trusted
content mentor, students will see how using the engaged learning approach moves them
beyond surface understanding and can therefore support their own learning when used in
independent or small group study. Once secured as an understood approach, students will use
it independently alongside their reading. As students use the strategies independently as a
study tool, the time to complete will vary based on the length and complexity of assigned
reading and students' prior knowledge of the topic.

To effectively support student learning, it is the instructor’s responsibility as the content expert to
determine to what extent they need to insert themselves to most effectively use the approach.
This decision, in large part, is determined by the difficulty of the upcoming content and the
instructor’s assumptions of students’ prior knowledge of the given content. If it is believed, for
example, that many students will come into a topic with very little knowledge of it, the instructor
may want to identify key terms to be used within a given study tool rather than asking students
to identify them. Conversely, if the upcoming content is connected to prior course information
then it can be very effective to have students choose the key concepts, as this in itself
encourages engagement with the content as students decipher which terms to use.

Students, too, should understand that there are different options for how these tools can be
used. Once they understand how to use the tool, the students may decide to use it
independently or within small study groups. When in small groups, students can collaborate to
42

create, compare, and/or contrast their initial and ongoing work with a given tool. Additionally,
using the following approaches in small group study allows for sharing by peers with different
levels of understanding and potentially varying perspectives. Both increase one’s basic
understanding of the topic, "jogs" prior learning experiences from memory, and may bring forth
new connections as students practice teaching content to others.

Engaged Learning Approaches and Examples

Know-Want to Know-Learned (KWL)

Flood et al. (1986) describe Know-Want to Know-Learned (KWL) as a tool that helps students
become more intentionally engaged with content, thus serving as an effective study tool. This
cognitive engagement begins with students accessing their prior knowledge about the content
and/or personal experience(s) they have had with the area of study (as listed in the "Know"
column). Students then formulate questions or areas for further inquiry and record these in the
“Want to Know” column; this step is important because it helps students identify personal
learning outcomes that align with outcomes set by the instructor. With these individual outcomes
established, students approach the assigned readings/viewings with a focus of determining the
relevancy to their posed questions. During their reading/viewing students then synthesize newly
found understandings about the content in the “Learned” column, a process that may identify
additional areas of interest for further exploration. With the ultimate goal being that students will
use this tool in independent or group study, it is essential they fully understand what is the intent
of each column as described below.

The purpose of the "Know" column is for students to reflect on and record what they know about
the content based on prior academic or personal learning experiences. Students should be
encouraged to be as thorough as possible when compiling this previously known information
and to revisit this column as they read/view the content. Doing so provides students with an
ongoing opportunity to check and recheck what they believed they knew about the content and
to make adjustments as their understanding is confirmed or disconfirmed.

In the "Want to Know" column, students record questions based on the curiosity that the “Know”
column generated. These could be extensions to ideas they believe they know or they could be
self-identified gaps in understanding about the content. The questions could also be generated
from concepts that come to mind as they preview the text or topic. Additionally, as students dive
into the actual content, more questions hopefully will arise, providing additional motivation to
continue reading to learn more about the content. These questions should be added to the
“Want to Know” column as they read/view.

The "Learned" column is completed during or after students read or view assigned content.
Bradford et al. (2011) explain that:

The information in the ‘Learned’ column, at times, will be directly connected to

the questions generated in the ‘Want to Know Column.’ At other times, the ideas
added to the ‘Learned’ column will be new pieces of information related to the
topic that show a deeper understanding than what was reflected in the initial
‘Know’ or ‘Want to Know Column’” (p. 54).

In either case, it is recommended that students reference where the information they are adding
to the “Learned” column is found. Further learning occurs as students revisit their "Know" and
“Want to Know” columns, editing any initial misunderstandings, and analyzing which questions
were indeed answered and what new questions may have arisen.
43

Figure 1

K-W-L Worksheet

As a study tool, this engaged learning approach is a dynamic process for understanding the
content at a deeper level. Bradford et al. (2011) offer the following as an example:

When filling out the ‘Want to Know’ column there may be additional items they
want to add to their ‘Know’ column, or when filling out the ‘Learned’ column there
may be new questions that arise that should then be added to the ‘Want to Know’
column. It is important, as well, to model that even after learning about the topic
there may be items in the initial ‘Know’ column that are now known to be
inaccurate and therefore should be edited (p. 49).

Table 1

Content Specific Example

Topic: Lifespan Development
Know Want to Know Learned

There are varied stages in each What might happen in a I learned through the study of
person’s life and that there are person’s life that would cause attachment in infants that
different common ways they them NOT to develop in some of children are categorized into four
develop in each of those stages. the same ways as others within groups. The categories are set
those same stages. by their relationship with their
caregivers. There is one type of
secure attachment and three
types of insecure attachment.

There are stages of prenatal How do some of the factors that I learned that fetal alcohol
development and there are impact a developing fetus end syndrome permanently alters a
some factors that can alter up impacting a person’s life in person physically and
development within a developing later stages of development? behaviorally. For example a
fetus. person with FAS may have poor
coordination and/or memory.

As we look at this strategy with APA’s IPI Integrative Themes in mind we are reminded that, as
Riswanto et al. (2014) note, “According to Lenski (2004), KWL strategy helps [students] become
44

good readers by getting them to do many of the things that good readers do. This strategy gets
[students to] relate new information to what they already know when they confirm or disconfirm
the information in the K column” (p. 227). The ability to do this type of confirmation or
disconfirmation and to establish additional “Want to Know” questions, requires full focus of
attention on the content. Full focus is also required to answer these questions while reading and
actively monitoring their own comprehension. In the L column students summarize what they
read, by putting information in their own words to better comprehend their level of knowledge,
ultimately assessing their own metacognition. Figure 1 below provides a template and is a great
starting point for use of this strategy (https://notebookingfairy.com/). The specific example in
Table 1 is intended to help readers fully understand how this strategy may be utilized with
psychology content.

Double Entry Journals

The Double Entry Journal engaged learning approach allows learners to be more intentional
while reading as they record key aspects of the content and then work to make relevant
connections. Double Entry Journals allow students “to ask questions, make predictions, reread
for clarification, and make connections to prior experiences or background knowledge”
(Bransford et al., 2011, p. 31). Indeed “...by using the double-entry journal's strategy, students
became more critical, directed, and [had] the opportunity…to think as broad[ly] as possible”
(Hsieh, as cited by Probogati et al., 2019, p. 172).

Figure 2

Example of Double-Journal Entry

To begin, students create a visual that has two columns, the left one labeled “Idea from Text”
and the right “Reaction/Connection” (see Figure 2). The process of filling in these two columns
as they read or view content prompts students to track and focus their thinking, which facilitates
deeper understanding. As students dive into content they should stop long enough to record any
emphasized concepts, or “pieces of information [from] the text that [they] want to better
understand or expand upon” making sure to include a page reference (Modjeski, 2010, para. 3).
These ideas are recorded in the left column. It is important for students to understand that each
reader will identify different key points depending on their own background knowledge or
experience and that in this space they should not simply record the name of a term/concept/
theory but rather record portions of text that provide a complete thought that captures the
identified key content. As a study tool, direct text references are most helpful and students
should always include a page number so that they can return to that section of the text as
45

needed for further review. In the right column, then, students record connections or an in-depth
reaction as to why each specific detail was identified. Reactions should reflect the reader’s
response to the text and may include statements of surprise, confusion, or desire for additional
information. When choosing to make connections students can share text-to-text (within the
same text or other related content), text-to-self (related personal experiences), or text-to-world
(connection to broader society). Examples of each type, including potential sentence starters,
are shared below from Nugent and Nugent (1984):

● text-to-text (“This portion reminds me of what we read in Chapter 3 because…”),

● text-to-self (“As I read this I am reminded about when I was 12 and how I…”), and/or
● text-to-world (“Wow. This is interesting because it makes me think about the societal
norms of …”).

In terms of the right-hand column, the ultimate goal is to elaborate on the reactions or
connections in order to show higher level thinking. This elaboration process may need to be
modeled by instructors who share how they move from a more surface-level response by
expanding the connection or reaction to show higher-level thinking. For both instructors and
students, it is important to:

Understand that [reactions or] connections made may be more surface level
because of a lack of prior knowledge or understanding of the content; use this as
an opportunity to formatively assess the varying levels of understanding,” and
return as needed to the content to deepen understanding (Bransford et al., 2011,
p. 37).

Table 2

Content Specific Example

Idea from Text Reaction/Connection

“FASDs refer to a collection of diagnoses This is surprising to me because I had always thought that
that represent the range of effects that Fetal Alcohol Syndrome was just one diagnosis so I am
can happen to a person who was exposed excited to read more about how it presents itself differently
to alcohol before birth.” (NCBDDD, 2022) in different individuals. I am also looking forward to finding
out more about, based on the different levels of diagnosis,
if there are different ways to work to help those with the
different levels of concern. I am assuming there is but
want to confirm that through further study.
*Example of reaction stating surprise

“FASDs can occur when a person is This relates to the earlier part of the chapter that described
exposed to alcohol before birth. Alcohol in how alcohol can impact the stages of prenatal
the mother’s blood passes to the baby development. During the embryonic phase major internal
through the umbilical cord.” (NCBDDD, and external organs are formed.
2022) *Example of text-to-text connection

Example reading source: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/facts.html

Once students are comfortable with the Double Entry Journal process they may choose to alter
the process slightly by marking specific details directly in their text as they read, going back later
to record those parts of the text in the left column of their journal and the corresponding reaction
46

or connection in the right as shown in the content specific example in Table 2. “By doing so,
students are still slowing down as they make initial connections but are also reaping the
additional benefit of then reviewing what they have learned by going back and adding their
individual [reaction or connection]” (Bransford et al., 2011, p. 37).

While Double Entry Journals are effective for individual use, they are also useful when used in
small group study sessions. In that setting it is recommended that students share the key details
they chose from the text and then discuss the connections and reactions. Doing so allows for
each student to see the way others approached the reading and to raise questions. This not
only allows them to verbalize their own understanding of the content but also allows them to
then expand that understanding as they listen to how others in the group processed the
information in similar or slightly different ways, again highlighting APA’s integrative theme of
students teaching content to others.

Connections Grid
The Connections Grid, developed by co-author Dr. Karen Moroz, is an engaged learning
approach that encourages students to analyze and synthesize information at a higher level of
thinking. It is best used after the subject matter has been introduced and students have had the
time to assimilate the information and to gain an understanding of each individual
term/concept/theory. When using the Connections Grid as a study tool, students are able to
interact with text or other learning experiences that help them understand each individual
term/concept/theory by creating a chart where they link key words in horizontal, vertical, and
diagonal rows, and columns to make associations.

Figure 3

Example Layout for Connections Grid

7↘ 4↓ 5↓ 6↓ ↙
8
1→

2→

3→

(Moroz, 2000)

The first step of using a Connections Grid is to create a three by three grid made up of nine
separate cells (see Figure 3). Next, students identify nine key terms/concepts/theories, which
are critical to the focus of the content, and they place one in each of the nine cells. As students
add the terms or key concepts, it is suggested they add page numbers of where that content is
found in the text. These key terms/concepts/theories are selected from the reading and/or other
learning that may have occurred in class related to the content; a psychology specific example
is shown in Table 3. The process of selecting these nine key terms gives students practice
analyzing a larger amount of text to determine what ideas are most critical to their
understanding of the material. Referencing the page numbers in each box will facilitate further
discussions in small group study sessions and/or allow students to look back at each term as
they use the completed grid and sentences in individual study.
47

Once the key terms have been identified and added to their grid, students work to create higher
level connections among the terms in horizontal, vertical, and diagonal rows and columns. It is
important for students to know that, as they work to connect the given three terms from any one
line, they can:

● Change the order of the terms listed on a given row, column, or diagonal line (i.e. they
do not have to move left to right or top to bottom),
● Alter the grammatical form of the term (i.e. past to present tense; singular to plural),
and/or
● Write more than one sentence.

The process of writing these nine sentences or groups of sentences makes students elaborate
on each term/concept/theory in a manner that expands their knowledge of the
interconnectedness of the three terms/concepts/theories.

As a study tool, the Connections Grid allows students to assess their understanding of the
terms/concepts/theories and to learn to elaborate. This elaboration is critical to student learning
because, as emphasized on the APA’s (2022) Introductory Psychology Initiative website, it
encourages students to make meaningful associations with the content by connecting material
to things that they already know, creating examples, and asking questions. Metacognition is
also highlighted which is a student’s awareness of their own level of understanding of the
learning material. For example, if a student has difficulty making an authentic connection
between given terms/concepts/theories, “they realize the necessity of thorough
term/concept/theory understanding. This realization prompts students to deepen comprehension
of the terms/concepts/theories by revisiting course information before trying to make
connections” (Bransford et al., 2011, p. 119). Indeed, completing a Connections Grid allows
students to further their ability to comprehend the information and to illustrate how
terms/concepts/theories interrelate as they "merge their thinking with text information, [and] to
stop, think, and react to the information" (Harvey & Goudvis, 2007, p. 98).

Table 3

Content Specific Example

Connections Grid
7↘ 4↓ 5↓ 6↓ ↙
8
1→
Secure attachment Human attachment Dr. Harlow
styles
2→
Dr. Ainsworth Temperament Parenting

3→
Strange Situation Attachment Insecure attachment
Classification

1→Dr. Harlow’s monkey experiments helped us understand human attachment styles such as
secure attachment. The monkeys grew the most attached to the cloth mother, who provided no
nourishment for the monkeys, and showed that love and comfort were important for attachment.
48

4 ↓ Dr. Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation Classification technique to observe

attachment in children. She observed that a child with a secure attachment style usually
explores freely while the caregiver is present, becomes upset when the caregiver departs, and
is happy to see the caregiver return.

7↘ Temperament is individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, and is influenced by

heredity, maturation, and experience. Infants require responsive parenting to their unique needs
to foster secure attachment and to decrease the possibility of insecure attachment even for a
child with a difficult temperament.

Students’ Reflections on Their Use of Engaged Approaches

The engaged learning approaches reviewed in this chapter have been utilized in the authors’
classrooms and are based on years of educational research, in both K-12 and higher education
settings. Each research-based strategy was modeled and discussed within the authors’ faculty
learning community. Once utilized within classrooms, further dialogue about strategy
implementation, effectiveness, and potential for student independent implementation while
studying was held. Classroom surveys, providing student perspectives on each strategy, were
conducted and student responses regarding each specific approach are shared in this section.

KWL Student Feedback

When providing feedback on using K-W-L, students in college classes stated K-W-L:

● “...Allows you to focus on what you don’t know–saving time by not studying what you
already know.”
● “Provided a process to connect current knowledge to new learning. I built upon what I
already knew and this made it easy.”
● “Activated my curiosity level.”

Double Entry Journal Student Feedback

About Double Entry Journal, a college student shared:

During this past summer, I took [one of your classes]. Well, this fall, while reading
chapters and articles for my other courses, I found myself making double entry journals
and charts (esp. when I was learning new theories) much to my surprise. It was not an
intentional decision, but came rather naturally and was very helpful. It was especially
helpful for discussion board entries. I was able to focus on one or two quotes, jot my
reaction and then post it on the discussion board. I just thought you would appreciate
knowing that you influenced this adult in her reading-- and helped streamline the
learning process. I know I appreciate your influence!

Connections Grid Student Feedback

Finally, in response to using the Connections Grid, the following are samples of student
reactions:

● "By forcing us to relate topics, it challenged us to think and synthesize the information."
● "It forced me to actually look at the main concepts of each chapter and try to connect
them."
49

● "By comparing the different terms and linking them together... I learned more about
them."

Conclusion and Suggestions

It is the authors’ hope that, as instructors and students experience the benefits of using these
engaged learning approaches as study tools, they will seek additional ways to utilize them
throughout their learning and teaching. While the possibilities are endless a few specific
suggestions are to:

● Start a class session with students sharing their initial work on a given tool. Students can
share what they believe they understood and what gaps may still exist. Instructors and
students can then use that information as formative assessment to determine how to
proceed to ensure a deepened understanding of the given content.
● Allow students to use completed tools while taking exams.
● Structure classroom discussions around the completed tools.
● Use one of the approaches as the format for an exam rather than a “traditional” multiple
choice, short answer, or essay formatted exam.
● Create a classroom activity wherein groups are responsible for completing one of the
tools collectively after having independently read a given assignment.
● Have students use the engaged tools throughout a course’s duration and then, by
critically reviewing them at the end of the course, submit a reflection on their key
learning throughout the course.

Wrap-Up

● Utilizing engaged learning approaches allows students to interact with text in a manner
that increases comprehension.
● The approaches help students to set a purpose for their reading. This ultimately
enhances student understanding.
● Each of these approaches can be used as an independent study tool or in small study
groups.
● The engaged learning approaches shared in this chapter require students to manipulate
content in a manner that helps them see the interconnectedness of information within a
given unit of study.
● Authors recommend that instructors model each approach, ensuring that students
understand how to effectively use the approach.
● Instructors, once familiar with each approach, are encouraged to make modifications for
varied situations and modalities.
● These tools parallel several of the APA’s IPI’s aspects of effective studying: the need for
full attention on the content to be learned, metacognition, and elaboration.
50

● The QR code (and Google drive folder) provide the templates shared in Figures 1, 2,
and 3 allowing instructors and students easy access to the K-W-L, Double Entry Journal,
and Connections Grid approaches. It also contains simple reminders for students for use
in independent or small group study. It is important to note that the template is not
intended to be used by students without any prior guidance and practice with the tools.
The reminders are cues about how they learned to use the approach in class. They are
not standalone directions.

References

American Psychological Association. (2022). APA introductory psychology initiative:

Recommendations for teaching introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/undergrad/introductory-psychology-initiative/pilot
Bransford, K., Moroz, K., & Nippert, A. (2011). Intentional learning at its best: Engaged
learning strategies in higher education. Nova Science Publishers.
Flood, J., Lapp, D., & Farnan, N. (1986). A reading-writing procedure that teaches
expository paragraph structure. Reading Teacher, 39, 556-562.
Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2007). Strategies that work. Stenhouse.
Modjeski, M. (2010). Comprehension strategies: Double entry journals.
https://comprehensionstrategies-mikkimodjeski.weebly.com/double-entry-journals.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/facts.html
Nugent, H., & Nugent, S. (1984). Young adult literature: From middle school to college
[Paper]. Annual Meeting of the New England Association of Teachers of English.
Providence, RI.
Probogati, R. A. & Syamsi, K. (2019). Effectiveness of double entry journals strategies
learning to write text description. International e-Journal of Educational Studies (IEJES),
3(6), 167-173. https://doi.org/10.31458/iejes.604879
Riswanto, D. (2014). The effect of using KWL (Know, Want, Learned) strategy on EFL
students’ reading comprehension achievement. International Journal of Humanities and
Social Science, 4, 7(1).
https://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_4_No_7_1_May_2014/28.pdf

Authors Contact Information

Karen L. Moroz, EdD

Associate Professor and Program Director
School of Education and Leadership
Hamline University
[email protected]
Twitter @KarenMoroz; LinkedIn Karen Moroz

Kris Bransford, PhD

Professor of Psychology, Emerita
Concordia University St. Paul
[email protected]
51

6 Paquette-Smith, Imundo, & Clark

Encouraging Retrieval Practice

Summary
One of the goals of introductory psychology is to teach students how to study effectively by
using evidence-based learning strategies. This toolbox activity is designed to encourage
students to incorporate retrieval practice (or self-testing) into their own studying by providing
evidence that retrieval practice enhances memory and by giving them resources to practice
implementing this strategy. First, students complete an in-class activity (1 hour) that involves
graphing and interpreting simplified data from a paper to discover the benefit of retrieval practice
over restudying (based on Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Then, in preparation for the midterm
exam, students work collaboratively with a group of peers to complete a series of multiple-
choice practice questions. Finally, we provide students with a tool to use retrieval practice in
their own studying by giving them access to a wider range of questions that we have generated
and posted online (TestYourself, see https://testyourself.psych.ucla.edu/). Data collected across
multiple quarters indicate these activities increase students' awareness of the benefits of self-
testing. Participating in the collaborative testing activity also seems to improve students’
retention of the tested material. Finally, students report that the questions posted on the online
TestYourself bank were helpful, and they recommend a resource like this be provided in other
classes.

Introduction

There is substantial evidence to suggest that practice testing (or retrieval practice) leads to
more durable learning than simply restudying the to-be-learned material (Adesope et al., 2017;
Carrier & Pashler,1992; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Although typically investigated in
controlled laboratory settings, there is also evidence that practice testing is a beneficial strategy
to enhance student learning in large undergraduate classrooms (Hattikudur & Postle, 2011;
McDaniel et al., 2012; Trumbo et al., 2016). These findings have led many instructors to
incorporate practice quizzes into their classes and to recommend that their students “quiz
themselves” while studying (see retrievalpractice.org or learningscientists.org for student-
directed guides on using retrieval practice). Despite evidence that retrieval practice enhances
learning, students often rely on other less effective study strategies like highlighting or re-
reading (Karpicke et al., 2009). In this toolbox activity, we take a three-pronged approach to
introduce students to retrieval practice and encourage them to use this strategy in their own
studying. In the “Learning about Retrieval Practice” activity, students are asked to graph and
interpret simplified data that demonstrates the effectiveness of retrieval practice over restudying
(Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). In the “Engaging in Retrieval Practice” activity, students work with
peers to complete multiple-choice questions related to course content. Finally, in the
“Independent Retrieval Practice” activity, students are given access to a large bank of online
test questions (see https://testyourself.psych.ucla.edu/) which they can use to self-test in
preparation for future course assessments.

Learning About Retrieval Practice Activity

The Learning about Retrieval Practice activity is designed to introduce students to retrieval
practice. The content covered in this activity relates broadly to the Cognitive pillar of American
Psychological Association’s (APA, 2014) Introductory Psychology Initiative’s (IPI) 5 pillars of
introductory psychology. This activity is designed to have students graph and interpret data on
the effectiveness of retrieval practice versus restudying the to-be-learned materials (based
52

loosely on Roediger and Karpicke, 2006), and guide them towards drawing the conclusion that
retrieval practice leads to more durable learning. In the Roediger and Karpicke (2006) study,
participants study a passage then either test themselves (by writing down everything they can
remember on a blank sheet of paper) or study the passage a second time. The authors found
that when the final free recall test was administered after a delay (as opposed to immediately)
practice testing enhanced participants’ memory for the passage over restudying. This particular
study was chosen as the model study for two reasons: 1) the design could be easily simplified
into one with a single independent variable and dependent variable, which matches the
simplified types of designs that students had previously been exposed to in the course, and 2) it
demonstrates an easy-to-implement method of retrieval practice (i.e., taking a blank sheet of
paper and writing down everything they can remember). The activity itself and the instructions
given to students are described in greater detail below.

Engaging in Retrieval Practice Activity

According to the APA (2021) IPI, one of the learning outcomes of introductory psychology is for
students to be able to “apply psychological principles to personal growth and other aspects of
everyday life” (Learning Outcome 1.3). In the second activity students are given the opportunity
to use retrieval practice in class to prepare for an upcoming exam. To facilitate this, students are
given a series of multiple-choice quizzes that align with course learning objectives and mirror
the types of questions they could see on an exam. Students are asked to complete two 10-item
quizzes in a group of 4-5 people and two 10-item quizzes alone. The quizzes were designed
such that students were provided with correct answer feedback at the end of each quiz. We
consider students working together with their group to be a key component of this activity, as a
number of studies have demonstrated that taking tests in groups (collaborative testing) may be
a more potent learning experience than testing individually (see Gilley & Clarkston, 2014;
Imundo et al., unpublished manuscript; Ives, 2015). In groups, students have the opportunity to
discuss and resolve misconceptions that they might not have been able to correct on their own
and they can benefit from the collective knowledge of their peers (see Smith et al., 2009). This
activity takes approximately 50 minutes of class time.

Independent Retrieval Practice with the TestYourself Bank

Students often have difficulty finding and/or generating high-quality practice questions, thus
after the Engaging in Retrieval Practice activity students are given a larger bank of multiple-
choice questions to test themselves with (see https://testyourself.psych.ucla.edu/). The test
bank currently contains over 200 multiple-choice practice questions organized by topic (e.g.,
research methods, biological psychology, social psychology). In line with the APA’s (2014)
recommendations, the bank includes content from each of the 5 pillars of introductory
psychology. Once a student selects a topic, they are presented with a quiz containing a set of
questions about that topic. The questions have been designed with the science of learning in
mind (e.g., including competitive lures; see Little et al., 2012; Little & Bjork, 2015) and focus on
applying key ideas to new contexts.

Tools for Sharing

Learning About Retrieval Practice Activity Worksheet and Slides

In our class the Learning about Retrieval Practice activity is embedded in a longer lab that
occurs in the second week of the course. Up to this point students have learned about
experimental design and are familiar with terms like independent variable, dependent variable,
random sampling, and random assignment. For the purposes of this e-book, we have
highlighted the subset of the activity that is directly related to self-testing in yellow. The other
questions included on the worksheet (in red) can be removed as instructors see fit.
53

Before beginning the worksheet, we recommend providing a brief introduction to the topic (i.e.,
effective study strategies) along with a description of the model “retrieval practice vs.
restudying” experiment. Slides for the 20-minute instructor-led introduction are provided here.
As this is the first course in our psychology major, students may or may not be familiar with how
to create a graph or interpret data. To scaffold the practical graphing component of the activity,
the introduction includes a simplified description of a study comparing massed versus spaced
practice (based on Rawson & Kintsch, 2005), in which students are shown how to graph the
data from this study in Google Sheets or Excel and draw conclusions based on the means. This
detailed example may not be necessary in courses where students have had more experience
working with data or are familiar with inferential statistics.

At the end of the presentation, students are introduced to the “retrieval practice vs restudying”
experiment for which they will graph data and draw conclusions about on their worksheet. We
have simplified the design of the study so there is a single independent variable (i.e., practice
test vs. restudy) that is manipulated between subjects. The means of the practice testing and
restudy conditions in the dataset match the means reported in Experiment 1 of Roediger and
Karpicke (2006). In our simplified description of the study, participants are randomly assigned to
the “restudy” and “practice test” conditions. Participants assigned to the “restudy” condition read
a passage for 7 minutes and then restudy the same passage for another 7 minutes. Participants
assigned to the “practice test” condition study the passage for the first 7 minutes, and then in
the second 7-minute interval they are instructed to test themselves (i.e., they are given a blank
sheet of paper to write down everything they can remember from the passage). Both groups of
participants are given a final test when they are asked to write down everything they can
remember from the passage. Participants’ responses are scored based on the percentage of
idea units (or key ideas) they correctly recalled from the passage. In Experiment 1 the “final test”
is administered 5 minutes after the last study session, and in Experiment 2 the final test is
administered 1 week after the last study session.

After the instructor’s introduction of the experiment, students are given 20 to 30 minutes of in-
class time to begin the worksheet (click here to view the worksheet and the data). They are
encouraged to discuss the worksheet with their self-selected lab groups and with the
instructional staff who are circulating during the activity.

After students have submitted the worksheet, we grade specific questions based on correctness
and the remainder of the worksheet is graded based on completeness. The questions that are
graded based on correctness involve graphing and drawing conclusions from the “retrieval
practice vs. restudying” study. In order to ensure that students draw the correct conclusions, we
revisit this finding briefly in class and emphasize that practice testing (or retrieval practice) leads
to more durable learning.

Retrieval Practice Resources

In the Engaging in Retrieval Practice activity we devote about an hour of class time for students
to complete two 10-item multiple choice quizzes in their lab group and two 10-item multiple-
choice quizzes individually. The implementation of this activity has varied across quarters
depending on whether the class was online or in-person and whether data were being collected
for research purposes (see the evidence section for examples of research projects). In quarters
where data were not being collected for research purposes, the items presented during this
activity were quizzes taken directly from the TestYourself bank
(www.testyourself.psych.ucla.edu). If you would like to use this activity in your class, we
recommend creating your own items or taking items from the TestYourself bank. We think that it
is important to set aside class time for the group testing activity, so that students can receive
feedback from their peers and discuss any confusions they have about course concepts. After
54

the Engaging in Retrieval Practice activity, students are given access to the online TestYourself
bank to practice with. The TestYourself bank also contains a second set of protected questions
that are available to instructors to use for assessment purposes. Note that instructors need to
complete a form on the website to be granted access to this part of the bank.

Evidence It Works

Versions of these retrieval practice activities have been used in two large sections of
introductory psychology for the past 10 quarters (approximately 6,000 students). Our approach
to assessing students’ understanding and application of retrieval practice in their own studying
has varied depending on the quarter. However, our findings across quarters are similar; thus, for
simplicity, in the section that follows we describe evidence from the most recent (Spring 2022)
quarter.

Learning about Retrieval Practice Activity

Out of the 572 students enrolled in the Spring 2022 sections of the course, most (over 95%)
students completed the Learning about Retrieval Practice activity and were able to graph and
interpret the sample data from the Roediger & Karpicke (2006) study (mean score on the
graded lab questions = 96%). On an open-book midterm exam, students were asked a multiple-
choice question about the key conclusions from Roediger and Karpicke (2006). Most students
(89%) correctly identified that the practice test group performed better than the restudy group on
the delayed test (1-week later). Thus, students seemed to have understood and correctly
interpreted the key findings of this study.

Engaging in Retrieval Practice Activity

For the Engaging in Retrieval Practice Activity, students performed well on the four quizzes they
completed, although performance was higher for quizzes taken in groups (~90% correct)
compared to quizzes taken individually (~70% correct). In general, the practice items seem to
be of appropriate difficulty for our introductory psychology students. In some quarters we have
manipulated aspects of this practice testing activity in order to understand how certain
parameters of the task impact learning and memory. For example, we have examined how
group practice as opposed to individual practice impacts students’ long-term retention of
material (see Imundo et al., unpublished manuscript). When tested one and two weeks after the
activity, we find that students perform better on items they previously practiced in a group
compared to items that they previously practiced alone. These findings highlight the benefit of
the group testing portion of the activity, and they also justify the time allocated to facilitating
group testing in class as opposed to assigning the practice questions for homework.

TestYourself Website
The items presented to students in the Engaging in Retrieval Practice activity were similar to the
items that students had access to on the TestYourself website. In general, students reported
that the TestYourself resource was valuable to them. On a post course survey, 80% of the
Spring 2022 class reported using the website to prepare for the exams. Of those that used the
bank, 92% indicated the questions were higher in quality than they could generate on their own,
and 97% recommended instructors provide questions like this to students in the future. Taken
together, our data suggest that this test bank is a valuable resource for students.

Finally, in order to investigate whether this series of activities successfully increased students'
use of self-testing, we examined two self-report items related to “retrieval practice” that were
administered on the pre-course and post-course survey. On the pre-course survey students
were asked to indicate on a scale from 1-rarely to 5 -very often how often they make themself
55

generate information from memory (e.g., cover up information in a text and try to summarize it
from memory or use flashcards, or find quizzes/come up with their own quiz questions). On the
post-course survey students were asked how often they quiz themselves when studying. In
Spring 2022 about 33% indicated either a 4 or 5 on the scale on the pre-course survey, whereas
45% endorsed a 4 or a 5 on the post-course survey. This may be evidence that our course
increases the likelihood that students use retrieval practice; however, data from subsequent
courses in the psychology major would be a stronger indication that our course led to long-term
changes in study strategies.

Conclusions and Suggestions

By the end of these activities, students have been exposed to the benefits of retrieval practice in
three different ways. In the first activity, they learn about and plot data that demonstrates the
benefit of retrieval practice over restudying. In the second activity, they have the opportunity to
use retrieval practice in groups and individually to help strengthen their understanding of course
content. In the last activity, they are given a tool they can use to quiz themselves independently.
Data collected from students suggests that they retained information about the effectiveness of
retrieval practice and have increased how often they apply this strategy in their own studying.

This series of activities was designed for students in our introductory psychology course.
Instructors of more advanced courses could consider making several modifications to the
activities. For example, in the Learning about Retrieval Practice activity, we do not assume
students are familiar with inferential statistics. In a more advanced course, it would be
reasonable to have students compute inferential statistics instead of examining the pattern of
the means. Students more familiar with design features like counterbalancing and within-
subjects designs could also complete a version of the activity that more accurately reflects the
design of the original study (where study strategy is manipulated between subjects, the order of
the tasks is counterbalanced, and there are many more participants).

The TestYourself items that students use to quiz themselves in the 2nd and 3rd activities are
designed for introductory psychology courses and should be useful for many instructors. The
TestYourself bank does, however, contain a small subset of items that are specific to our
introductory psychology course, such as items that refer to papers that students have been
assigned to read and lab activities they completed in class. Instructors using the bank can tell
their students which quizzes align with the content in their course. They can also select relevant
questions and use their LMS to display the questions. Alternatively, students could be
incentivized to write a few practice questions for their peers to practice with. We acknowledge,
of course, that there are limitations to having students generate their own questions, and they
might not match the difficulty of instructor generated questions. Another option may be to have
students “quiz themselves” by covering up slides or class material and explaining those
concepts to a partner. This would eliminate the need to generate multiple-choice questions, and
it also highlights an easy way to implement self-testing.

Wrap-Up

● Retrieval practice or self-testing is an effective study strategy (Adesope et al., 2017;

Carrier & Pashler, 1992; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).
● In these three activities, we encourage students to incorporate retrieval practice into their
own study by:
o Learning about Retrieval Practice: Students graph data suggesting that practice
testing leads to more durable learning over restudying
56

o Engaging in Retrieval Practice: Students complete a series of multiple-choice

quizzes related to course content in groups and individually
o Practicing Independent Retrieval Practice: Students are given a bank of
questions (www.testyourself.psych.ucla.edu) to quiz themselves
● Scan the QR code for access to slides and worksheets

References

Adesope, O. O., Trevisan, D. A., & Sundararajan, N. (2017). Rethinking the use of tests: A
meta-analysis of practice testing. Review of Educational Research, 87(3), 659–701.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316689306
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Authors Contact Information

Melissa Paquette-Smith, PhD

Assistant Teaching Professor
Psychology, UCLA
[email protected]

Megan Imundo, PhD candidate

Graduate Student
Psychology, UCLA
[email protected]

Courtney Clark, PhD

Lecturer
UCLA Extension
[email protected]
58

7 Ditta

Name That Source! A Series of Scaffolded Assignments to Build Students’ Ability

to Identify Reliable Sources of Information About Psychological Science

Summary
This series of take-home assignments has students search for, interact with, and learn how to
identify different types of informational articles (e.g., empirical, media, review) across 4 weeks of
a 10-week introductory psychology course. Students are first tasked with reading about a myth
in psychological science and the accompanying empirical evidence that contradicts the myth.
Next, students are asked to find a media article reporting on a psychological finding (e.g.,
something from BBC, CNN) and bring it to class during which they are guided through a
discussion of what a media article is and how it differs from a peer-reviewed, empirical article on
the same topic. Students are then taught how to search for peer-reviewed articles and are
guided through finding the peer-reviewed article that corresponds to the media article they
brought to class. Additional assignments and class discussions walk students through
identifying and reading review articles and identifying meta-analyses and dissertations (which
are typically tricky for students to identify). This assignment series culminates in an activity that
asks students to correctly identify article types from novel examples (e.g., empirical, review,
meta-analysis). Throughout the process of completing and discussing these assignments, two
themes are emphasized: 1) that some article types are more reliable sources of information than
others, and 2) these research skills (i.e., searching for & vetting information) are crucial skills for
anyone, even if they are not continuing down an academic path for their future careers.

Introduction: The Importance of Building Research Skills in Intro Psych

The American Psychological Association’s (APA, 2014, 2021, 2022) Introductory Psychology
Initiative (IPI) recently published a set of learning outcomes for the introductory psychology
course that are recommended as a scaffold for transforming the introductory psychology
experience for our students (e.g., Gurung & Neufeld, 2022). As part of these learning outcomes,
the IPI proposes that students should be able to “provide examples of psychology’s integrative
themes” (APA, 2022, para. 9). Importantly, the first of these seven themes is: “Psychological
science relies on empirical evidence and adapts as new data develop” (APA, 2021, para. 3),
emphasizing the key role that the scientific process plays in our discipline. Indeed, throughout
the rest of the learning outcomes, there is repeated reference to developing students’ ability to
“interpret research findings related to psychological concepts” (APA, 2021, para. 1) and “draw
logical and objective conclusions … from empirical evidence” (APA, 2021, para. 2).
Additionally, in the Pillar Model of teaching introductory psychology, research methods form the
foundation of teaching all content in introductory psychology (APA, 2022). An understanding of
research skills provides the foundation for teaching all of introductory psychology, so it is worth
spending the time to incorporate deliberate development of those skills and to do it well.

Another important goal of the course is to help correct misconceptions and bust myths that
students may have heard about psychology from popular media (e.g., we only use 10% of our
brain, which forms the basis for movies like Limitless and Lucy; Gardner & Brown, 2013).
Correcting these misconceptions relies on students understanding the difference between
popular media and empirical science and knowing how to separate reliable from unreliable
sources of information. However, anecdotally, many students do not know the difference
between empirical and media articles, and some students have never encountered an empirical
article in their education. Thus, students need scaffolded practice with understanding where
59

information in psychological science comes from and how it is disseminated to the public. They
should also gain experience with reading media versus empirical articles and practice identifying
the differences between them so, when they encounter a source of information when browsing
the internet in their daily lives, they can understand whether a source is reliable or not.

To help students achieve these learning outcomes, I developed a series of assignments that
walks them through: 1) reading about myths in psychology that are busted by empirical
evidence, 2) reading a media article about a finding in psychological science, then finding and
reading the accompanying empirical article, and 3) finally being able to differentiate between
different types of reliable information (e.g., review articles, dissertations, meta-analyses).
Critically, these assignments are a form of active learning (Benjamin, 1991; Prince, 2004;
Richmond & Hagan, 2011) in that they require students to engage with the materials and
produce their own understanding of the content through answering questions that I designed
about these topics.

Tool Sharing: A Series of Scaffolded Assignments

This series of scaffolded assignments was designed for an introductory psychology course of
almost 600 students across a 10-week quarter system. Because it can be challenging to engage
that many students in active learning at once, the course is divided into smaller (approximately
25-30 student) 50-minute discussion sections that students attend once per week in addition to
the large lecture. The scaffolded activity series described in this chapter is the main focus of
four weeks of these discussion sections. Some assignments are completed at home as
preparation (called “Active Practice” assignments) for the portions completed in section with the
guidance of the Teaching Assistant (TA) and interaction with their peers. This assignment series
can be easily implemented in courses of any size and across any modality with minor tweaks;
indeed, I have used these assignments in an entirely online and an in-person version of the
course. I have now used this series of assignments four times (Fall 2020, Winter 2021, Fall
2021, & Fall 2022), with major changes (I think for the better!) being made between the last two
offerings of the course. The efficacy data I discuss later in the chapter are from the Fall 2021
online offering, so I will explain the assignments used in that version of the course as well as
highlight the relevant changes I made during the Fall 2022, in-person version of the course. I
have provided both versions of the assignments in a shared Google folder that can be accessed
via the QR code in the Wrapping Up section. Note that all assignments described below are
graded for completion credit only—neither I nor the TAs provided individualized corrective
feedback, as all corrective feedback occurred in the group discussion section to minimize
instructor workload.

Assignment 1: Addressing Myths in Psychological Science

The first series of assignments involves exposing students to the idea that some of the ideas
they may have heard about psychological science are false. This is meant to prime the idea that
not everything they hear is true, and that they need to be critical of the claims they hear about
the field in popular media. It also exposes students to a resource that is written for a layperson
audience, but one that also draws upon empirical evidence to support its claims.

Active Practice #1. Students are given a link to a free, online PDF version of Lilienfeld et al.’s
(2011) classic book, 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology. On their own time, students are
asked to select one myth from the book that corresponds to the topics we will be discussing in
our class (at my university, the introductory course is split into two classes—001 and 002—that
each cover approximately half of a typical introductory psychology textbook). They are then
asked to read the myth and write a 1.5-2 page, double-spaced response that addresses the
following: 1) a brief summary of the myth in [their] own words, 2) whether [they] believed this
60

myth before reading more about it, including an explanation of why [they] did or did not believe
this myth, 3) a summary of two pieces of evidence that the author provides to debunk the myth
in [their] own words, and 4) a connection between the myth and something [they] have
experienced in [their] everyday life.

Discussion Section #1. During the discussion section, students are put into small groups in
breakout rooms on Zoom and provided with a peer review rubric. They swap assignments
(through file sharing via Google Docs) and provide feedback on each of the four elements of the
assignment by rating whether each section was “Great,” “Good,” or “Need[ed] Improvement.”
They then provide short comments about aspects of the response that were done well and what
needed improvement. As the assignment is graded on completion and not quality, students are
encouraged to be honest with their feedback. After the peer review discussion, the TAs lead the
students in a discussion of the myths and how empirical research is needed to debunk and/or
support claims in psychological science (as discussed in lecture earlier that week, to draw
connections across the different components of the course). The TAs highlight that critical
thinking is necessary in psychology, just as it is in any scientific field, and point out that the 50
Myths book is a bit outdated now, and there might be more empirical research on those topics
that has been published. This is meant to pique students’ interest in searching for other claims
in psychological science, which is the focus of the next week’s assignments.

Updates to 2022 Version. In earlier versions of the course, students occasionally wrote about
very personal things they did not feel comfortable sharing with their classmates in their Active
Practice assignments, so in the 2022 revisions, they were warned in advance about this
requirement of the assignment.

For the discussion section assignment, instead of providing peer review on the quality of the
written document as described above, students were asked to share the myth they wrote about
with a small group, highlighting the four items they wrote about in their response. Being in
control of which pieces of the written document they shared also helped address the privacy
concerns discussed in the previous paragraph. The listening students in the group were then
asked to write brief responses that included: 1) a summary of the myth, 2) 1-2 sentences that
explain why the myth is not true, based on [their] classmate’s summary, and 3) 1-2 sentences
that state whether [they] previously believed the myth and why [they] did or did not believe it.
These changes emphasized students’ focus on discussion of the content of the chapters, rather
than focusing on the quality of their peers’ writing.

Assignment 2: Psychological Science in the Media vs. the Empirical Article

The next series of assignments asked students to find an example of a media outlet reporting
on a psychological finding and then compare it to the original empirical article.

Active Practice #2. Students are tasked with finding a recent example of a media article that
reports on a finding in psychological science. The article they find must adhere to the following
guidelines: 1) it should be from a media outlet (e.g., CNN, BBC, New York Times), 2) it must
have been published within the last two years, and 3) it should not be a scientific article (it
should be a media article about a scientific finding). They then write a 1-2 paragraph summary
of the article in their own words and bring it to their discussion section.

Discussion Section #2. The TAs begin class by reminding students that last week, they
discussed myths in psychological science and the importance of critical thinking and vetting
sources. They discuss how, when you hear something about psychology that sounds
interesting, you might Google it to find more information. However, media articles about
psychology might come up more easily than empirical articles do—and this is what they (the
61

students) were tasked with finding for Active Practice #2. Students are asked to share some
topics from the articles that they found, and afterwards the TAs lead them in a discussion of how
to find the empirical articles that relate to those specific media articles. The TAs highlight
important pieces of information about distinguishing empirical articles from media articles (e.g.,
websites, paywalls, format of empirical articles), and they also walk students through searching
for empirical articles using PsycInfo and Google Scholar. Students are then tasked with finding
the empirical article that matches their media article (either through clicking a link in the article
or using a database to find it). Students tend to need individualized support with this step. Once
they find their empirical article, students are tasked with reading through it and summarizing
each section (i.e., abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion) in a sentence or two. If
they are not able to find the original empirical article, or the article is too challenging for students
to read on their own (which often happens, see below), the TAs have a simple empirical article
they can provide to the students, though this results in the assignment not matching well to the
Active Practice assignment they completed with the example they found.

Updates to 2022 Version. Allowing students to choose their own media articles, while a good
idea in theory to support students’ autonomy over their learning, unsurprisingly led to challenges
in supporting them through completion of the assignment given the variety of articles students
brought to class. To remedy this issue, I updated the Active Practice assignment such that all
students were assigned to read a single media article about how the use of fidget spinners in
class impacts learning, based on an empirical article written by my colleague (Soares & Storm,
2020). This led to a much more streamlined discussion section in which TAs could lead all
students through a structured comparison of the media article to the empirical article. After this
comparison, the TAs could show students how to search for related empirical articles on Google
Scholar/PsycInfo, and then break students into small groups to discuss several different
empirical articles about the same fidget spinner + learning topic, though each article came to
slightly different conclusions about the relationship. The students’ final assignment involved
synthesizing what they learned about how fidget spinners might affect learning from reviewing
these empirical articles together. Notably, these updates resulted in a discussion section plan
that needed to span two weeks, rather than being contained in a single section. Many students
had never been exposed to the concept of an empirical article, and so the TAs reported having
robust discussions with their students about the differences between empirical and media
articles.

Assignment 3: Reviewing Review Articles

The next set of assignments was designed to introduce students to another type of reliable
source: the peer-reviewed review article. Students are guided through reading one, and then
they identify similarities and differences between empirical and review articles.

Active Practice #3. Students are provided with a list of six review articles on topics related to
cognitive psychology. They are instructed to choose one article and read it, then provide a 1-
paragraph summary of some of the information contained within the article. Then they are
tasked with identifying, in their own words, similarities and differences they noticed between the
review article and the empirical article they read during the previous week, to prepare for a
discussion in section.

Discussion Section #3. Students are put into small groups to discuss the contents of the review
article they read (since not all students read the same article). After this discussion, the TA
leads students through a comparison of empirical versus review articles, while also weaving in
mention of how these article types are different from the media article they read last week.
During this discussion, the TAs also mention other article types that students may encounter
62

(e.g., meta-analyses, dissertations), and how these might be identified (e.g., mention of studies
as the unit of analysis instead of participants, a dissertation cover page). The final assignment
for this week is for students to write a short description of how they can identify an empirical
versus a media article using what they learned in class.

Updates to 2022 Version. Students are provided with one review article (a chapter in a
handbook) about memory in the digital age (also by Storm & Soares, in press). The rest of the
assignments are the same as described above, but, because everyone reads the same article,
there is more time to devote to discussing how to differentiate article types (versus sharing what
they read in the article they chose). This also provides more time to wrap up the discussion and
assignment from the previous week which, as mentioned, spilled across two weeks of
discussion.

Assignment 4: Name That Source!

In the culminating assignment, students are tested on what they have learned about
distinguishing between article types with novel articles about findings in psychology.

Active Practice #4. Students are presented with a series of 10 articles they have not seen
before that are about various topics in psychology. All selections are empirical or review articles,
with one “trick” selection that is a meta-analysis. Students are reminded that they just need to
skim the articles (not read every word of each one!) to be able to determine which type of article
it is.

Discussion Section #4. Students are tasked with correcting their answers to Active Practice #4.
The TAs review the answer key, and the students are told to self-correct their responses. In
addition to correcting the answers, students need to explain their incorrect answers (e.g., why
did they get the answer incorrect, and why is it the type of article that it actually is?) and then
write a summary paragraph that explains how to tell the difference between empirical and
review articles to a naïve person. This helps students consolidate their knowledge and practice
teaching the content to someone else—an effective learning technique (McGuire, 2015).

Updates to Future Versions. This final set of assignments was kept the same across the 2021
and 2022 version of the course. However, when I next teach the course, I will likely include
media articles as one of the possible options for students to identify.

Evidence It Works: A Mini SoTL Study

I collected efficacy data on the assignment series in Fall 2021 through a SoTL study outside of
class time. I created an online study in Qualtrics that presented participants with 12 new
psychology articles that were not used in my assignments. Three empirical articles, three review
articles, three media postings, and three meta-analyses were included. Each article was
displayed with a screenshot of the first page of the article, along with a link to access the entire
article if participants desired. Participants were instructed to identify which type of article it was
by selecting the correct article type in a multiple-choice question. Participants were then scored
out of 12 possible correct.

The study was administered in the last few weeks of the quarter system (Weeks 8-10), after the
entire assignment series was completed in my course (the final assignment is completed in
Week 6). I posted it to our departmental SONA participant pool, which is open to all students in
both PSYC 001 (taught by me, using these assignments) and PSYC 002 (taught by another
instructor, not using these assignments). I asked participants to report whose class they were
63

enrolled in, and I used that as a quasi-experimental factor to compare student performance
across courses. Importantly, students in PSYC 001 were exposed to the assignment series, and
students in PSYC 002 were not; however, students in both courses are taught about research
methods in psychological science generally. Only PSYC 001 students got the extra practice with
the assignment series I created.

I compared student performance across the courses for a total of 166 students (N001 = 69; N002 =
97). A Welch’s independent-samples t-test to correct for unequal variances identified a
significant difference in students’ ability to correctly identify the article types such that students
in PSYC 001 were better at correctly identifying article types (M = 6.35, SD = 2.59) than
students in PSYC 002 (M = 5.00, SD = 1.98), t(122) = 3.63, p < .001, d = .58. Though more
work needs to be conducted to determine whether this difference is causally related to the
completion of the assignment series and whether these differences persist long-term after the
course ends (e.g., a within-course experiment across students who do vs. do not get the
assignments series), the large effect size is promising. It is also promising that these results
were found with entirely new articles, indicating that some of the knowledge gained from the
assignment series may transfer to new scenarios. As transfer of learning is the ultimate goal of
instructors, this is particularly encouraging.

Conclusions: How to Adapt These Assignments

Overall, this series of assignments has shown promise for scaffolding students’ ability to identify
reliable sources of information when they encounter new information in their daily lives (e.g.,
searching online). The assignment series does demand a lot of time across the term—four
dedicated 50-minute discussion sections, plus completion of four take-home assignments that
likely take between 30 minutes to an hour each. However, the ability to identify reliable sources
of information is so important for introductory psychology students to learn—not only for
potential future psychology courses, but for any field they go into!—that I believe this time is
well-spent.

For instructors that are interested in using these assignments, they are easily adaptable for any
course context. First, because the focus of the assignments is on identifying sources of
information rather than learning about a particular area of psychology, instructors can substitute
any of the articles that I used with their own. I chose these specific articles, which are primarily
focused on cognitive psychology, because I am a cognitive psychologist interested in learning
and memory in the classroom, but any set of articles will work with this assignment.

Second, these assignments have been used in both in-person and synchronous online versions
of introductory psychology. The main issue with using this assignment series in an entirely
online course was encouraging discussion in small groups in Zoom breakout rooms. However,
having assignments to accompany the discussions that students were required to submit for
participation credit mitigated the concern of students failing to engage with the articles during
class time. Admittedly, the discussion section components are much easier to facilitate in
person since the TA can walk around and supervise the small group discussions (versus in
Zoom breakout rooms in which students are often left alone for long periods of time); however,
the efficacy data collected were from the online implementation of the assignment series, so it is
effective even if completed synchronously online. The assignment series could likely be
completed in an asynchronous online course, but it would require the use of discussion boards
to substitute the small group discussions, as well as the creation of videos about empirical vs.
review articles, for example, to substitute the synchronous lessons from the TAs. However, I
have not personally tried to facilitate this in an entirely asynchronous online course.
64

Finally, these assignments were used in a large-enrollment course during dedicated discussion
sections. However, they could easily be adapted to smaller classes as part of the typical class
period. Such integration into the typical class time could be facilitated by using APA IPI’s
Integrative Themes to structure the course. Repeatedly emphasizing that psychology is a
science and relies on empirical data provides a strong foundation for why students are
repeatedly returning to reading articles and practicing their skills in identifying the article types.

Additionally, informing students of the transferability of these skills to any scientific discipline will
likely encourage them to practice these skills and use them for years after the introductory
psychology course concludes and in whatever field they may go into.

Wrap-Up

● Students who take Introductory Psychology should leave the course with a firm
understanding that psychology is a science and is based on empirical evidence.
● Students need support in identifying reliable sources of information about psychological
science and sorting them from unreliable sources.
● The series of take-home and accompanying in-class assignments presented here can
be used to walk students through comparing media, empirical, and review articles across
four weeks of the term.
● This assignment series has been shown to significantly improve students’ ability to
distinguish between article types compared to when they do not complete the
assignment series but are exposed to general information about research methods in
psychology.
● The assignment series can be completed with articles from any area of psychology and
can be adapted for any class size and any modality.
● All materials referenced in this chapter can be accessed by scanning the QR code or
clicking the Google Drive link below:

References

American Psychological Association. (2014). Strengthening the common core of the

introductory psychology course. http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/intro-psych-
report.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)
student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2022). The APA Introductory Psychology Initiative
65

envisioning the future: Charting new directions for introductory psychology.

https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/undergrad/introductory-psychology-initiative
Benjamin Jr, L. T. (1991). Personalization and active learning in the large introductory
psychology class. Teaching of Psychology, 18(2), 68-74.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328023top1802_1
Gardner, R. M., & Brown, D. L. (2013). A test of contemporary misconceptions in psychology.
Learning and Individual Differences, 24, 211-215.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.008
Gurung, R. A., & Neufeld, G. E. (2022). Transforming introductory psychology: Expert advice
on teacher training, course design, and student success (pp. xv-311).
Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., Ruscio, J., & Beyerstein, B. L. (2011). 50 great myths of popular
psychology: Shattering widespread misconceptions about human behavior. John Wiley
& Sons.
McGuire, S. Y. (2015). Teach students how to learn: Strategies you can incorporate into any
course to improve student metacognition, study skills, and motivation. Stylus Publishing,
LLC.
Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of
Engineering Education, 93(3), 223-231.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2004.tb00809.x
Richmond, A. S., & Hagan, L. K. (2011). Promoting higher level thinking in psychology: Is
active learning the answer? Teaching of Psychology, 38(2), 102-105.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628311401581
Soares, J. S., & Storm, B. C. (2020). Putting a negative spin on it: Using a fidget spinner can
impair memory for a video lecture. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 34(1), 277-284.
https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3610
Storm, B. C., & Soares, J. S. (in press). Memory in the digital age. In M.J. Kahana & A.D.
Wagner (Eds.), Handbook of human memory: Foundations and applications. Oxford
University Press.
https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/h8q6e

Author Contact Information

Annie Ditta, PhD

Assistant Professor of Teaching
University of California - Riverside
[email protected]
 66

8 Clark, Imundo, & Paquette Smith

Identifying Limitations in Research Activity

Summary
When asked to generate a potential limitation for research studies, students often respond with
"the sample size was small” or “the findings may not generalize.” While those limitations are
certainly worth considering, in our course we have developed an instructional module that
encourages students to think critically and generate insightful limitations that are plausible,
specific to a particular study, and clearly justified. The module first asks students to evaluate
examples of reasonable limitations (e.g., that young children may not show the same result as
college students) and flawed limitations (e.g., ones that would be unlikely given random
assignment to conditions) and to consider how the flawed ones could be revised or improved.
After receiving automated explanatory feedback, students generate limitations for a novel study
and plot hypothetical alternative data showing how the results of the study might change if the
limitation were addressed (e.g., if the experimenters tested a different sample). On a survey
administered at the end of the activity, 76% of students agreed or strongly agreed that the
activity was useful. In their comments, students said that it was helpful to see examples of
stronger and weaker limitations and to read through the rationales we provided; students also
offered ideas to increase the effectiveness of future versions of the module.

Introduction

In the pillar model of the American Psychological Association’s (APA, 2014) Introductory
Psychology Initiative (IPI), research methods serve as the foundation for the key content areas
covered in introductory psychology courses. How can we support students in understanding
research methods? In particular, how can we help them interpret the nuances of scientific
research? When learning about scientific claims, students can face an assortment of
challenges. When reading primary source articles, for instance, students may encounter
unfamiliar terminology or have difficulty understanding some of the technical details. But even
when research is presented in plain language or summary form, students may still struggle to
critically evaluate the applicability of the results. One important consideration is how, beyond
being able to understand the main findings of a study, there may be limitations to the scope of
those findings. For instance, let's imagine students read a study that demonstrates that
pretesting (taking a quiz before reading) can be beneficial for learning from text passages. If the
study shows a benefit of pretesting when the text passages are read immediately after the
pretest (e.g., as demonstrated by Richland et al., 2009), students should wonder whether those
benefits would hold in cases where there is a longer delay between the pretest and when the
text was studied. It could also be appropriate to question whether a similar benefit would occur if
different materials were used (e.g., foreign language vocabulary instead of text passages).

As instructors, we want to encourage our students to think critically about the conclusions of
research, and to understand that these unresolved questions do not mean that work is "bad" or
unfinished. Each investigation can only teach us so much! When combined with other research
findings, the picture becomes clearer, but identifying limitations of a given finding can help
students incorporate nuance into their understanding of the claims of a particular study. That is,
under what conditions would we expect an effect to hold? Under what circumstances might we
expect a different result?
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Teaching students to evaluate research is an important component of many introductory

psychology courses. The APA’s IPI identifies scientific thinking, including “describing the
advantages and limitations of research strategies” as being a key learning outcome of the
course (American Psychological Association, 2021, para. 2.1). Moreover, teaching students to
evaluate what a study can and cannot teach us about a given effect is a skill that goes beyond
psychology–it applies to scientific findings more broadly. For instance, when vaccines for
COVID-19 were initially tested on adults, that testing and approval for adult use did not
automatically make the vaccines available for younger children. When interpreting this initial
research, students may be readily able to understand this limitation in scope based on the age
of the participants that were tested. Students are likely to know that children often take different
dosages of medication than adults do, so the same might be true for vaccines. Sometimes,
however, limitations are more difficult to generate and evaluate, especially in psychology studies
when we often predict that findings would generalize to other populations. For example, if
pretesting increases learning in a sample of college students, we would likely expect a similar
result if we tested different college students, high school students, or even middle-aged adults.

What Types of Limitations Do We Want Our Students to Generate?

Ahead of asking students to generate limitations, we suggest various characteristics of studies
that they can think about when evaluating research. The types of characteristics we propose
have been offered by others; for instance, Roediger and McCabe (2007) provide a set of
questions that readers should ask to evaluate what claims can be made from a given study. We
ask students to consider, for example, whether the sample that was tested was representative
of the larger population the researcher may wish to generalize to. As in the COVID-19 vaccine
example, if a study was conducted with one age group, would we expect results to generalize to
other age groups? (And if they would not expect generalization, what is the rationale?) We also
ask students to consider the types of experimental materials used in the study. Would a similar
effect be shown with lists of single words, foreign-language vocabulary pairs, or text passages?
Or if the final test were in a short answer format versus multiple choice? Or if the final test were
taken after a delay versus immediately?

During the limitations activity, we encourage students to generate limitations that could plausibly
impact the relationship between an independent and dependent variable, not simply increase or
decrease performance overall. For instance, consider an imaginary study that tested how
college students perform on a reading comprehension test either in silence or while listening to
music, and it found that students performed better in silence. A student might say that a
limitation is that the study was done with college students. They could suggest that elementary
school students might perform worse on the test overall, but still predict that the elementary
students who test in silence will perform better than those who test while listening to music. In
other words, the pattern of results across the two conditions would be the same for college
students and elementary school students. While variations of a study (e.g., with different
participant groups) that result in changes in overall performance can certainly be interesting, we
encourage our students to focus on the primary claim about the result–here, that music can be
distracting–and evaluate whether that claim would be different with a different group of
participants. We do not expect students to do additional research about their proposed
limitations before offering them. Accordingly, if a student were to posit that children might not
show a decrease in their performance when listening to music because they are accustomed to
being in noisy classrooms, we would accept that as a plausible limitation to the original work on
college students. We would also accept a supposition that children might be more distracted by
music because their cognitive control abilities are not as developed as those of college
students.
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We also advise that limitations that are typically resolved by random assignment are not as
interesting as other limitations. For instance, imagine that the fictional reading comprehension
study mentioned above used a book chapter on volcanoes as the to-be-learned material (and
found that participants did better in the silent condition than the music condition). It is
reasonable to assume that the participants would have varying levels of prior knowledge about
volcanoes. A student might be tempted to say that maybe the music did not affect performance,
rather the people in the silent condition just knew more about volcanoes than the people in the
music condition. Again, this is possible, but not entirely plausible, as most studies use random
assignment to experimental conditions. With a sufficient sample size, we would expect there to
be roughly the same prior knowledge in the silent group as the music group.

Improving Understanding of Limitations with an Online Module

We have found that students can find it challenging to identify plausible and well-justified
limitations. Without considerable instructional guidance, our students often offer limitations
based on sample size or characteristics of participants that would be resolved by random
assignment. The current activity was designed to provide additional support with generating
higher-quality limitations. In our limitations module, students first read about characteristics of
good limitations and practice evaluating sample limitations. Based on how we’ve defined good
limitations for the students, the provided examples vary in quality. The examples are followed by
presenting students with feedback with our rationale as to whether the example limitation is
plausible or implausible. Given a novel prompt, students then generate and justify their own
limitations. We ran the limitations activity online through the course learning management
system in two large sections (200+ students per section) of introductory psychology in the
Spring of 2022.

Identifying Limitations Activity

General Procedure
1) Prior lecture content: Prior to this lesson, students have had a lecture on research
methods covering correlational and experimental designs, and topics such as sampling
methods, random assignment, and potential sources of bias in research (e.g. demand
characteristics and experimenter bias).
2) Prior reading: In addition to other activities on research methods, we have used a
version of the QALMRI assignment which provides a framework for students to identify
key aspects of scientific articles (Question, Alternatives, Logic, Method, Results,
Inferences; Kosslyn & Rosenberg, 2001). Our instructions for this assignment are
adapted from Brosowsky and Parshina (2017). The main change in our adaptation was
to add a “Limitations” prompt to the end of the QALMRI to create a QALMRI-L.
Before they complete our limitations activity, students read Richland et al. (2009) and
complete a QALMRI-L. The limitations activity assumes general knowledge of the results
of the first two experiments in Richland et al. paper. The time estimate for reading the
paper will vary by student, but should be under an hour. Please see the Conclusions
section for suggestions for modifying the activity if you want to use the online module but
do not wish to assign this prior reading or a QALMRI-L.
3) Online activity: The limitations activity (text version) was completed outside of class on
our learning management system. A student approaching the activity thoughtfully would
spend 45 min to an hour to complete it.

Structure of Limitations Online Activity

The activity begins with an overview of what makes a good limitation. The overview gives
several examples and highlights that a good limitation is specific and plausible. Given that
69

students often offer that generalizability could be a limitation (e.g., based on sample
characteristics), we emphasize that in order to argue that generalizability is a limitation, they
have to state "why" it is a limitation for that specific study (i.e., is there a population where we'd
predict to find a different relationship between the independent and dependent variables?).

Students were then presented with four examples of possible limitations based on Richland et
al. (2009), and they were asked to respond “yes” or “no” to whether the limitation is of good
quality. After they respond, they’re shown feedback and justification for each example.

One limitation exercise example. Let's imagine you are a TA and you read the
following hypothetical limitation for the Richland et al. (2009) paper:

"They tested college students, so the sample is more educated than the general public.
Had they tested non-college students (or people in the general public), scores on the
recall test would be lower."

Is this a good limitation? Remember limitations should be both specific and plausible.

Feedback and justification shown to all students after they indicate if this is a good-
quality limitation:

“This isn't a great limitation. It is true that yes, probably if you tested non-college
students, scores might go down overall, but we are not changing the relationship
between the IV and the DV (or at least not describing how testing a different sample
could change that proposed relationship). That is, even though all scores might be lower
on a final test if we gave it to non-college students, we might still expect to see that they
perform better in the condition where they did the pre-testing.”

After students evaluated the four examples pertaining to the prior reading and read the
justifications, they completed the remainder of the activity (four questions), which did not relate
to the prior reading. These questions asked students to both identify and generate good
limitations.

● For one question they were given a hypothetical experiment and asked to choose the
best limitation from three options. The options include graphs of potential alternative
results that might be obtained if the limitation were addressed.
● An additional example gives a hypothetical experiment and limitation and asks students
to improve the limitation.
● Then, students are given yet another experiment to generate a limitation for. To
emphasize that generalizability limitations should impact the predicted relationship
between the IV and the DV, they were also asked to graph their prediction of resulting
data if their limitations were to be addressed.
● Finally, students were asked to generate potential limitations for the survey study they
were conducting as part of the course.

Evaluation of the Limitations Activity

Almost all of our students completed the limitations activity for a small amount of course credit
(participation greater than 95% per section during Spring 2022). We measured in-activity
performance on questions where students had to evaluate “good or bad” limitations. Overall,
performance was high, with at least 84% of students answering each of the automatically
70

scored questions correctly. Their high performance on these questions confirms that students
likely read and understood the description of what makes a good limitation that was presented
to them at the beginning of the module.

At the end of the limitations activity, students completed reflection questions. Three questions
were rated on a five-point scale from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. Across all students
who completed the activity, 81.8% of students reported agreeing or strongly agreeing with the
statement “I feel like I understand the content- examples and characteristics of a good limitation-
included in this activity.” When asked whether they found the activity useful, 76.2% of students
agreed or strongly agreed. Fewer students indicated that they felt as if they would be able to
generate a high-quality limitation for their next assignment using our modified QALMRI (with
only 61.6% agreeing or strongly agreeing with this statement).

Students also answered several free response questions. When asked whether they had any
remaining questions about limitations of scientific studies, some students reported that more
practice would be helpful. Others noted that they felt confident evaluating limitations that were
provided to them, but not generating limitations on their own.

When asked what was most helpful about the activity, many students appreciated seeing the
examples of limitations and reading the accompanying explanations. For example, one student
responded that the most helpful thing was “Having multiple examples of good limitations
alongside with examples of poor limitations so I can compare and have a better understanding
of what makes a limitation good.” Another commented “Actually having to focus, consider our
answers, and produce graphs to support our answers. This was engaging.” We also asked
students how we could better support their learning with this activity. Some again responded to
this prompt with a request for more examples, especially of the yes/no and multiple-choice
questions. There were also several students who requested more feedback about their short
answer responses. Some would have preferred explanatory videos or more in-class time
devoted to the activity.

Conclusions

Overall, we consider this limitations activity a worthwhile addition to our introductory psychology
course. Other instructors may want to modify the activity to best fit the needs of their class size
and time circumstances. For instance, while we used general feedback given the large number
of students in our courses, instructors teaching smaller classes may be able to provide
additional personalized feedback or comments. No matter the size of the course, instructors can
also encourage students to attend office hours or discussion sections, as applicable, to further
discuss this activity.

Some instructors may wish to use the activity without having students do any prior reading. If
so, a short in-class explanation or written primer on the findings of Richland et al. (2009) should
provide sufficient context. The examples of limitations we provided within the activity could also
serve as a model if instructors would rather modify the activity to suit a different primary source
article or to stand alone. (Note that four of the current examples already stand alone.)

Instructors can also consider connecting the limitations activity to other course assignments. In
our course, students completed three QALMRI-L assignments, and this activity was completed
between the first and second assignment. Additionally, students had to generate limitations for
two studies they designed as part of the course. Instructors can consider asking students to
generate limitations for other assignments in their own courses.
71

Finally, instructors could also consider devoting more in-class time to discussing and practicing
with limitations. In our course, very limited time was spent during class, but students still found
the online activity valuable. Given more time, instructors and students could work through more
practice evaluating limitations to build students’ confidence in generating their own.

Wrap-Up

● Students can struggle to generate high-quality limitations of research studies, a key

component of critical evaluation of science.
● Our online module provides guidance for characteristics of good limitations and practice
evaluating and generating limitations.
● Most of our students found the activity useful and reported understanding the content.
● This module can be used as is or scaled to fit the needs of other courses.
● QR code with additional research article, QALMRIL documents, and preview of the
limitations activity in Canvas.

● Or find materials here in a Google drive

● If you use a Canvas-based Learning Management System, find the activity in Commons
as “Identifying Limitations in Research Activity”
https://lor.instructure.com/resources/115272bc6456437f8ae07e70bdf0d675?shared

References

American Psychological Association. (2014). Strengthening the common core of the introductory
psychology course. http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/intro-psych-report.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)
student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
Brosowsky, N. P., & Parshina, O. (2017). Using the QALMRI Method to scaffold reading of
primary sources. In A. Schwartz, C. Shane-Simpson, P. J. Brooks, & R. Obeid (Eds.),
How we teach now: The GSTA guide to student-centered teaching (pp. 312–328).
Society for the Teaching of Psychology. https://teachpsych.org/ebooks/howweteachnow
Kosslyn, S. M., & Rosenberg, R. S. (2001). Psychology: The brain, the person, the world.
Allyn & Bacon.
Richland, L. E., Kornell, N., & Kao, L. S. (2009). The pretesting effect: Do unsuccessful
retrieval attempts enhance learning? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15,
243-257. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016496
Roediger, H. L., & McCabe, D. P. (2007). Evaluating experimental research. In R. Sternberg,
H. L. Roediger, & D. Halpern (Eds.), Critical thinking in psychology (pp. 15-36).
Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511804632.003
72

Author Contact Information

Courtney Clark, PhD

Lecturer
UCLA Extension
[email protected]

Megan Imundo, M.A.

Graduate Student
Psychology, UCLA
[email protected]

Melissa Paquette-Smith, PhD

Assistant Teaching Professor
Psychology, UCLA
[email protected]
73

9 Duraney, Prieto, Noble & Beers

Mindfulness Meditation: A Vessel for Teaching Core Concepts in Psychology

Summary
Mindfulness meditation has been gathering empirical support as a tool to improve psychological
(Hofmann et al., 2010) and cognitive (Whitfield et al., 2022) functioning. Mindfulness meditation
can be utilized as a vessel to teach students in psychology classes about research methods,
brain-behavior relationships, interventions for psychological disorders, and much more. In
addition to illustrating important curricular topics, using mindfulness meditation also allows
instructors to leave students with an empirically supported self-care technique that has been
shown to improve mental health and cognitive functioning. This is a particularly important feat
given the rise in mental health diagnoses among college students (Oswalt et al., 2020).

Why Mindfulness?

Mindfulness refers to a purposeful, non-judgmental focus on the present moment (Kabat-Zinn,

1982). Research on mindfulness has grown exponentially over the past few decades. In fact, a
recent review found that out of 15,764 original research articles published between 1916 and
2019, 96.3% of these articles were published since 2000 (Lee et al., 2021).

The growing literature base examining the prophylactic effects of mindfulness provides empirical
support for mindfulness-based interventions improving working memory and executive functions
(see Whitfield et al., 2022 for a review and meta-analysis), as well as metrics of mental health,
such as decreasing mood and anxiety symptoms (see Hofmann et al., 2010 for a meta-analytic
review). Among college students, there is also empirical support for mindfulness-based
interventions improving symptoms of anxiety (see Bamber & Morpeth, 2019 for a meta-
analysis). Moreover, results of prior work support the integration of mindfulness practices in
classroom settings to improve working memory and content retention (Friedman-Wheeler et al.,
2021).

Prior work has also demonstrated the beneficial impact of practicing mindfulness meditation on
the mental health of college students. For example, a recent study found that integrating brief
weekly mindfulness activities into class assignments, in the college classroom, aided in
reducing stress and anxiety (Vilvens et al., 2020). Similarly, another study comparing a
classroom mindfulness educational session to an active control activity found that a single
mindfulness session was associated with increases in meditation frequency and reductions in
stress (Strait et al., 2020).

Taken together, incorporating mindfulness into the classroom may be beneficial for several
reasons. As described above, mindfulness techniques can aid in promoting students’
psychological and cognitive functioning. Moreover, mindfulness can provide students with a self-
care tool and help create an inclusive, present-moment focused classroom. The current tool is
an overarching approach to incorporating mindfulness and mindfulness meditation into the
classroom. Though many studies have sought to incorporate mindfulness in the classroom
through daily meditation practices, the authors of the current chapter recognize that
implementing traditional mindfulness-based interventions or daily meditation practices may not
be feasible in the introductory psychology classroom. As such, this chapter provides additional
options for incorporating mindfulness in the course curriculum.
74

Connections to the APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)

Incorporating mindfulness into the introductory psychology classroom can serve as a means to
ensure the curriculum is adhering to the American Psychological Association’s (APA)
Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI) Student Learning Outcomes for Introductory Psychology.
Specifically, the APA IPI initiative highlights the need for students in introductory psychology
classes to be able to identify basic concepts and research findings, solve problems using
psychological methods, recognize psychology’s integrative themes, and, perhaps most critically,
apply psychological principles to personal growth and other aspects of everyday life (Gurung &
Neufeld, 2022; Halonen et al., 2022). The activities and assignments outlined in this chapter,
which are examples of how to incorporate mindfulness and mindfulness meditation into the
introductory psychology classroom, clearly tie to multiple IPI Student Learning Outcomes.

Is This Suitable for My Classroom?

One of the advantages of this tool is that it can be adapted to fit the needs of any classroom.
The current approach has been employed in introduction to psychology classes, which focus on
teaching research methods and introducing students to common subdisciplines of psychology,
with class sizes of approximately 80 students at a large public university in the Midwest. Given
the breadth of the introduction to psychology curriculum, we believe these mindfulness tools can
be effectively adapted to a wide range of course topics. Moreover, these activities have been
used in both online and in-person formats and are suitable for both synchronous and
asynchronous delivery.

Incorporating Mindfulness into the Classroom: A How To

This section details how to incorporate mindfulness in the classroom organized by a description
of five relevant activities. We also indicate where these activities might fit in the introductory
psychology curriculum and note APA IPI Student Learning Outcomes that align with them.
Importantly, many of these activities can be adapted and taught in relation to other relevant
topics.

1. Identifying Key Terms in Research Methods (In-Class Activity)

This brief in-class activity allows students to identify key research methods concepts (e.g.,
independent variable, dependent variable, experimental groups) while gaining experience
reading a research abstract. Specifically, students are first asked to read the abstract of an
empirical research article examining the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation (e.g., Flett et
al., 2019 may be particularly relevant as it assesses the impact of popular smartphone-based
mindfulness meditation applications on mental health in college students). Second, students are
asked to identify key terms in the abstract: 1) the independent variable(s); 2) the dependent
variable(s); 3) the experimental group(s); the control group(s); and 4) the results/conclusions.
This activity can be done alone or in a small group discussion or “think-pair-share” format.

The resulting discourse can focus on helping students solidify their understanding of
fundamental research methods concepts through discussion about specific methods employed
in the assigned research article. Moreover, the instructor can help facilitate discussion on
findings of how mindfulness meditation has the potential to improve mental health among
college students. This activity can be adapted by changing the research article and/or the key
terms students are asked to identify.

This activity directly ties to APA (2021) IPI Student Learning Outcome 1.1, Define and explain
psychological concepts, by asking students to identify and discuss psychological concepts in the
context of a research abstract. It additionally relates to 1.2, Interpret research findings related to
75

psychological concepts, and 2.3, Draw logical and objective conclusions about behavior and
mental processes from empirical evidence, by allowing students to read and interpret
psychological research.

This in-class activity is estimated to take approximately 5-15 minutes depending on the length of
the abstract and number of corresponding questions. The duration of the following discussion
can be tailored based on classroom needs. This activity can be completed more than once
throughout the course; however, it is recommended that the first time occurs early in the term to
introduce students to the concept of mindfulness so that it can be tied into the rest of the course.

2. Mindfulness Meditation: A Self-Care Tool (In-Class Activity)

This in-class activity involves leading students through a seated meditation practice. This is an
important activity to weave throughout the course so students can gain experience with
mindfulness meditation. Moreover, students can sharpen some of the associated skills (e.g.,
present-moment awareness, non-judgment, compassion). Some instructors may choose to
begin each class with a brief meditation, while others may choose to tie this activity to relevant
topics (e.g., stress and health, treatments of psychological disorders) throughout the course. For
instructors not comfortable leading mindfulness practices themselves, psychologist Dr. Tara
Brach’s website contains free meditations and it is regularly updated
(https://www.tarabrach.com/guided-meditations/).

This activity directly ties to APA (2021) IPI Student Learning Outcome 1.3, Apply psychological
principles to personal growth and other aspects of everyday life, as well as the key theme of
how applying psychological principles can impact one’s life, organizations, and communities in
positive ways. This activity incorporates the aforementioned APA IPI Student Learning
Outcomes by allowing students to gain hands-on experience with a topic researched in
psychology as well as potentially benefit from incorporating it into their lives.

This in-class activity is estimated to take 5-20 minutes depending on the length of the chosen
practice, as well as approximately 10-15 minutes of follow-up discussion and reflection. For
instructors choosing to begin every class with a meditation, students may benefit from a longer
first practice with discussion; however, over time each meditation could be a brief five-minute
practice.

3. Design Your Own Experiment (In-Class Activity)

This brief in-class activity allows students to employ critical thinking skills to come up with an
idea for an experiment. To implement, organize students in small groups and ask them to come
up with their own idea to conduct an experiment on mindfulness. The prompt can vary in
specificity from broad (e.g., any experiment on mindfulness) to more specific (e.g., how would
you study sex differences in practicing mindfulness meditation). The activity can be structured to
follow the steps of the research process. Specifically, students are instructed to answer the
following questions: 1) describe your experiment; 2) identify the research question; 3) identify
the independent variable; 4) identify the dependent variable; 5) explain the theory; 6) describe
your hypothesis; 7) describe the methods used (e.g., cross-sectional, longitudinal); and 8)
identify the groups (e.g., experimental and control). Following the activity, groups are asked to
share details about their experiments, as well as what they would expect to find. This discussion
allows students to critically think about the research process while also considering potential
outcomes that mindfulness might be related to. Discussion on ethics can also be incorporated
into this assignment by asking students to comment on any potential ethical dilemmas in their
proposed studies.
This activity directly ties to APA (2021) IPI Student Learning Outcome 2.2, Evaluate, design, or
conduct psychological research, by asking students to design their own research study as well
76

as the key theme of ethical principles guiding psychology research and practice - which can be
focused on during the discussion.

This in-class activity is estimated to take approximately 10-20 minutes followed by

approximately 10-15 minutes of discussion. Length of discussion can be tailored based on
whether all groups are asked to share about their experiments. It could also be adapted into a
longer individual or group assignment.

4. Exposure to Types of Research Design: Surveys (In-Class Activity/Assignment)

This in-class activity or assignment serves multiple purposes: 1) to provide students with a
hands-on experience of completing a survey; 2) to encourage discussion on the pros and cons
of surveys as a research method; and 3) to collect pre-post information on incorporating
mindfulness in the classroom.

To implement this activity, create a survey using a survey-making platform. The survey can
include an empirically researched questionnaire (e.g., Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire;
Baer et al., 2006) as well as any specific items desired to measure the effectiveness of
incorporating mindfulness into the classroom. Students can take the survey as part of an in-
class or out-of-class assignment which can be tied to teaching about surveys in research
methods. Discussion can center on the experience of taking the survey, feedback about the
length of the survey, and thoughts about the validity of their responses (e.g., face validity,
ecological validity). The survey can be administered again at the end of the semester.
Instructors can share how student responses may have changed on the measured metrics over
the course of the semester. This second administration allows for new discussions focused on
pre-post design, changes in attitudes/use of mindfulness meditation throughout the semester,
and discussions on reliability.

This activity is aligned with APA (2021) IPI Student Learning Outcome 2.1, Describe the
advantages and limitations of research strategies, and 2.2, Evaluate, design, or conduct
psychological research, by inviting students to engage in a research strategy (e.g., surveys) and
evaluate their advantages and limitations.

The survey can be administered in-class or out-of-class and the length of time to complete will
vary depending on the number of questions administered. If discussing the burden to
participants associated with taking a questionnaire is of interest, it is recommended to complete
the entire activity in-class. Following taking the survey, time spent on discussion is adaptable
based on learning outcomes but could range from approximately 10 to 20 minutes.

5. Psychology in the Media (Assignment)

This tool is a written assignment that invites students to critically examine how mindfulness
research (e.g., trait mindfulness, mindfulness meditation, mindfulness-based interventions) is
presented in the popular media. Specifically, students are asked to read an empirical research
article related to mindfulness, as well as a corresponding media report that shares the findings
of the research article. This can be accomplished by providing students with pairs of empirical
research articles and media reports (more suitable for introductory curriculum) or by showing
students how to conduct a literature search and requesting they identify their own pair of
articles. If pursuing the second option, it may be advantageous to require/suggest students
submit their articles for approval to ensure they are: 1) appropriate for the assignment, 2) the
media report is reporting on their chosen research article.

If providing students an example journal article and media report, a recent study comparing
mindfulness-based stress reduction to anxiety medication (Hoge et al., 2023) and the
77

corresponding media report (Tanner, 2023) may serve as an example. For example, while the
media report outlines the study’s findings it leaves out critical information such as the limitations
of the study. In class, time can be spent discussing the importance of including the limitations of
a study in media reports and how leaving out critical information, such as the study’s limitations,
might impact the conclusions the reader draws.

This assignment is estimated to take approximately 15-45 minutes of class time to introduce,
depending on the amount of time spent discussing an example journal article and media report
pairing. Out-of-class time spent by students on this assignment will vary based on the length
requirement of the paper, as well as whether or not students are provided with a research article
and corresponding popular press article or asked to locate their own. It aligns with APA (2021)
IPI Learning Outcome 2.3, Draw logical and objective conclusions about behavior and mental
processes from empirical evidence, and potentially to 2.4, Examine how psychological science
can be used to counter unsubstantiated statements, opinions, or beliefs, depending on the
choice of article. See electronic materials for more information on this assignment and a
potential rubric that can be adapted. If you find this assignment interesting, please see this
book’s “Critical Reading Skills of Different Information Sources” chapter by Ditta for more ideas.

Incorporating Mindfulness into the Classroom: Evidence for Effectiveness

Examining the effectiveness of integrating mindfulness into the classroom is of utmost

importance. The aforementioned Exposure to Types of Research Design: Surveys activity can
be used to assess the effectiveness of the tool. Specifically, questions can include measuring
important outcomes related to incorporating mindfulness throughout the classroom (e.g.,
understanding of mindfulness, attitudes towards mindfulness, use of mindfulness meditation). In
addition to assessing the effectiveness of mindfulness in the classroom using a pre-post design,
instructors can use student feedback/reflection.

Table 1

Demographic characteristics (N = 74)

Demographic Number (%) or mean (SD) Range

Age 18.34 (0.996) 17 – 24
Year in College
Freshman 60 (81.08%)
Sophomore 7 (9.45%)
Junior 5 (6.75%)
Senior 0 (0.00%)
Other/Unknown 2 (2.70%)

The effectiveness of incorporating mindfulness into the classroom has been tested using a pre-
post design on a sample of 74 students. See Table 1 for demographic information on the
sample. There was a slight increase in interest in practicing mindfulness from the beginning (M
= 3.76; SD = .873) to the end (M = 3.95, SD = .949) of the semester. However, this increase
was not statistically significant; t(73) = -1.87, p = .066, d = .21). Similarly, there was an increase
in the belief that practicing mindfulness reduces the negative impact of stress from the
beginning (M = 4.22; SD = .707) to the end (M = 4.38; SD = .734) of the semester. However,
this increase was not statistically significant; t(73) = -1.69, p = .096. While these findings are not
statistically significant, they trend in the expected direction and suggest that incorporating
mindfulness in the classroom may have a positive impact on perceptions about mindfulness.
78

Additionally, 37 (50%) students reported regularly practicing mindfulness at the beginning of the
semester, while 45 (61%) students reported regularly practicing mindfulness at the end of the
semester. More data is needed to test the effectiveness of incorporating mindfulness into the
classroom, including exploring the amount of focus needed on mindfulness (e.g., number of
activities) to see change. Despite these non-significant findings, an 11% increase in the number
of students practicing mindfulness is promising given the need for self-care skills among
undergraduate students.

Conclusions and Future Considerations

Overall, the integration of mindfulness and mindfulness meditation into introductory psychology
curriculum provides instructors with a vessel to teach key concepts such as research methods,
neuroscience, stress and health, psychological treatments, and much more. Additionally, it
provides students with a take-home skill they can employ to help manage stress and practice
self-care. Finally, the key principles associated with mindfulness practice (e.g., non-judgment,
acceptance, non-striving) create a welcoming and inclusive learning space.

Wrap-Up

● Incorporating mindfulness into the classroom provides an overarching example to use

for teaching research methods.
● Teaching about mindfulness in the introductory psychology classroom provides students
with a take-away skill that has been empirically shown to improve cognition and mental
health.
● The fundamental values of mindfulness (e.g., non-judgment, non-striving, compassion)
help cultivate a safe and inviting classroom.
● To access additional materials:

References

American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)

student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report
assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13, 27-45.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504
Bamber, M. D., & Morpeth, E. (2019). Effects of mindfulness meditation on college student
anxiety: A meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 10(2), 203-214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-
018-0965-5
Flett, J. A., Hayne, H., Riordan, B. C., Thompson, L. M., & Conner, T. S. (2019). Mobile
79

mindfulness meditation: a randomised controlled trial of the effect of two popular apps on
mental health. Mindfulness, 10(5), 863-876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1050-9
Friedman-Wheeler, D. G., Reese, Z. A., McCabe, J. A., Yarrish, C. M., Chapagain, S.,
Scherer, A. M., DeVault, K. M., Hoffmann, C., Mazid, L. J., Weinstein, R. N., Mitchell, J.
D., & Finley, M. (2021). Mindfulness meditation intervention in the college classroom:
Mindful awareness, working memory, content retention, and elaboration. Scholarship of
Teaching and Learning in Psychology. Advance online
publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000305
Gurung, R.A.R, & Neufeld, G. (2022) Transforming introductory psychology: Expert advice on
teacher training, course design, and student success. American Psychological
Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000260-001
Halonen, J. S., Thompson, J. L. W., Whitlock, K. H., Landrum, R. E., & Frantz, S. (2022).
Measuring meaningful learning in introductory psychology: The IPI student learning
outcomes. In R. A. R. Gurung & G. Neufeld (Eds.), Transforming introductory
psychology: Expert advice on teacher training, course design, and student success (pp.
57–80). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000260-004.
Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based
therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review. Journal of consulting and
clinical psychology, 78(2), 169-183. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018555
Hoge, E. A., Bui, E., Mete, M., Dutton, M. A., Baker, A. W., & Simon, N. M. (2023). Mindfulness-
based stress reduction vs escitalopram for the treatment of adults with anxiety disorders:
a randomized clinical trial. JAMA psychiatry, 80(1), 13-21.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.3679
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients
based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and
preliminary results. General Hospital Psychiatry, 4(1), 33-47.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-8343(82)90026-3
Lee, J., Kim, K. H., Webster, C. S., & Henning, M. A. (2021). The evolution of mindfulness
from 1916 to 2019. Mindfulness, 12(8), 1849-1859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-
01603-x
Oswalt, S. B., Lederer, A. M., Chestnut-Steich, K., Day, C., Halbritter, A., & Ortiz, D. (2020).
Trends in college students’ mental health diagnoses and utilization of services, 2009–
2015. Journal of American College Health, 68(1), 41-51.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1515748
Strait, J. E., Strait, G. G., McClain, M. B., Casillas, L., Streich, K., Harper, K., & Gomez, J.
(2020). Classroom mindfulness education effects on meditation frequency, stress, and
self-regulation. Teaching of Psychology, 47(2), 162-168.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628320901386
Tanner, L. (2023, March 19). Mindfulness worked as well for anxiety as drug in study. Effingham
Daily News. https://www.effinghamdailynews.com/news/mindfulness-worked-as-well-for-
anxiety-as-drug-in-study/article_11fe91e2-c6b1-11ed-954d-43056bad7603.html
Vilvens, H. L., Frame, D. L., & Owen, P. C. (2021). Promoting the inclusion of mindfulness and
contemplative practices in the college classroom. Pedagogy in Health Promotion, 7(2),
148-158. https://doi.org/10.1177/2373379920925849
Whitfield, T., Barnhofer, T., Acabchuk, R., Cohen, A., Lee, M., Schlosser, M., ... & Marchant,
N. L. (2022). The effect of mindfulness-based programs on cognitive function in adults: a
systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology Review, 32(3), 677-702.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-021-09519-y
80

Authors Contact Information

Elizabeth J. Duraney, MS
Clinical Psychology Doctoral Candidate
Psychology Department
Ohio State University
[email protected]
Twitter: @ElizaDuraney

Sarah Prieto, MS
Clinical Psychology Doctoral Candidate
Psychology Department
Ohio State University
[email protected]
Twitter: @SPrietoNeuro

Natalie Noble
Undergraduate Course Assistant
Psychology Department
Ohio State University
[email protected]

Melissa Beers, PhD

Senior Director of Bookends Program
Office of Academic Affairs
Ohio State University
[email protected]
Twitter: @mjbeers1
81

10 Goffredi

Handing Over the Keys to Success: An Activity for Combining Self-concordant

Goals and Implementation Intentions

Summary
People can easily encounter pitfalls while setting, and progressing towards, personal goals.
Choosing the wrong goal, giving up before the goal is achieved, and giving into goal-thwarting
temptations are experiences common to all of us. Thankfully, psychological research on the
self-concordance model, as well as literature on implementation intentions, sheds light on how
to best approach goal pursuit. This chapter describes an exercise incorporating evidence-based
approaches to help students identify goals that are optimally aligned with their needs, interests,
and values, and then to create simple but effective if-then plans to help maximize goal
achievement. Findings from a recent attempt at implementing this exercise in an undergraduate
introductory psychology course are discussed.

Introduction

If stating a New Year’s resolution out loud is all it takes for people to persistently work towards
their goals, we’d all be millionaires with the bodies of Greek gods. But more often than not, by
the second week of January all of our good intentions and willpower have inexplicably vanished,
and we try to reassure ourselves by saying “Well, there’s always next year.” This disconnect
between what we say we will do, and what we actually do i.e., how our stated attitudes do not
always correspond to our subsequent behavior, is a well-known phenomenon in psychology and
a difficult challenge for goal pursuers (Ajzen, 1988). Even if a person has set a goal, they may
have difficulty initiating or sustaining any behavior that moves them towards it. An even more
proximal issue of goal pursuit is how to choose a goal that would be good for oneself in the first
place, i.e., a goal that would reflect one’s deeply held values and interests. A sole focus on
accomplishing goals that you don’t care about or even want to engage with is no recipe for an
enjoyable or healthy life. How can we help individuals not only set goals, but set the right goals,
and at the same time give them the tools they need to achieve those goals? I believe one of the
answers lies in teaching students about self-concordant goals and helping to set implementation
intentions to better succeed in their goal striving.

Self-Concordant Goals
The Self-Concordance Model (SCM; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999) states that, to the extent a goal is
in alignment with one’s deeper needs, personality, values, and interests, the person will put in
more sustained effort, persist through setbacks, and ultimately achieve that goal (Sheldon &
Goffredi, 2023). There are many potential reasons someone would want to pursue a goal to eat
healthier meals or get a promotion at work or spend more time with their family, and these
reasons (i.e., motivations) might be of a better or worse quality. The SCM compares several
qualities of motivation such as external motivation (“I’m doing this because I feel like I am forced
to or someone else wants me to”), introjected motivation (“I would feel guilty if I didn’t do this”),
identified motivation (“I’m doing this because it’s meaningful to me”), and intrinsic motivation
(“I’m doing this because I like it or it’s interesting”). External and introjected motivations are
generally experienced as being controlling and forced onto oneself, and as a result are non-self-
concordant. On the other hand, identified and intrinsic motivation are experienced as more
autonomously energized i.e., personally endorsed, and as such are self-concordant forms of
motivation. As you would no doubt expect, and there is much empirical evidence for, people
82

with more identified or intrinsic motivation towards a particular goal (and little or no external or
introjected motivation) are more likely to put in sustained effort, persist through setbacks, and
ultimately achieve that goal (Sheldon, 2014). That is, if a student feels that a personal goal is
important to them and/or would be fun and interesting to go after, such a goal is said to be self-
concordant and is therefore a good goal to pursue, as it comes with the benefits of greater goal
persistence, performance, and achievement. Even more profound, the SCM demonstrates that
when someone achieves a self-concordant goal, but not a non-self-concordant goal, they
receive a boost in well-being (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). These findings show the importance of
helping students to pick self-concordant goals to pursue both in their academic career and
outside of it.

Implementation Intentions
While self-concordance is about the why of goal pursuit, implementation intentions (Gollwitzer,
1993) are about the where, when, and how. Implementation intentions are scripted plans that
specify a situational cue and subsequent goal-oriented action to be performed when the cue is
encountered. They take the form of an if-then statement, e.g., “If situation X occurs, then I will
enact behavior Y in order to move towards my goal.” As an example, let’s say a student would
like to make new connections and find new friends since they have moved from another state to
be at this university. They might create the implementation intention “When I walk into a class
(situational cue), I will introduce myself to whoever I sit next to (goal-oriented behavior).” This
seemingly simple strategy has enormous benefits. Implementation intentions have been found
to be effective in increasing goal progress in domains ranging from academic success to
increased physical health to environmentalism, as well as other areas (Gollwitzer & Sheeran,
2006).

People can encounter several obstacles while pursuing their goals such as failure to maintain
motivation over time or giving into temptations that take them off course. Implementation
intentions are effective at addressing these issues because the association between the cue
and desired behavior that is formed by implementation intentions creates automatic initiation of
the if-then plan when the cue is encountered (Webb & Sheeran, 2007). This “strategic
automaticity” means, in practice, that whenever the cue becomes present, the behavior follows
quickly and efficiently without the need to deliberate about whether to engage in it or not. This
prevents the pitfall of asking ourselves questions like whether we really want to go to the gym
today or not. Thus, implementation intentions are something like “instant habits” that we don’t
really think about, we just perform (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006, p. 84). This reduces
opportunities to get derailed, while also requiring essentially zero willpower to continue enacting
the goal-oriented behavior. In this way, both problems of sustained motivation and falling into
the “I’ll do it tomorrow” cycle are also solved.

As for avoiding temptations, individuals are often encouraged to create implementation

intentions that are both task-facilitating in nature (goal-directed), and distraction-inhibiting in
nature (Gollwitzer, 1999). For example, if one’s goal is to lose weight, best practice suggests
they create one implementation intention that draws them towards healthy behaviors (“If I am
finished with classes for the day, I will go running for thirty minutes”) and at least one
implementation intention that specifies what to do if temptations arise (“If someone brings
cookies to a party I’m attending, I will stay away from that part of the room!”). Of course,
temptations often arise in different ways, thus it is often beneficial to create more than one of
these distraction-inhibiting implementation intentions. One might have to avoid certain areas of
the grocery store, communicate to their roommates to not bring sweets into shared areas of the
house, and say “No, thank you” to the server when asked if they’d like to see the dessert menu.
All of these actions can likewise be planned using implementation intentions. The student
activity covered in this chapter utilizes this approach to implementation intentions by helping
83

students construct multiple of these intentions to best aid their progression towards goal
achievement.

Synergy Between Self-Concordance and Implementation Intentions

Importantly, it has been found that not only are self-concordant goal striving and implementation
intentions effective for enhancing achievement and boosting well-being independently, but
together these strategies truly shine. A study by Koestner and colleagues (2002) found that the
highest levels of goal progress for a sample of undergraduate students occurred when students
had both set highly self-concordant goals and used implementation intentions to pursue them.
“…goal setters optimize their progress when they align their goals with personal interests and
values and buttress their goal with specific plans that allow them to automatize their goal-
directed behavior” (Koestner et al., 2002, p. 243).

The exercise that follows takes advantage of this synergistic effect and positions students to
maximize benefits towards their goal progress and well-being.

APA Pillars and Key Themes

The student activity described in this chapter focuses on pillars four (Social and Personality) and
five (Mental and Physical Health) of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2014). The
degree to which a student’s goal is self-concordant relies on a fit between their goals and their
underlying personality, i.e., values, needs, inclinations, etc., which are squarely in the realm of
personality as well as motivation. Likewise, implementation intentions are planned behavioral
reactions aimed at achieving one’s goals, clearly falling into the category of motivation. Also, as
mentioned previously, achievement of self-concordant goals leads to increases in psychological
well-being, thereby touching on pillar five of mental and physical health. In terms of key APA
integrative themes (APA, 2021; Gurung & Neufeld, 2022), facilitators can illustrate the activity
described in this chapter as being supported by scientific research (integrative theme A), and is
directly applicable towards introducing positive changes in individual goal achievement and well-
being (integrative theme F).

Description of the Activity

The activity takes about 30 minutes and the breakdown is as follows:

Part 1: Goal Self-concordance: 15 minutes
Part 2: Implementation intentions: 15 minutes

Part 1 – Finding the Best Goal for Students

This activity works best while covering material on related topics in motivation, ideally in an in-
person course. See the QR code and link at the end of this chapter to access the full worksheet
for students to work through. First, ask students to write down three prominent goals that they
would like to pursue (or are currently working on). Students will then rate the extent to which
they are pursuing the goal for the following reasons, using a 1 (Not at all for this reason) to 5
(Completely for this reason) scale:
1. Because someone else wants or expects me to (external motivation)
2. Because I would feel guilty or bad about myself if I didn’t (introjected motivation)
3. Because it’s something that I value and find important (identified motivation)
4. Because I think it will be interesting or fun to pursue (intrinsic motivation)

After students rate these items for each of their three goals, they will then compute a Self-
Concordance score for each goal. To do this, add the scores on identified and intrinsic
motivation and subtract scores from external and introjected motivation from that number. For
84

example, if a student scores 1 on the first item, 3 on the second item, 5 on the third item, and 4
on the fourth item, they would calculate their self-concordance score as follows: 4 + 5 – 3 – 1 =
5.

The higher the score, the more self-concordant that goal is (the possible range for a self-
concordance score ranges from -8 to +8). After students have calculated the self-concordance
score for all three goals, have them pick the goal with the highest score to carry to the next
section of the exercise. If there is a tie, they can choose the goal they are most interested in.
This is the “right” goal for them, as it best reflects their underlying interests and what they find
meaningful to accomplish!

Take a few minutes to discuss the differences in quality of these motivational types. Self-
concordance theory demonstrates that if people experience their motivation for pursuing a goal
as being volitional and willingly engaged in, such as in the cases of identified and intrinsic
motivation, then individuals will tend to display more persistence in goal pursuit, higher quality of
performance in goal-oriented behaviors, and experience greater psychological well-being
overall.

Part 2 – Creating Implementation Intentions Towards the Goal and Away from Obstacles
Now that students have their most self-concordant goal in front of them, it’s time to create
implementation intentions that will specify a goal-directed behavior as well as the situational
cue, i.e., when and where this behavior will be initiated. As mentioned previously,
implementation intentions take the form of an if-then statement. Work backward with students to
first identify a desired behavior that will help them achieve their goal (the “then” segment). For
example, if they want to get an A in a course, a proactive behavior might be to “review my
notes.” If a student wants to spend less time on social media, they might give themselves a time
limit such as 30 or 60 minutes a day. These behaviors should be challenging but realistic,
directly beneficial towards achieving the goal, and as specific as possible. A behavior of “eating
healthier” is not specific enough because it doesn’t tell you what to do exactly, so “eating three
servings of vegetables each day” is better in terms of specificity.

Once the behavior has been decided on, students will focus on a cue that will let them know
when to engage in that goal-oriented behavior. This is the “if” portion of the if-then statement
making up the implementation intention. For example, “If I finish my homework and studying for
the day, I will allow myself 30 minutes of social media.” Or “If I have just woken up, I will go for a
twenty-minute run.” These cues should also be specific and should occur frequent enough that
the desired behavior is being implemented often enough to make significant progress towards
the goal. Have students write down their implementation intention.

Students will likely encounter several obstacles that may pop up while they are pursuing their
goal. To address these obstacles, have them make a list of three likely obstacles/distractions.
Then for each obstacle, they should specify a situational cue (e.g., being tempted by tasty
treats) and a desired behavior (e.g., reaching for a piece of fruit instead) to enact when they find
themselves in such a situation. Have them write out these three implementation intentions.

Part 3 - Activity Summary, Debrief, and Follow Up

Using the materials provided via the QR code and link at the end of this chapter, students have
now written out three goals, chosen the most self-concordant goal to pursue, created one task-
directed implementation intention that brings them closer to their goal, and three distraction-
inhibiting implementation intentions that helps them stay on track. Debrief students with a
85

discussion of how implementation intentions are useful and ask students if these if-then plans
help them feel better prepared to accomplish their goal.

Check in with those students after four weeks and see what progress they have made. To do
this, ask students to write a short (200 words or less) reflection on their experience of pursuing
the goal they chose and integrating implementation intentions into regular practice. Students
should discuss their progress towards the goal, any challenges or difficulties they experienced,
and any changes in their well-being.

Assessment of the Activity

During the summer semester of 2022, I received IRB approval to send students an online
survey containing this exercise. Students in the asynchronous online introduction to psychology
course I was teaching, as well as students in an online introductory personality psychology
course taught by a colleague, were able to participate in this activity as an optional extra credit
assignment. Students in my course were given the activity which walked them through how to
pick their most self-concordant goal of the three they wrote down, and how to create
implementation intentions to help them progress towards it over the next four weeks. The
personality psychology course was a control condition where students received instructions
simply to think about and write down three goals they wanted to pursue. They were then
instructed to choose one goal at random to progress towards over the next four weeks. No
implementation intentions were created for the control group students and no information was
given about self-concordant goal selection. Four weeks after being given the initial survey,
students filled out a second survey that asked questions about their goal progress, perceived
effort put towards the goal, and perceived changes in well-being as a result of working on their
chosen goal. In total, 49 of the students in my course (experimental group) and 44 students in
the control condition participated in their respective activities.

One limitation of conducting this activity online became readily apparent! While students in the
experimental group wrote down three goals and rated their motivations for pursuing each goal,
34% of the students still misidentified one of their goals as being the most self-concordant!
Thus, the experimental and control groups did not significantly differ in terms of self-
concordance [t(103) = 1.59, p > .050, d = .31]. Likely, students were confused on how to
calculate a self-concordance score or had misread the instructions. In a synchronous course,
these issues could be easily attended to by working through an example in real-time,
encouraging students to double-check their work, and addressing any issues in Part 1 before
moving onto Part 2 of the exercise. But in an asynchronous setting it was not possible to
address this problem (which was only discovered after the study period was over). This meant
that many students created implementation intentions for a goal that they did not find particularly
meaningful or interesting. After four weeks of working towards their goals, it was unfortunately
unsurprising that, on average, the experimental and control groups did not significantly differ in
terms of goal progress, effort expended, or overall well-being, as demonstrated by a series of
non-significant independent t-tests. These findings underscore the importance of real-time
facilitation and timely feedback!

Upon going back through student data after the study period, if all students in the experimental
group had properly identified their most self-concordant goal, there would have been a
significant difference in overall self-concordance ratings between the two groups with a large
effect size [t(103) = 4.15, p < .001, d = .84]. On average, students in the experimental group had
a self-concordance score of 5.16 whereas the control group scored 2.98 (possible values range
between -8 and +8). However, because of the issues students encountered in identifying self-
86

concordant goals, the two classes did not differ in average self-concordance, and this was
reflected in the goal outcomes.

Conclusion and Reflection

As with implementing almost any new assignments, activities, or lessons, this first attempt at
giving students a new activity had its lumps and bumps. After looking at the results, it was
particularly useful to see where challenges came up and how a teacher might better integrate or
adapt this activity into their course. As stated above, guiding students through the activity in real
time is likely most effective. It may be particularly helpful to demonstrate how to calculate the
self-concordance score in class or with a recorded video for online courses. Tech-savvy
instructors might also utilize programs like Excel to generate a form which automatically
calculates a self-concordance score for each goal after students enter their ratings for each of
the four motivations. In addition, facilitators might consider adding more class discussion or
opportunity for reflection for students. For example, after students complete Part 1 and identify
their most self-concordant goal, instructors might have students engage in a think-pair-share
activity with a fellow classmate to talk about whether they think this goal is truly important to
them and feels like the “right” goal to pursue. Alternatively, a variation of this activity might be a
“gallery walk” where students tape a piece of paper containing their most self-concordant goal
and implementation intentions to the walls of the classroom and students walk around and look
at other students’ work and discuss amongst themselves (Credit to M. Corcoran, personal
communication, December 12, 2022). Afterwards, a discussion can be had as a classroom to
debrief and ask students to reflect on their own answers to the activity after seeing how others
responded. Instructors of asynchronous online courses might have students attempt a similar
activity by posting their self-concordant goals to a discussion board and responding to other
students’ posts before submitting a written reflection.

As empirical evidence suggests, and assessment of this activity supports, it is not always easy
to choose which goals would be best for us to pursue in our lives. This exercise can aid
students in identifying their most valuable goals and give them the tools to successfully
accomplish them.

Wrap-Up

● Many people have difficulty identifying and pursuing goals that would be best for them.
● In this exercise, students first identify their most self-concordant i.e., well-suited goal.
● Then, students create a series of if-then plans to help achieve this goal.
● Teaching students about these concepts and implementing the activity likely works best
in synchronous classroom formats.
● See QR code (next page) or link for the full exercise.
87

References

Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality, and behavior. Dorsey Press.

American Psychological Association. (2014). Strengthening the common core of the introductory
psychology course. https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/intro-psych-report.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)
student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
Gurung, R. A., & Neufeld, G. E. (2022). Transforming introductory psychology: Expert advice on
teacher training, course design, and student success. American Psychological
Association.
Gollwitzer, P.M. (1993) Goal achievement: The role of intentions. European Review of Social
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Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American
Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A
meta-analysis of effects and processes. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental
social psychology, Vol. 38, pp. 69–119). Elsevier Academic
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concordance plus implementation intentions equals success. Journal of Personality and
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Sheldon, K. M. (2014). Becoming oneself: The central role of self-concordant goal
selection. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18(4), 349–365.
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Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-
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Author Contact Information

Ryan Goffredi, M.A.

Doctoral Student and Graduate Instructor
Department of Psychological Sciences
University of Missouri-Columbia
[email protected]
88

11 Cathey

Building the Skills of Self-Compassion in Introductory Psychology

Summary
Self-compassion is a self-attitude that involves treating the self with kindness rather than with
harsh criticism in times of setback and failure (Neff, 2003). Numerous studies have illustrated
the role of self-compassion in successfully bouncing back from disappointment (e.g., Breines &
Chen, 2012; Neff et al., 2005). Given that all college students will inevitably face both personal
and academic challenges and setbacks, self-compassion skills can be key to meeting those
difficulties in ways that lead to future flourishing rather than continued setbacks. This chapter
describes our attempts to embed self-compassion skill-building into our Introductory Psychology
course. To encourage students to meet feedback about their academic performance with self-
compassion, we created a simple, online assignment that students complete at midterm. This
assignment asks students to consider their course performance while simultaneously using the
skills of self-compassion. To examine the effectiveness of this assignment, we randomly
assigned 444 Introductory Psychology students to writing prompts embedded within the
assignment that had them consider an academic shortcoming with either self-compassion or
with self-enhancement. Findings revealed higher self-reports of academic motivation
immediately after completing the assignment for students in the self-compassion condition. In
this chapter, I share details about this assignment, allowing it to be easily adapted for use in any
psychology course. I also discuss additional ways psychology instructors might embed more
explicit self-compassion skill-building into their courses to help students better respond to the
challenges that they will certainly face during their time in college.

Introduction

Setbacks and Difficulties Are an Inevitable Part of the College Experience

The college experience looks awesome in movies and TV shows. It appears to bring total
autonomy and is often portrayed as a never-ending party; however, as anyone who has
transitioned from high school to college knows, though it’s an exciting time, the first year of
college rarely lives up to its Hollywood portrayal. Rather than being the time of carefree liberty
recent high school graduates might expect, the first year of college often brings a prolonged
series of novel and challenging experiences that can lead to psychological distress and
unhappiness (Terry et al., 2013). New college students face a multitude of novel stressors
including financial concerns, sleep problems, roommate difficulties, and adjustment challenges
associated with increased responsibility (Ramler et al., 2016).

Perhaps the biggest challenge students face is in their adjustment to college-level academic
work. Many high school graduates enter college with high expectations about their likelihood of
academic success and, due to increasing grade inflation in high school, many are overconfident
in their current study habits and academic abilities (Twenge, 2013). Moreover, students often
underestimate the level of rigor of the work that will be expected in their college-level courses. In
fact, one study showed that a third of new college students believed that just showing up for
most class meetings should be enough to earn at least a B in a course (Greenburger et al.,
2008). In a recent, informal survey of my own Introductory Psychology students (n=280), 60%
agreed that adjusting to the demands of their academic work was much harder than they had
89

expected. It is therefore no surprise that many freshmen experience significant distress when
they receive their first critical feedback on a college assignment or exam.

How Do Students Respond to Setbacks?

How students respond to the inevitable personal and academic setbacks associated with their
college experience can be key to their ability to flourish in college and beyond. Unfortunately,
when students are blindsided by failure and difficult life situations, they may react in unskillful,
unproductive ways. For example, when a student receives their first low grade or critical
feedback on a college assignment, they might respond to the resulting psychological distress
with experiential avoidance (e.g., by ignoring the feedback, avoiding thoughts related to the
course, or procrastinating on future assignments), and such avoidant behaviors are likely to lead
to continued academic difficulties. The student might also respond to the negative feedback by
engaging in harsh self-criticism and berating the self for having made mistakes, and once again,
this response is likely to lead to future academic difficulties, as self-criticism is associated with
both impaired problem solving (Dunkley et al., 2003) and thwarted goal progress (Powers et al.,
2009). Finally, the student may underestimate the extent to which their academic struggles are
shared by others, a response likely to lead to a sense of isolation and self-pity, as opposed to a
more expansive sense of kinship with other students.

Self-Compassion Skills Are Key

Fortunately, there are ways of responding to hardship that have been shown to lead to
resilience and future flourishing, and as instructors of psychology, we are in a unique position to
help students develop those important skills. Given the wealth of empirical evidence showing its
benefits in times of struggle, self-compassion may be one of the most essential skills we
instructors should be encouraging our students to develop. Self-compassion is a self-attitude
that involves meeting moments of setback and failure by 1) noticing one’s distressing thoughts
and feelings without getting lost in them or avoiding them (mindfulness), 2) treating oneself with
warmth and understanding rather than with harsh self-criticism (self-kindness), and 3) seeing
one’s painful experiences as part of the human experience rather than seeing them as unique to
the self (common humanity) (Neff, 2003).

A growing body of research shows the benefits of self-compassion for navigating the challenges
associated with college life. For example, Terry et al., (2013) examined the role of self-
compassion in students’ abilities to successfully manage the difficulties they experience in the
transition from high school to college and found that students with higher levels of self-
compassion experienced less homesickness, less depression, and reported being more
satisfied with their college choice compared to students with lower levels of self-compassion.
Aiken and Aiken (2015) found self-compassion levels to be predictive of undergraduates’ levels
of flourishing, and a more recent study found self-compassion to mediate the relationship
between college students’ academic stress and wellbeing (Poots & Cassidy, 2020).

Self-compassion has also been shown to be associated with students’ beliefs about learning
and perceptions of their own academic abilities. For example, research has found students with
high levels of self-compassion to be more likely to have a mastery orientation and to thus be
more internally motivated to learn new material (Neff et al., 2005), to be less afraid of failure, to
have more confidence in their academic abilities, and to be less likely both to procrastinate and
to engage in academic worry (Williams et al, 2008). Further, self-compassion has been shown
to support a growth (i.e., incremental) mindset, a belief that one’s traits and abilities are
malleable rather than fixed and permanent (Breines & Chen, 2012), and such a mindset is
90

predictive of a host of positive outcomes related to student learning and motivation (Dweck,
2006).

Self-compassion can also lead to resilience after academic disappointment and setback. For
example, a study by Hope et al. (2014) found first year college students’ self-compassion levels
to be protective against negative affect on days when they made less progress toward an
academic goal than they had hoped. Moreover, self-compassion helps students bounce back
after academic failure and can lead to motivation for self-improvement. Breines and Chen
(2012) had college students complete a difficult antonyms test. After receiving feedback about
their performance, participants were randomly assigned to think about the difficulty they had just
experienced with either self-compassion (i.e., by being reminded that it’s common for students
to have difficulty with those sorts of tests and that they shouldn’t be too hard on themselves) or
by focusing on their academic strengths (i.e., by reading “you must be intelligent if you got into
Berkeley”). Participants were then told they would take a second test and were given as much
time to study as they wanted. Results showed that students in the self-compassion condition
spent more time studying for the second test compared to those in the self-esteem control
condition, illustrating self-compassion’s role in self-improvement motivation.

Self-Compassion at Midterm
Midterm grades are often the first formal feedback first year college students receive about their
course performance, and as mentioned before, many students are surprised and dismayed that
their initial grades in college are lower than expected. Self-compassion skills have been shown
to help students receive and consider midterm feedback in productive ways that ultimately lead
to better learning and greater success. For example, Neff et al. (2005) examined coping
strategies among students who considered their midterm grades to be a failure and found that
high self-compassion students responded to their disappointing grades with skillful coping
strategies. Specifically, high self-compassion students were more likely to engage in emotion-
focused and less likely to engage in avoidance-oriented coping strategies when faced with
midsemester academic failure.

Given the benefits of self-compassion in responding to academic setbacks, my research lab and
I wanted to develop a way to encourage Introductory Psychology students to use the skills of
self-compassion as they consider their performance in the course at midterm. Such an
intervention also struck us as an opportunity to put into practice and to illustrate for students one
of the APA Introductory Psychology Initiative’s seven integrative themes: Applying psychological
principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways (APA, 2021).
In the section that follows, I describe a simple, online assignment that asks students to reflect
on all aspects of their course performance over the first half of the semester while also engaging
in self-compassion.

Tool Sharing

Several years ago, our Introductory Psychology instructional team created an assignment, the
Midterm Wrapper, that students complete after receiving their midterm grades. This online
assignment, modeled after the Exam Wrapper (Lovett, 2013), asks students to list all scores on
all exams and assignments earned over the first half of the semester (i.e., all scores that made
up their midterm grade), to reflect on ways they prepared for and approached those
assignments and exams, and to write a plan for the second half of the semester. We have found
this to be a useful assignment in that it encourages students to reflect on their course
performance and academic habits while there is still time in the semester to make meaningful
91

changes (Cathey, 2021). Typically, around 50% of our students who complete the Midterm
Wrapper indicate some level of dissatisfaction with their midterm grade, so this assignment
struck us as the perfect vehicle for a self-compassion induction, as it gives students a chance to
practice meeting academic disappointment with an attitude of kindness rather than with harsh
self-judgment and with a sense of their kinship with other students who also struggle rather than
with a sense of isolation.

The Midterm Wrapper Assignment

The day after students receive midterm grades, we post instructions for completing the Midterm
Wrapper in Blackboard (our course’s LMS), and students have one week to complete the
assignment. There are two parts to this assignment. For the first part, students download a
performance worksheet. This worksheet lists all assignments and exams that were assigned
over the first half of the semester, and it provides blanks for students to fill in the points they
earned for each assignment and exam listed. The worksheet also gives instructions for students
to calculate their midterm grade, allowing them to see exactly how that grade was derived.
Finally, the worksheet includes a list of all remaining assignments and exams for the remainder
of the semester and their corresponding possible points. Note that students do not turn in this
worksheet, as its purpose is to help students answer the main Midterm Wrapper questions
online. The Wrap Up section of this chapter includes a link to the performance worksheet our
students complete. It would be easy to tailor this worksheet for use in any class.

After completing the performance worksheet, students open a Qualtrics link to the Midterm
Wrapper questions. The first set of questions ask students about their course performance (e.g.,
their midterm grade, their grade on the first two exams) and about their study habits over the
first half of the semester (e.g., how much and how often they studied for the first two exams). It
then provides students with a list of successful study strategies specific to the course and asks
them to check the ones they used in preparing for exams.

Embedded Self-Compassion Induction

At this point, students complete two short self-compassion inductions we adapted from Leary et
al., 2007). An initial writing prompt asks students to think of a weakness or shortcoming related
to the class that has made them feel bad about themselves and to identify that shortcoming in
one to two sentences. After writing about a shortcoming, students complete two writing prompts.

The first prompt, aimed at common humanity, reads as follows:

“Students often feel like they’re the only ones who make mistakes and struggle with their
academic work, but it’s actually the case that all students struggle sometimes. In the
space below, please list academic struggles or challenges other students likely have.”

The second prompt, aimed at self-kindness, reads as follows:

“Think back about the weakness or shortcoming you described earlier. Please write a
paragraph to yourself expressing compassion and understanding regarding that
weakness. In other words, try to take a caring and concerned approach, rather than a
self-critical one. It might be helpful to imagine that you’re talking to yourself as you would
to a close friend.”

After the self-compassion prompt, students list three things they plan to do to improve their
course performance (or to maintain it, if they are happy with it) during the second half of the
92

semester. They then answer a final question that asks what the course staff can do to help them
with their learning and preparation over the second half of the semester. Finally, students
provide their student ID numbers, which we ultimately use to grant credit for completing the
assignment.

Simple to Assign, Simple to Grade

All questions that appear on the Midterm Wrapper are linked in the QR code in the Wrap Up
section. As with the performance worksheet, these questions can be easily altered for use in
any course. For those without access to Qualtrics, any online survey platform (e.g., Survey
Monkey), or the survey function within the course’s LMS could be used for deploying the online
questions. An advantage of this assignment for instructors is that it’s quick and easy to grade,
even in high-enrollment classes. We have course sections with over 300 students, so we simply
read through students’ responses to the question that asks how we can help with their learning,
respond via email to individual students as needed, and grant points to students who complete
the assignment.

Evidence It Works

We wanted to know if the self-compassion prompts embedded in the Midterm Wrapper affected
students’ subsequent levels of motivation and their beliefs about learning, so we obtained IRB
approval to conduct a simple study examining the effectiveness of the assignment. In the spring
semester of 2021, students enrolled in two sections of Introductory Psychology completed the
Midterm Wrapper assignment (N=444). After giving their informed consent for us to use their
deidentified data, students first answered the typical Midterm Wrapper questions about their
course performance and study habits. Immediately after responding to the academic
shortcoming writing prompt, students were randomly assigned through Qualtrics to either
receive the self-compassion writing prompts described above (N= 222) or to receive a self-
esteem control writing prompt (N=222) which read:

“When we feel bad about our own academic weaknesses, it helps to focus on our
academic strengths. In the space provided below, write a paragraph about your own
academic strengths.”

We adapted the above writing prompt from ones used by Breines and Chen (2012) and by
Leary et al. (2007). Both sets of researchers compared self-compassion to self-esteem control
writing prompts to illustrate that self-compassion goes beyond simply making a person feel
better about the self.

After completing the question that asked them to list three changes they planned to make in the
second half of the semester, students responded to three sets of dependent measures. The first
was a seven-item measure of academic motivation adapted from Breins and Chen (2012), the
second was a nine-item measure of growth mindset (De Castella & Byrne, 2015), and the third
was a six-item state self-compassion measure (Neff et al., 2021), which we included as a
manipulation check. All three measures used 7-point Likert-type scales, with higher scores
indicating higher levels of motivation, growth mindset, and state self-compassion.

We used an independent-samples t-test to compare students’ scores on our three dependent

measures between the self-compassion and the self-esteem control conditions. Results
revealed a significant difference in academic motivation scores between conditions, with
students in the self-compassion group scoring higher (M=6.45, SD=.59) compared to students
93

in the self-esteem control group (M=6.33, SD=.51); t(442)=-2.15, p<.05, d=-.20. There were no
significant differences between conditions on mindset scores (p=.55) or on state self-
compassion scores (p=.97).

Not surprisingly, collapsing across conditions, we found significant correlations between state
self-compassion scores and scores on both academic motivation and growth mindset (see
Table 1). This finding is consistent with previous research (Breines & Chen, 2012) and is further
evidence that self-compassion is an important potential variable to consider for those interested
in enhancing student motivation.

Table 1

Correlations Among Dependent Measures

Self-Compassion Academic Motivation Growth Mindset

Self-Compassion —

Academic Motivation .19** —

Growth Mindset .29** .44** —

Note. ** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed).

Conclusion

In the almost 20 years since Kristin Neff first outlined the components and workings of self-
compassion, hundreds of academic articles have been published showing the benefits of
responding to personal shortcomings and failures with mindfulness, self-kindness, and a
recognition of shared common humanity. Given the fact that facing hardship is an inevitable part
of the college experience, instructors of psychology have an important opportunity to help
students more effectively navigate life’s difficulties by teaching them the skills of self-
compassion.

We were intrigued by self-compassion research showing that completing simple writing prompts
in times of setback can increase students’ improvement motivation and can help support a
growth mindset (Breines & Chen, 2012), and we thought mid-semester would be an opportune
time to target these important outcomes among our students. We therefore set out to examine
the effects of adding two short self-compassion writing prompts to the existing Midterm Wrapper
assignment in our Introductory Psychology course. Though the effect size was small, we found
that asking students to consider a weakness in their course performance while using the skills of
self-compassion led to subsequent higher scores on self-reports of academic motivation.

Limitations of Study
While we were encouraged by findings related to motivation, we recognize weaknesses in our
study. First, our self-compassion writing prompts targeted just two of the three components of
self-compassion (common humanity and self-kindness). Leary et al. (2007) included a
mindfulness prompt, for a total of three self-compassion writing exercises, that simply asked
students to describe their feelings about a shortcoming in an objective and unemotional fashion.
Given our desire to assign students in our two conditions roughly equal amounts of writing, we
decided to omit the mindfulness prompt. Moreover, Brienes and Chen (2012) found benefits of
using a single self-compassion prompt targeting self-kindness, so we were hopeful that our two
94

prompts would be sufficient. However, we found no difference between conditions in state self-
compassion scores, suggesting that our self-compassion induction might not have been strong
enough. If we were to do this study again, we would likely include prompts targeting all three
self-compassion components and would include two additional filler prompts in the self-esteem
control condition to make the writing tasks more similar between conditions.

Another limitation is that we did not examine potential longer-term effects of our self-
compassion manipulations. It would be nice to know, for example, if scores on our three
dependent measures would differ by condition two weeks after students completed the
assignment, or even at the end of the semester. We did not have IRB approval to look at
students’ course performance as a dependent measure in our study, but it would be useful to
know if the small effect of our self-compassion induction on motivation might carry over into
behavioral outcomes like improved class attendance or higher exam and homework scores over
the second half of the semester.

Other Opportunities for Self-Compassion Skill-Building in Class

Though we recognize methodological limitations of our study, we are still encouraged by our
findings. We therefore plan to continue devising new ways of infusing self-compassion skill-
building into our Introductory Psychology course. In the future, we plan to go beyond simply
inducing self-compassion through writing prompts, as we believe it’s also important to explicitly
teach students about self-compassion and how to use it. We are therefore currently working on
a series of short interventions (e.g., 60-minute class sessions) that both introduce students to
the components of self-compassion and show them how they can apply self-compassion skills
to specific life challenges. For example, we have recently piloted a class on self-compassion as
applied to the problem of procrastination, and our preliminary results are promising; in a wait list
control study, students who attended the class on procrastination and self-compassion showed
improved self-compassion and optimism scores and reduced scores on self-reports of
procrastination tendencies compared to students in the control condition two weeks after the
class occurred.

Even for instructors who don’t have time to dedicate an entire class period to self-compassion,
it’s possible, and perhaps even preferable, to embed short, contained self-compassion training
sessions within class meetings throughout the semester. For example, an Introductory
Psychology instructor might pick a self-compassion experiment to use as an example when
presenting the experimental method early in the semester. This would provide an initial
opportunity to share the concept of self-compassion and its benefits. At one or more points later
in the semester, the instructor could then remind students of self-compassion research findings
and could help them to see how they might apply self-compassion skills in specific times of
difficulty, all while relating the discussion to course material. For example, an instructor could
discuss self-compassion as it relates to procrastination (Sirois, 2014) when covering material
related to stress reduction. The Self-Compassion Break would be a good exercise to teach
students during a short segment in class, as it is easy to learn and can be to invoke self-
compassion in any challenging situation by simply saying three phrases to the self, each
representing one of the three components of self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019).

College students’ lives are growing increasingly more complex, and rates of depression and
anxiety are rapidly rising in that population (Lipson et al, 2022). Given that adolescence is likely
the time in life when self-compassion levels are lowest (Neff, 2003), and given the known
benefits of self-compassion in a variety of aspects of wellbeing, self-compassion skills can be
important to target in psychology courses. Self-compassion is one of many research areas
within the growing field of positive psychology that provide simple, empirically supported
95

practices aimed at strengthening skills that help students more effectively meet the difficulties
they face. Instructors of psychology are in a prime position to find creative ways to embed
coverage of these topics and to help our students build those important skills.

Wrap-Up

● All college students experience setbacks and at least some degree of academic failure
or disappointment during their time in college, and the skills of self-compassion can help
them respond to such challenges in productive and psychologically healthy ways.
● As instructors of psychology, we are in a prime position to help students develop these
important skills.
● Embedding self-compassion writing prompts into the Midterm Wrapper assignment is a
simple way to have students consider their course performance in a self-compassionate
way, and our research shows a small, positive effect of these writing prompts on self-
reports of academic motivation immediately after completing the assignment.
● Self-compassion education and training can be embedded into psychology courses in
creative ways that connect to existing course content.
● The Midterm Wrapper Assignment with self-compassion writing prompts and the course
performance worksheet are available through this link or the QR Code below. Feel free
to adapt these materials for use in your own courses.

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12(1), 121-140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01505-4
Poots, A., & Cassidy, T. (2020). Academic expectation, self-compassion, psychological capital,
social support and student wellbeing. International Journal of Educational Research, 99,
101506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.101506
Powers, T. A., Koestner, R., Lacaille, N., Kwan, L., & Zuroff, D. C. (2009). Self-criticism,
motivation, and goal progress of athletes and musicians: A prospective study.
Personality and Individual Differences, 47(4), 279-283.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.03.012
Ramler, T. R., Tennison, L. R., Lynch, J., & Murphy, P. (2016). Mindfulness and the college
transition: the efficacy of an adapted mindfulness-based stress reduction intervention in
fostering adjustment among first-year students. Mindfulness, 7(1), 179-188.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0398-3
Sirois, F. M. (2014). Procrastination and stress: Exploring the role of self-compassion. Self and
Identity, 13(2), 128-145. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2013.763404
Terry, M. L., Leary, M. R., & Mehta, S. (2013). Self-compassion as a buffer against
homesickness, depression, and dissatisfaction in the transition to college. Self and
Identity, 12(3), 278-290. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2012.667913
Twenge, J. M. (2013). Teaching generation me. Teaching of Psychology, 40(1), 66-69.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628312465870
97

Williams, J. G., Stark, S. K., & Foster, E. E., (2008). Start today or the very last day? The
relationship among self-compassion, motivation, and procrastination. American Journal
of Psychological Research, 4, 37-44.

Author Contact Information

Christie Cathey, Ph.D.

Associate Professor/Coordinator for Introductory Psychology
Department of Psychology
Missouri State University
[email protected]
98

12 Zipps Dowd

Learning to Accept as a Strengthening Tool

Summary
Active Learning techniques have been shown to increase and foster greater student
understanding of concepts, particularly as we continue to differentiate different learners in
higher education. Active learning techniques bring excitement and engagement to the
classroom (Bonwell, 1991). Following the action-oriented approach of ACT (Acceptance and
Commitment therapy), the following tool provides an overview of ACT and a specific experiential
exercise to use with students to help demonstrate psychological topics and provoke
conversations on ways to build self-efficacy. Building from the theoretical approach of Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy (CBT), ACT seeks to help individuals sit with rather than eliminate difficult
feelings. In addition, ACT has been shown to increase Psychological Flexibility in clients and
groups. Further, the activity described in this chapter, brings in the Jungian concept of “what we
resist persists.” Students will be encouraged to accept challenges instead of trying to resister
from them and build their own inner distress tolerance skills when faced with hardships. Such
instances of resistance often created a feeling of stagnation or feeling stuck. The experiential
exercise described in this chapter can be used to demonstrate concepts such as grief, low self-
esteem, increased motivation and cognition and reduction of mood and anxiety symptoms.

This activity lends itself to both small and large classes and can be modified to fit an online
experience. It is suggested or larger classes and can be modified to fit an online experience.
Additionally, students are encouraged to do the activity in class and debrief about their
experience. They are then encouraged to complete the activity a second time in a modality of
their choosing, to help reinforce the lesson and values work demonstrated.

“I am right where I am supposed to be”

Following the concepts of Swiss Psychologist, Carl Jung, the activity “I am right where I am
supposed to be,” demonstrates the notion “what we resist persists.” Per Jung’s theory, the more
we resist what life gives us, the more the roadblock will persist (Benzinger, 2005). When
speaking of resistance in general, when we find ourselves being unable or unwilling to deal with
and or accept the negative experiences, the more stuck we become in our experiences. Using
an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) model, I developed this activity as a cross
between Jung’s work on resistance and the foundations of Acceptance and Commitment theory.
ACT uses a behavioral model with more emphasis on mindfulness and acceptance. Research
has shown that by suppressing our emotions and resisting feeling, results in lower life
satisfaction and quality. ACT posits not trying to avoid, but to accept the struggles we face, and
to help feel to heal (Hayes, 2011). Stephen Hayes, often considered the “founder” of ACT, has
written numerous books on therapeutic theories and techniques. This chapter references his
book Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: The Process and Practice of Mindful Change
(Hayes, 2011). ACT treatments teach us to defuse and accept situations rather than avoid, and
recent studies have proven ACT to be an effective modality in helping lower anxious and
depressive symptoms in group settings (Coto-Lesmes, et al., 2020). Particularly with the strains
of the past three years, many students are displaying higher levels of anxiety and depression
both in and out of the classroom.
99

American Psychological Association’s Pillars and Integrative Themes

The American Psychology Association (APA) has created 21st century skills for Psychology
students which include acceptance and distress tolerance skills along with the APA Pillars (APA
2014). This activity specifically covers Pillars 3 (Developmental), 4 (Social and Personality), and
5 (Mental and Physical Health). In addition, the 21st century APA skills this activity covers are
Personal (Adaptability and Self-Regulation), Social (collaboration) and Technological (flexibility
for new systems) (Naufel et. al, 2018). The activity strives to create more room for students to
understand and accept distress in their lives, and rather than avoid those distressing moments,
become comfortable and accepting with the ups and downs. Finally, this activity connects to the
APA Integrative Theme, Applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations,
and communities in positive ways (F) (APA, 2021).

I am Right Where I am Supposed to Be Activity

This activity can be done in-class or online. Please note, this activity is quite individualized, and
each student may have different reactions. I have done this activity across a variety of settings
including in-person and online courses in both high school and college. I find that class size
does not matter as it has been well received in classes that are fewer than 25 students and
classes that are over 100 students. I usually have one student come up and demonstrate the
activity on the board, and then have each student do the activity individually. Whichever
platform is chosen to perform this activity, student sharing and reflection is encouraged.
Additionally, it is suggested to perform this activity with the class, and then encourage the
students to re-do the activity in a modality that means something to them. Allot for about thirty
minutes for instruction and debriefing.

When utilizing this tool, I have found it is most salient/helpful when discussing, cognition and/or
motivation, human development, or personality for a Psychology 101 course. As noted above,
this is tied to APA Pillars 3, 4 and 5. It can also be covered when discussing theory and
theorists, however, it is more useful when applied to a particular topic. I usually do this activity
about a quarter of the way through the semester (4-6 weeks in), after trust and rapport have
been built with the students, and to continue to engage them in the materials.

Materials and Instructions

This activity requires the following materials:

● A piece of paper*
● 1 writing implement
● An open mind

* If students do not have a piece of paper in class, this can be done on a computer/writing tablet

We usually spend about 15 minutes debriefing on the activity, and I ask for reactions on how
this activity can be applied towards their lives.

Instructions (also included in QR code at end of chapter)

1. On your piece of paper, put 26 dots in a random order (instruction note: they cannot be
in a straight line or pattern)
2. The dot that is farthest to the left should be marked “A”
100

3. The dot that is farthest to the right should be marked “Z”

4. There are 24 dots left and 24 letters left in the alphabet. Assign a letter of the alphabet to
a dot in random order (instruction note: be sure to state the dots cannot go in
alphabetical order)
5. Now connect the dots alphabetically
6. Once participants are finished, ask them to reflect on their drawing. Suggestions of
questions to ask:
a. What do you see?
b. How does that make you feel?
c. Do some of the lines go up?
d. Do some of the lines go down?
e. Do some of the lines go backwards?
f. Do some of the lines go forwards?
g. Did you ever have trouble finding the next letter? How did you handle it?
h. Did you ever go past the letter A?
i. Did you have a “time limit” for how long this was supposed to take?
7. I have them write on the paper “I am right where I am supposed to be” and then go into
explanation. Items to include in explanation:
a. Healing/life’s trajectory/answers we are seeking are not linear
b. We will go up, down, backwards and forwards AND we will always find a way to
finish
c. The key is not to get caught up in the movement, but to savor the moments and
trust that the next correct step will reveal itself in time
d. Items to consider:
● getting comfortable in the messy
● growth is in the gray
● the only one putting a timeline on healing (decision making etc….) is you
e. Draw connections to theorists (Jung/Freud, ACT), and APA Pillars (Development,
Mental and Physical Health and Social connections)
8. If they liked the activity, I ask them to repeat it at a time that is convenient for them in a
modality that speaks to them (i.e., drawing, coloring, painting, building), and then put the
visual somewhere they can see it to remind them that they are right where they are
supposed to be when times get stressful. They can also take a picture of the visual to
put on their phone to remind them quickly when they are stressed.
***To create a different visual, you can use three different colors of writing instruments for this
activity (one for the dots, one for the letters and one for connections)***

Student Feedback

Upon completion of this project, students overwhelming share positive thoughts and gratitude
for the ability to conceptualize what they are stuck on in a different way. Over the 3+ years that I
have been running this project, I have had students come back to me each semester to show
their “new” design that they state they keep to help them in times of stress. Some examples of
different modalities used have been paintings, drawings, pictures, and Lego models! I have
included a picture of the activity in the QR code at the end of the chapter.

Conclusion

This activity can be done in a variety of settings and can be utilized at different times throughout
the semester. When I have a student complete the activity, I often reference it when the student
101

comes to visit for office hours. In addition, after completing this activity during class, I reference
the concepts the activity teaches throughout the semester and ask students to reference the
activity when they find a concept particularly challenging. You may also want to consider
bringing this activity back out at the end of the semester and asking students to reflect upon
their thoughts as they look at their drawings from when the activity was taught to now with all
the knowledge they have learned. Finally, if you want to do this activity twice, I suggest doing
this as a last-class activity and bringing in more art-based materials for the students to complete
the activity and take with them as a reminder of the course, the semester, and their inner
strength to not resist but to accept.

Wrap-Up

● Utilizing an ACT theoretical framework, the activity “I am right where I am supposed to

be” can help students who are stuck in their thoughts
● The activity additionally highlights the concept by Jung of “What we Resist Persists”
● This activity is generally met with positive feedback and can be utilized in a variety of
formats including online, asynchronous and in person
● Asking students to share their design and their thoughts helps empower them to
consider the concept of acceptance in a variety of areas of their lives.
● QR code with additional materials:

References

American Psychological Association. (2014). Strengthening the common core of the

introductory psychology course. https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/intro-psych-
report.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)
student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-
outcomes.pdf
Benziger, K. (2005). Physiological and psychophysiological bases for jungian concepts: An
annotated bibliography (3rd ed.). KBA, LLC.
Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the
classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED336049.pdf
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2011). Acceptance and commitment therapy:
The process and practice of mindful change. Guilford Press.
Naufel, K. Z., Appleby, D. C., Young, J., Van Kirk, J. F., Spencer, S. M., Rudmann, J.,
…Richmond, A. S. (2018). The skillful psychology student: Prepared for success in the
21st century workplace. https://www.apa.org/careers/resources/guides/transferable-
skills.pdf
Coto-Lesmes, R., Fernández-Rodríguez, C., & González-Fernández, S. (2020).
102

Acceptance and commitment therapy in group format for anxiety and depression: A
systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 263.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.154

Author Contact Information

Samantha Zipp Dowd, MS, LCPC

Full-time Lecturer
Department of Psychology
Towson University
[email protected]
103

13 Corcoran

Teaching Empathy Through Role-Playing: A Multi-Faceted Approach

Summary
In this chapter, I detail a multi-pronged activity focusing on empathy. A portion of students are
asked to role-play via perspective-taking, emotional expression and identification, and emotional
reactions. Another portion of students are then tasked with interacting with the other group and
completing informal assessments, such as identifying the emotion or emotional reaction. Turns
alternate so that all students have the opportunity to role-play and complete informal
assessments. This activity addresses the multiple different components of empathy to help
students better understand and cultivate empathy via emotional expression, emotion sharing,
compassion, and perspective-taking.

What is Empathy?

Empathy is a broadly understood and felt concept. We’ve likely all felt it at some point: the
sadness elicited by observing a loved one cry; the happiness evoked by seeing students’ joy on
graduation day; the feeling of love watching a couple’s first dance on their wedding night. Even
considering some of these examples is likely to call up some personal memories and associated
emotions from your personal life. While we all likely have experienced empathy, understanding
the psychological mechanisms and consequences of empathy is likely to help even further
enrich our experiences and regulate our emotions.

When discussing empathy, individuals often bring up instances of sympathy rather than
empathy. It is easy to conflate these ideas given their inherent overlap (e.g., Baron-Cohen &
Wheelwright, 2004), and, thus, it is even more important to distinguish the two. Sympathy is
considered concern or compassion for another person upon observing an emotional event,
which is often accompanied by the desire to help alleviate any suffering. Empathy is
differentiated in its reaction: empathy induces an emotional reaction similar to the emotional
event observed. It is an attempt to understand the emotional experience (Wispé, 1986).

Despite this distinction, there is some debate as to what constitutes the construct of empathy
and some even suggest that the term should be abandoned in favor of lower-order constructs
(e.g., Hall & Schwartz, 2019). In this chapter and my courses, the goal is not to reconcile the
issues regarding the conceptualization and operationalization of empathy. Instead, the focus is
understanding the psychological mechanisms underlying it, and the ways we might utilize it and
these lower-order constructs.

I have found the best way to reconcile this is by utilizing the definition from Depow et al. (2021).
Empathy is a shared emotional experience that consists of three components:

1. Emotion sharing: experiencing the same emotion as another

2. Perspective-taking: cognitive process of observing a situation from another’s perspective
3. Compassion: motivation to help another person

Doing so allows us to discuss empathy from both a higher- and lower-order perspective,
providing a richer discussion of empathy and our experiences with it. This also broadens the
applicability of the discussion of empathy and the activities in this chapter.
104

The Importance of Empathy

As many have theorized, humans have an innate need to belong (e.g., Baumeister & Leary,
2017). In this way, empathy might be necessary to the human experience. For example,
empathy helps facilitate emotional connection with others, which is essential for communication
(Decety & Jackson, 2004). Perceived total empathy and congruity also predict relationship
satisfaction (Kimmes et al., 2015).

It is also important to consider that empathy can happen regardless of the valence of the
emotion (Andreychik & Migliaccio, 2015). Thus, some of our empathetic reactions might be
regarding positively valenced events. These events are particularly important to relationship
satisfaction. When one shares good news with us, for example, it is considered capitalization,
and our reaction to that has an influence on relationship satisfaction. When one engages in
active constructive responding (similar to empathy), it can enhance positive feelings above and
beyond the event itself, and this is also associated with positive relationship satisfaction (Gable
et al., 2004).

Not only does empathy help us function and flourish in our personal relationships, but it also
helps society flourish and is a normal part of our daily lives. For example, empathy in daily life is
associated with more prosocial behavior, which is paramount to a well-functioning society. It is
also predictive of well-being, which is paramount to the health of society. Depow et al. (2021)
also found that we have an average of 9 opportunities to empathize a day, highlighting the
importance of it in our daily lives.

The Activity

Activity Background
The activities I outline here focus on the three components of empathy identified earlier:
emotion sharing, perspective-taking, and compassion. While I often do these activities in one
course period, they can be broken up across multiple course periods if you devote more time for
lecture, discussion, or reflection. The activities themselves can also be done independently.

I’ve used these activities at the undergraduate level and most often in my Science of Well-being
face-to-face courses. In these courses, I usually devote a full class to discussing the concept of
empathy and research regarding empathy. The next class is then devoted to doing all three of
the activities. I have also used these as independent activities in other courses and adapted
them to emphasize certain concepts. For example, I have used the emotion identification activity
in introduction to psychology courses, and even incorporated masking when exhibiting emotions
to elucidate the differences in emotional expression and identification when individuals are
wearing masks compared to when they are not (Sheldon et al., 2021). This also allows for a
deeper discussion of the way we identify and express emotions. While these activities have
been utilized in both in-person and virtual synchronous contexts, they would be difficult to
implement in asynchronous modalities.

APA Pillars and Usages

The theme of empathy and the associated activities are directly related to APA pillars four
(Social and Personality) and five (Mental and Physical Health). These activities can be used in a
variety of courses such as introduction to psychology, social psychology, and positive
psychology. These can also be utilized in more creative contexts such as 1st year seminars and
cognitive psychology. The best way to tailor these activities to different courses is by altering the
preceding introduction of the activities and the subsequent discussion and reflection post-
105

activity. For example, in a 1st year seminar, one could focus on the preceding introduction to
interpersonal influences of empathy and then have a post-activity discussion on how students
could utilize empathy in common emotional situations they might encounter on campus (e.g., an
issue with a roommate). For a cognitive course, one could focus on the cognitive aspect of
empathy.

Description of the Activities

In this section, I detail all three activities. If instructors use these activities in one class period, it
will usually take over an hour, but this can be manipulated by varying how many
examples/scenarios instructors provide. Instructors also could vary the amount of preparation
that students need to do prior to the activities. In a more flipped classroom style, students can
prepare by reading articles or watching a lecture about empathy. In a more traditional classroom
in which instructors want to emphasize empathy, they can spend a class period prior to this
discussing empathy. In a class where empathy might not be a main topic, instructors could
spend the first portion of class discussing the general topic of empathy and then dive right into
the activities.

Activity 1: Perspective-Taking with a Time Traveler.

This activity starts by splitting the classroom into two large groups: a speaking group and a
listening/questioning group. The speaking group is instructed to imagine they are from the
present-day with modern day technology. The listening/questioning group is instructed to
imagine they are a time traveler from the far past with no modern-day technology or comforts.

The speaking group is then instructed to pick a modern-day object and to describe it in terms
someone without technology (i.e., the listening/questioning group) would understand. The
listening/questioning group is instructed to listen to the description and to follow-up with
questions suited to their level of knowledge (time travelers from a far past). The goal is to ask
questions to eventually uncover what the modern-day object is.

Once students confirm they understand the instructions, they are given time to discuss their
object (speaking group) and their strategy in questioning (listening/questioning group). When
both groups are ready, the speaking group begins by describing their object. After hearing the
description, the listening/questioning group is given an opportunity to ask follow-up questions
and they try to guess the modern-day object in question. Once they are able to guess the
object, teams change roles so that each group gets an opportunity to speak and question/listen.

This activity can continue for as many rounds as instructors see fit. Often, I find that students
are very engaged in this activity, so the class cycles through multiple rounds. Usually this lasts
around 3 rounds at most, and it takes about 15 minutes. Instructors also can vary the
instructions to influence the type of communication and the influence that might have on
perspective-taking. For example, students can be instructed to offer more difficult or easy
descriptions of the object. Difficulty also can be varied by the time period the time travelers
come from. Instructors might also want to specify the object to the speaking group for the first
few rounds to spur this activity (e.g., cell phone, computer, car). It is also important to ensure
students are following the given prompt, as it can be easy for them to return to their current
perspective. I do find that if this does happen, students start to self-police or need no further
guidance after a couple reminders.

Activity 2: Facial Emotion Sharing, Mimicking, and Identifying.

This activity is highly customizable to students as well as time constraints. The basics of this
activity are that students observe a face that is making an emotional expression. Students are
106

then asked to mimic this expression to the best of their ability. Then, they are asked to identify
what this emotion is. This activity can be carried out in many ways. For example, instructors can
show students facial stimuli from emotion studies, photos of famous people, or even photos
from memes. Instructors can even make the expressions themselves, or instructors can ask for
student volunteers to come up and try to emulate the facial expressions of certain emotions.

Regardless of the stimuli, instructors should focus on varying the difficulty of the emotions that
need to be identified. For example, students can often readily pick up on happiness and anger,
but other emotions, such as jealousy or love, are much more difficult. By varying difficulty, such
as obstructing certain portions of the face (e.g., by wearing a mask), instructors also provide
students with a more holistic understanding of emotional expression and empathy. Doing so
also provides opportunity for a richer discussion as to which emotions are more difficult to
identify (and perhaps empathize with), and the ways that we might be able to identify those
emotions other than through facial expression.

Activity 3: Identification of Compassion and Different Emotional Reactions

This activity begins by asking for two volunteers willing to do a short role-playing activity. Both
students are seated at the front of the class. One student is assigned the role of storyteller and
the other student the role of responder. The storyteller is instructed to create a story about an
emotional event of any valence. Once they have their story crafted, they are to tell their story
aloud to the responder. The responder is asked to respond to the story, but must pick their
response style prior to the story being told.

The responder can respond in multiple ways that you provide them, but at least one of the
methods should be “empathizing.” Some other prior responses I have used in addition to
empathizing are “one-upping,” “correcting,” “interrogating,” or “shutting down.” All the students
should know the options available to the responder. Once the storyteller has completed telling
their story, the responder must then respond using their selected response style. After they
complete their response, the rest of the students in the classroom are asked to guess what
response style was utilized.

Encourage students to get creative in their storytelling as well as their responding, as it makes
the activity much more engaging and interesting. I also encourage the use of plenty of different
response style options to increase student autonomy and to make it a bit more difficult to
decipher the response style. I discourage instructors from having students tell actual stories
from their own lives, given that some of these response styles are not particularly nice. In the
same vein, it is important to emphasize that this is a role-playing activity so that students are not
personally invested in the response they will receive. Each storytelling and guessing of
emotional reaction takes 1-2 minutes. I usually have students complete 5-6 rounds of this
activity, leading to about 10 minutes to complete the entire activity.

The Evidence

Evidence for the effectiveness of this activity is qualitative and lies in student responses and
reflections. When I first devised this activity, I was a bit concerned about the buy-in from
students and their willingness to role-play. Much to my surprise, this remains one of the most
popular activities among my students across multiple semesters via informal student feedback.
Given that multiple ways of knowing are important to intellectual development, utilizing these
activities can be beneficial to student learning and development. This has led to incorporating
role-playing in other courses, along with activities that emphasize multiple ways of knowing.
107

Evidence of effectiveness can also be found in student discussions and reflections proceeding
the activity. After the activity, we often have discussions regarding empathy. I ask students to
first recount previous examples of exhibiting empathy for negative events. We then take each
example and break them down into component parts and analyze each piece (emotion sharing,
perspective-taking, and emotional reactions). I then ask students to recount previous examples
of exhibiting empathy for positive events and then we analyze the component parts of each of
those, too. After the activity, students are well-equipped to identify examples and also to break
them into their components, exhibiting their understanding of empathy and how it functions.

I also often follow-up this discussion by soliciting examples of failure to empathize. Students
recount many rich examples of and experiences in which a person did not empathize (either
themselves or another individual). We then discuss some of the reasons why there was a failure
to empathize, including referring to the component parts. This juxtaposed discussion of
successful and unsuccessful empathy provides an impactful experience for students to
understand the necessity of empathy.

Once students have discussed both successful and unsuccessful empathy experiences, we
spend some time unpacking the emotional experiences associated with each. We discuss what
emotions they feel when empathy is present or absent for a positive event, and we discuss what
emotions they feel when empathy is present or absent for a negative event. This allows
students the space to compare their experiences and to discuss how their reactions may
influence their relationship satisfaction and well-being. Students often remark that the lack of
empathy, regardless of type, is detrimental to relationship satisfaction and their well-being. They
also express how impactful and important empathy is in relationships. For example, they bring
up that often empathizing with negative experiences does come with negative emotions, but the
experience of being able to connect and support another individual is an important part of the
human experience. When discussing empathy with positive events, they bring up how joyful and
fulfilling it can be to celebrate another’s accomplishments. They also often comment that seeing
another celebrate their positive event feels even better than the positive event itself.

After this activity, students show an understanding about the importance of empathy in our lived
experiences and relationships. As one of my students succinctly stated, empathy makes people
“feel like they belong and makes their emotions valid.” Another student added that empathizing
with others is so important because it provides a sense of “purpose and impact.”

Conclusion

In this chapter, I presented three activities to further students’ understanding of and experiences
with separate components of empathy. These activities are highly adaptable and customizable
to instructors’ varied needs. For example, instructors can tailor these activities to different forms
of synchronous modalities and to various courses, and the activities can be used together or
independently depending on course learning objectives and goals. I believe that instructors can
increase the impact of these activities by fostering opportunities for discussion and reflection
after each activity and then after all activities have been used. Together the activities offer an
engaging learning opportunity that provides multiple ways of knowing and understanding
empathy. The resulting, enhanced understanding of empathy should help students better
understand not only empathy, but their own emotions, other’s emotions, and effective ways they
can facilitate and regulate their emotions. These are directly related to some of the APA skills
needed to succeed in the 21st Century Workplace (Appleby et al., 2019). More specifically,
empathy is directly related to the skills of oral and written communication, collaboration,
108

inclusivity, and service orientation. It is also indirectly related to other skills such as leadership
and management.

Wrap-Up

● Empathy is an intricate part of our lives and is important to our relationships and well-
being.
● The development and understanding of empathy supports students’ emotional
understanding and regulation.
● These three activities provide ways for students to explore different components of
empathy, and they can be used in different courses and course modalities.
● QR code includes teaching materials.

References

Andreychik, M. R., & Migliaccio, N. (2015). Empathizing with others’ pain versus empathizing
with others’ joy: Examining the separability of positive and negative empathy and their
relation to different types of social behaviors and social emotions. Basic and
applied social psychology, 37(5), 274-291.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2015.1071256
Appleby, D. C., Young, J., Van Kirk, J., Rudmann, J., Naufel, K. Z., Spencer, S. M., ... &
Richmond, A. S. (2019). The skillful psychology student: Skills you will need to succeed
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with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal
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attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychology Bulletin, 57-89.
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Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2004). The functional architecture of human empathy. Behavioral
and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3(2), 71-100.
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Depow, G. J., Francis, Z., & Inzlicht, M. (2021). The experience of empathy in everyday
life. Psychological Science, 32(8), 1198-1213.
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Gable, S. L., Reis, H. T., Impett, E. A., & Asher, E. R. (2004). What do you do when things go
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Author Contact Information

Mike Corcoran, MAIOP, PhD

Assistant Professor
Psychology Department
Widener University
[email protected]
110

14 Kracen, Mothersill, McClean & Woods

Demystifying Anxiety: A Teaching Tool to Destigmatize Mental Health and

Enhance Students’ Resilience

Summary
This chapter outlines a teaching tool, Demystifying Anxiety, designed to destigmatize mental
health and enhance students’ resilience. Specifically, this short course provided
psychoeducation about the brain and anxiety, normalized feelings of anxiety, and taught basic
skills for coping with stress and anxiety. Subsequently, working in small groups, students
created and presented mental health promotion posters that applied and demonstrated their
learning. The tool, designed to be 10 hours of teaching and activity, can easily be adapted for
various durations, ages, and settings. It would be well-suited for inclusion in introduction to
psychology, neuroscience, or psychopathology classes.

We evaluated participants’ (N = 8) experience with the short course; hypotheses were that
adolescent mental health stigma would be lower, cognitive fusion would be lower, and anxiety
literacy would be higher after the course. Effectiveness was examined using three scales: Peer
Mental Health Stigmatization Scale-Revised (PMHSS-R), Acceptance and Fusion
Questionnaire-Youth 8-items, and Anxiety Literacy Scale. Results from a paired samples t-test
showed that anxiety literacy increased after the completion of the course (p= 0.038).
Additionally, participants reported enjoying the course and finding the learning to be valuable,
which was consistent with our observations during teaching. To increase the effectiveness of
this course, we suggest assessing your students’ baseline knowledge of anxiety and adjusting
the content accordingly. As anxiety continues to be a concern among young people, we
welcome opportunities in the classroom to use psychological knowledge to help educate and
empower students.

Introduction

Like most of our colleagues in psychology, we care about our students’ learning and overall
well-being. We have been concerned with our personal experiences of having increasing
numbers of students struggling with anxiety in the classroom, but also by observations of some
students’ labeling of challenging experiences as extremely anxiety-provoking. As teachers, we
strive to support students, while simultaneously encouraging their knowledge, hardiness, and
resilience. Therefore, as a counseling psychologist (A.K.) and neuroscientist (D.M.), when we
had the opportunity to collaborate, we developed an evidence-based teaching activity; the aim
was to increase knowledge about the brain and anxiety to empower students and to combat
stigma.

Unfortunately, our impressions in the classroom are consistent with recent epidemiological
research. Most mental health difficulties develop before the age of 24 (De Girolamo et al.,
2012), and anxiety increased among adult Americans between 2008 and 2018, with the most
notable rise in young adults ages 18–25 years old (Goodwin et al., 2020). Subsequent research
demonstrates that mental health challenges worsened for young adults during the COVID
pandemic, and only a third of participants with symptoms reported receiving treatment (Adams
et al., 2022). Although early intervention is associated with better clinical outcomes, young
people are the least likely cohort to seek professional help (Das et al., 2016; Reavley et al.,
2010). Several studies have identified mental health literacy and mental health stigma as key
111

barriers to help-seeking behavior among young adults (Coles et al., 2016; Gulliver et al., 2010;
Nearchou et al., 2018). However, there is some evidence that interventions can reduce mental
health stigma among adolescents (Economou et al., 2014; Vila-Badia et al., 2016). Therefore,
when we (A.K. and D.M.) were asked to teach a week-long course for high school students, as
part of a program that is offered each summer at our university, we were excited to devise a
short course about anxiety.

Demystifying Anxiety Short Course

The short course was designed to be approximately 10 hours; however, this timeframe could be
adapted depending on classroom time and resources. It was composed of two interactive
lectures (4 hours of classroom instruction) and a mental health promotion activity (6 hours of
project time). The lectures were taught by two authors (A.K. and D.M.); we were also on hand
for brief periods during the activity. We were assisted in the short course by our co-authors
(E.M. and S.W.), who were undergraduate psychology students employed to mentor, guide, and
support the students during the course; they also led and facilitated the activity.

The short course, described in detail below, provided psychoeducation about the brain and
anxiety. We also sought to normalize feelings of anxiety without pathologizing them, as well as
to teach basic coping skills that can be used by anyone when feeling anxious. While we (A.K.
and D.M.) recently delivered this short course to high school students, we also have taught the
same material and similar activities to our college students over the last several years. Thus, we
consider this curriculum to be appropriate for young people, ages 14 to 25 years of age. (We
also have taught this material to students up to age 60.). It can be taught by one instructor who
has adequate psychological knowledge. Ideally, it works best for classes in which discussion
and group work can occur; however, the content could be adapted for lecture-only courses. If
time or space is limited, students could complete an adapted activity individually or in pairs while
sitting at their desks or online at home.

To replicate the short course, we suggest that instructors have the following resources: poster
paper/board, hand-outs of the poster campaign brief, markers, colored pencils, scissors, glue,
notebooks and pens for note taking, 3D models of brains (especially ones that can be taken
apart and put back together), individual tubs of Playdough, PowerPoint, computer, and a printer
to print resources for the posters, such as QR codes.

American Psychological Association’s Pillars and Integrative Themes

As presented, the content of this short course integrates material from several of the American
Psychological Association’s (APA) five pillars of knowledge recommended for psychology
courses (Gurung et al., 2016). Specifically, the content integrates material from Pillars 1
(Biological), 4 (Social and Personality), and 5 (Mental and Physical Health). Additionally, the
short course was designed to weave in several of the recommended integrative themes from
the recent APA Student Learning Outcomes for Introductory Psychology (APA, 2021). For
example, the instructional materials were informed by APA’s Theme III (Psychological,
biological, social, and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes.) and Theme VI
(Applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in
positive ways.). The short course highlights how students can learn more about psychological
science to positively affect their personal experiences and well-being; additionally, the mental
health promotion activity is designed to have students consider how they can apply science to
influence their community.
112

Teaching Tool: Demystifying Anxiety Short Course Content

Part A: Super Brain Class (Approximately 2 hours)

I (D.M.) taught the “Super Brain” class, during which I talked with students about the biology of
anxiety; I showed them videos and PowerPoint slides which focused on how different parts of
the body are affected when a person feels stressed. I had very interesting conversations with
the students in these classes and got feedback about what they already knew about stress and
the brain. To add a fun, practical element, I brought out anatomical models of the human brain
that the students could take apart and rebuild. Additionally, each student got their own individual
tub of playdough so they could build their own brain model, which they took home.

During this class, I discussed the following topics:

● Emotions and what they are;
● The hypothalamus and the human body’s response to stress;
● The sympathetic nervous system and fight or flight response;
● The amygdala and fear conditioning;
● The basic anatomy of the human brain;
● A brief history of neuroscience;
● How the brain changes in response to new experiences through growth and rewiring;
● Optical illusions and what they tell us about how the brain processes information.

Part B: Demystifying Anxiety Class (Approximately 2 hours)

Subsequently, I (A.K.) ran a “Demystifying Anxiety” class during which I talked with students
about stress, anxiety, and techniques for managing anxiety. The purpose of the class was to
help students better understand stress as a normative experience, as opposed to a feared
response. We discussed how people experience anxiety in their bodies and minds, as well as
healthy and unhealthy ways that people cope. To enhance their coping repertoire, I taught them
several basic strategies to increase their internal locus of control. Throughout the class, I
showed several videos to illustrate the topics we discussed.

During this class, I covered the following topics:

● Review of what students learned during the Super Brain class;
● Purposes anxiety might serve;
● Possible stressors;
● How stress feels in the body;
● Healthy and unhealthy ways people cope with anxiety;
● Strategies to manage anxiety:
o Deep breathing;
o The struggle switch;
o Acceptance and self-talk;
o Thanking your mind.

Part C: Demystifying Anxiety Poster Competition (Approximately 6 hours)

After the classes, students took part in a health promotion activity that allowed them to
consolidate and integrate their knowledge, communicate their learning in simple messages, be
creative, work together as a team, and practice presentation skills. The activity was designed as
a poster competition. The goal was to create several posters to raise public awareness of
anxiety and promote healthy ways to help people cope with stress and anxiety.
In small groups, students made artistic posters using markers and coloring pencils; they added
QR codes to the posters to allow viewers to access videos where they could learn more about
methods to manage anxiety, such as breathing techniques. Once completed, students
presented their posters to judges and were given the choice of taking their poster home or
113

putting it up on campus. We were so impressed by the artistic quality of these posters and the
way the students communicated what they learned that we proudly displayed a selection of
these posters on campus. Please see the QR codes below for more information on the
Demystifying Anxiety Poster Campaign brief.

Assessment of Demystifying Anxiety Short Course

As we (A.K. and D.M.) were developing this short course together and plan to run it in future
summers, we wanted to evaluate its effectiveness. Therefore, before commencing the course,
we sought ethical approval to assess the students’ experiences (NCI, Ethics Approval Number:
2006202211).

We ran exploratory statistical analyses to test three hypotheses:

● Hypothesis 1: Adolescent mental health stigma will be lower after the short course.
● Hypothesis 2: Adolescent cognitive fusion will be lower after the short course.
● Hypothesis 3: Adolescent anxiety literacy will be higher after short course.

Participants: Eleven students took part in the short course, and eight students gave consent to
participate in the research part. The students included three girls, four boys, and one
transgender student; six students lived in Dublin city. The students were aged 14 to 17 years
(mean: 15.8 years).

Questionnaires: Students completed the following questionnaires at the beginning and end of
the course:
● Peer Mental Health Stigmatization Scale-Revised (PMHSS-R). The PMHSS-R is a
validated measure of mental health stigma in young people (Nearchou et al., 2021). It
contains 11 items that are scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (disagree
completely) to 5 (agree completely). The questionnaire is divided into two subscales
measuring stigma awareness (perception of public mental health stigma, six questions)
and stigma agreement (the student’s own stigma, five questions). Total scores were
calculated for each subscale by adding up each item. Higher scores indicated higher
levels of stigmatizing attitudes.
● Acceptance and Fusion Questionnaire – Youth 8-items (AFQ-Y8). The AFQ-Y8 contains
8 items measuring psychological flexibility that are scored on a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from 0 (not true at all) to 4 (very true) (Greco et al., 2008). We calculated a total
score by adding up each item. Higher scores indicate higher levels of psychological
inflexibility, or fusion with difficult thoughts and feelings.
● Anxiety literacy scale. We developed our own anxiety literacy scale to examine students’
knowledge of anxiety, based on the material we covered in our short course. This scale
included 10 true-or-false questions. We calculated a total score by adding up all the
correct answers, with higher scores indicating higher anxiety literacy. The anxiety
literacy questions were as follows [correct answers]:
1. Anxiety is an emotion that a person might feel when they experience worried
thoughts and tension in their body. [true]
2. Most people feel anxious occasionally. [true]
3. Other people can tell when someone is feeling anxious. [false]
4. The purpose of anxiety is to keep people safe. [true]
5. Pushing away worried thoughts or feelings is a useful way to cope with anxiety.
[false]
6. The parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system stimulates the body’s
fight or flight response. [false]
114

7. The amygdala is a brain region involved in fear conditioning. [true]

8. The hormone adrenaline plays an important role in the functioning of the sympathetic
nervous system. [true]
9. Chronic stress has a negative impact on a brain region known as the hippocampus.
[true]
10. The hypothalamus does not play a significant role in the body’s response to stress.
[false]

Results

Paired samples t-test showed that anxiety literacy scores were higher after the short course
compared to before the short course (N = 8, t = 2.546, p = 0.038) (Table 1 and Figure 1). This is
associated with a large effect size of Cohen’s d = 1.9 (effect size calculated from t-statistic and
degrees of freedom using the online effect size calculator: https://lbecker.uccs.edu/).

Table 1

Summary Data and Statistical Results

Variable (range) Pre-short course Post-short t-statistic p-value

mean (standard course mean
deviation) (standard
deviation)
Stigma awareness (6 – 30) 20.5 (3.0) 21.0 (3.6) 0.642 0.542
Stigma agreement (5 – 25) 8.3 (2.2) 8.8 (3.3) 0.500 0.632
Cognitive fusion (0 – 32) 16.1 (6.5) 17.0 (6.5) 0.813 0.443
Anxiety literacy (0 – 10) 6.6 (1.4) 7.9 (0.6) 2.546 0.038

Figure 1.

Anxiety literacy scores before and after the short course

Anxiety literacy
10
Anxiety literacy score

8
from 0 to 10

0
Pre-short course Post-short course
115

Although our analysis will need to be replicated in a larger sample to confirm our results, the
statistically significant increase in anxiety literacy is interesting and suggests the short course
led to an increase in the students’ knowledge of anxiety. We plan to teach this short course over
the coming years and to continue evaluating its effectiveness and interest to students.

Feedback Session
Students also took part in a brief feedback session at the end of the short course. One author
(D.M.) met with students who shared their experiences. The students were overwhelmingly
positive about the content and the experience of the short course. For instance, one student
noted, “I learned a lot,” while another shared that it was “enjoyable.”

Reflections from Student Facilitators (E.M. and S.W.)

I (S.W.) found it beneficial to have learned the material previously in my college classes; I was
able to explain it using colloquial language as well as social media references the students
related to. I (E.M.) found the course beneficial, not only for the students, but also for myself. The
use of different teaching mediums was useful to keep the students engaged. I also found the
stress management content easily applicable to everyday life and in anxiety provoking
situations. While preparing for the presentation, which would be considered an anxiety-
provoking experience for many, the students were able to apply some of the interventions they
had learned, such as deep breathing, with help from us. We recognized the influence of the
students witnessing the lecturer and college student relationship during the course as this
reduced some of the fear around the college experience.

Conclusion and Further Considerations

We developed the short course, Demystifying Anxiety, to increase knowledge about the brain
and anxiety, as well as to empower students and combat stigma. We were pleased that
students were engaged and demonstrated an increase in general knowledge about anxiety after
the course. Having students present their posters affirmed the importance of developing
opportunities for students to apply and communicate their knowledge in creative ways. In
general, students appeared to enjoy the short course and were enthusiastic during teaching,
activities, and the feedback session. Additionally, as instructors, we found the course to be
incredibly rewarding due to student interest, engagement, and passion for the topics, as well as
the opportunity to collaborate with advanced undergraduate students and a colleague who has
complementary, but unique expertise. Team teaching can require more time and
communication, but it also offers many personal benefits.

We believe this short course could be easily adapted for inclusion in an introduction to
psychology, neuroscience, or psychopathology class in high school or at the university level.
Based on the pretest scores, we were surprised by how much the teenage students knew about
anxiety prior to the course, indicating that future versions of the course could start at a more
advanced level. Therefore, it may be useful to generally assess your students’ knowledge about
the brain and anxiety and adjust content accordingly.

Should readers choose to adapt our course materials or develop a similar teaching activity, we
hope they find it as gratifying as we have. Together we can continue to educate, support and
challenge students, helping them learn about anxiety, stigma, and coping strategies. As
increasing numbers of people report anxiety symptoms, we have many opportunities in the
classroom to destigmatize mental health and enhance students’ resilience.
116

Wrap-Up

● We anticipate that anxiety will continue to be an important issue to address for teenagers
and young adults in the coming years.
● We believe this short course, Demystifying Anxiety, is a useful way to introduce the topic
of anxiety to young people and to empower them with knowledge and tools to deal with
stress and anxiety in their own lives.
● We believe this short course is easy to adapt to a variety of settings, including
introduction to psychology, neuroscience, or psychopathology classes, and that it is
relevant to students of any age (teenagers, young adults, and mature students).
● Please scan these QR codes for our full PowerPoint slide deck (with instructional details
in the Notes section) and the Demystifying Anxiety Poster Campaign brief.

● Should you have suggestions, additional resources, or feedback for us, we welcome
your emails.

PowerPoint Poster Campaign Brief

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank our colleagues in National College of Ireland for their input and help with
this research, including Andrew Dineen and his colleagues in the Early Learning Initiative.

References

Adams, S. H., Schaub, J. P., Nagata, J. M., Park, M. J., Brindis, C. D., & Irwin, C. E., Jr (2022).
Young adult anxiety or depressive symptoms and mental health service utilization during
the COVID-19 pandemic. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of The
Society for Adolescent Medicine, 70(6), 985–988.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2022.02.023
American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)
student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
Coles, M. E., Ravid, A., Gibb, B., George-Denn, D., Bronstein, L. R., & McLeod, S. (2016).
Adolescent mental health literacy: Young people's knowledge of depression and social
anxiety disorder. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(1), 57-62.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.09.017
Das, J. K., Salam, R. A., Lassi, Z. S., Khan, M. N., Mahmood, W., Patel, V., & Bhutta, Z. A.
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(2016). Interventions for adolescent mental health: An overview of systematic reviews.

Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(4), S49-S60.
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De Girolamo, G., Dagani, J., Purcell, R., Cocchi, A., & McGorry, P. (2012). Age of onset of
mental disorders and use of mental health services: Needs, opportunities, and
obstacles. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 21(1), 47-57.
https://doi.org/10.1017/s2045796011000746
Economou, M., Peppou, L. E., Geroulanou, K., Louki, E., Tsaliagkou, I., Kolostoumpis, D., &
Stefanis, C. N. (2014). The influence of an anti‐stigma intervention on adolescents'
attitudes to schizophrenia: A mixed methodology approach. Child and Adolescent Mental
Health, 19(1), 16-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-3588.2012.00669.x
Goodwin, R. D., Weinberger, A. H., Kim, J. H., Wu, M., & Galea, S. (2020). Trends in anxiety
among adults in the United States, 2008-2018: Rapid increases among young
adults. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 130, 441–446.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.08.014
Greco, L. A., Lambert, W., Baer, R. A. (2008). Psychological inflexibility in childhood and
adolescence: Development and evaluation of the Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire
for Youth. Psychological Assessment, 20(2), 93–102.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.20.2.93
Gulliver, A., Griffiths, K. M., & Christensen, H. (2010). Perceived barriers and facilitators to
mental health help-seeking in young people: A systematic review. BMC Psychiatry,
10(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-10-113
Gurung, R., Hackathorn, J., Enns, C., Frantz, S., Cacioppo, J., Loop, T., & Freeman, J.
(2016).Strengthening introductory psychology: A new model for teaching the introductory
course. American Psychologist, 71, 112-124. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040012
Nearchou, F. A., Bird, N., Costello, A., Duggan, S., Gilroy, J., Long, R., McHugh, L., &
Hennessy, E. (2018). Personal and perceived public mental-health stigma as predictors
of help-seeking intentions in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 66, 83-90.
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Nearchou, F., O'Driscoll, C., McKeague, L., Heary, C., Hennessy, E. (2021). Psychometric
properties of the Peer Mental Health Stigmatization Scale‐Revised in adolescents and
young adults. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 15(1), 201-205.
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Vila-Badia, R., Martínez-Zambrano, F., Arenas, O., Casas-Anguera, E., García-Morales, E.,
Villellas, R., Martín, J. R., Pérez-Franco, M. B., Valduciel, T., & Casellas, D. (2016).
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Author Contact Information

+ Denotes shared first authorship

Amanda Kracen, Ph.D. +

Associate Professor
Psychology
National College of Ireland
[email protected]

David Mothersill, Ph.D. +

Assistant Professor and Programme Director
118

Psychology
National College of Ireland
[email protected]

Éabha McClean, BA(Hons) Psychology

Student Intern for the Early Learning Initiative (2021-2023)
Psychology
National College of Ireland
[email protected]
LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/in/éabha-mcclean-b892a0255

Sinéad Woods, BA(Hons) Psychology

Team Leader at Discovery University by the Early Learning Initiative at National College of
Ireland (2021/22)
Psychology
National College of Ireland
[email protected]
LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/in/sinéad-woods-2ab3a5225
119

15 Boepple

The Student Stress Scale and Coping Mechanisms

Summary
This activity focuses on identifying a student's stress level, sources of stress in the student's life,
and coping mechanisms a student can use to help manage the stress they are experiencing.
The chapter provides an overview of why it is important to help students with stress
management, as well as data that shows why this activity is beneficial for students, and it ties
this activity to the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Integrative theme of mental and
physical health.

This activity works well for undergraduate classes of various sizes and modalities. The activity
requires a pencil, a copy of a stress and coping mechanisms assessment, and a copy of the
Student Stress Scale, and it takes 30 minutes of class time, including discussion, to complete.
Many students do nothing to control or manage their stress levels, but based on the activity
assessment, most students learned at least one new coping mechanism they were going to try
the next time they felt stressed.

Introduction to the Activity

One of the pivotal steps into adulthood is turning 18 and either entering the workforce or
attending college. At this point, many people think of these individuals as young adults and treat
them as such, and it is assumed that students mature from the time they graduate high school
to when they enter college. That being said, these individuals are just moving into a different
stage of adolescence in which they may struggle with the new amount of freedom and
responsibility they have gained (Baghurst & Kelly, 2014). Freshman students are learning how
to navigate moving away from home, having an increase in academic expectations, choosing a
major, managing their newfound freedom and time, and possibly having a job, among other
daily stressors. When looking at students further along on their educational path, they may still
be navigating some of the challenges they experienced early in their educational career, in
addition to experiencing different types of stress. Some of the stressors juniors and seniors may
face include taking comprehensive exams, completing internships, and finding full-time jobs
after graduation. Of course, we have to keep in mind the non-traditional student who may be
balancing raising a family while holding down a full-time job. Student Stress Scale includes
items that are positive events and that allow us to discuss how positive events can impact our
bodies similar to the way that negative events can. Looking at all of these factors, it is no
wonder so many students are struggling with high levels of stress and subsequent anxiety and
depression at all stages of their educational path (Baghurst & Kelly, 2014).

As a former school counselor, mental health is an area I am very passionate about. Students
need to find ways to minimize their stress levels, as studies show that when students
experience significant stress it impacts their ability to learn and retain information (Larson, 2006;
Baghurst & Kelley, 2014). It is important to note that not all stress is bad, and the Yerkes
Dodson Law shows us that a moderate level of stress or arousal can enhance learning;
however, being under constant stress or experiencing multiple daily stressors are going to
reduce a person’s cognitive abilities (Whiting et al., 2016). Once a person has experienced
significant or prolonged stress, there are multiple ways that stress impacts learning. One way
that stress impacts learning is that it “reduces the integration of new information into existing
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memories” impacting the way the information is initially encoded and stored (Vogel & Schwabe,
2016, p.5). Secondly, stress also impacts the ability of the person to retrieve and use the
information that the brain has stored. The inability to retrieve the information is only amplified in
situations in which the person is stressed when recalling the information, for example, during an
exam. Other cognitive areas that can be impacted due to stress include multi-tasking skills,
decision making, and working memory (Whiting et al., 2016)

In addition to the stress impacting their learning, it puts them at a higher risk for a variety of
negative mental symptoms and psychopathology. When looking at the National College Health
Assessment Survey, many correlations can be made between high levels of stress, symptoms
of anxiety and depression, as well as maladaptive coping habits such as drinking, smoking, poor
eating habits, and drug usage (Bistricky et al., 2018). All of these factors can lead to a lowered
immune system resulting in getting ill, missing classes, and potentially falling behind in
coursework, which can amplify the feelings of stress a student may experience.

I work hard to meet the APA learning goals for introductory psychology and connect them to the
APA Integrative Themes (APA, 2013; 2021). This activity aligns nicely with pillar 5, mental and
physical health. This activity shows that students can create positive outcomes for their mental
health if they apply psychological concepts when it comes to managing their stress. Through the
process of a student identifying their stress level and identifying a variety of coping
mechanisms, they can find ways to lower their stress and improve their mental health, which, in
turn, can also improve their physical health.

One way we can help students through this beginning stage of adulthood and beyond is by
giving them coping skills and ways to increase their resilience when they experience stress
(Frydenberg et al., 2004). My goal with this exercise is to help students identify their stress
levels, look at areas of their life that are causing them stress, and help them learn about new
coping methods they can implement to help reduce the symptoms of stress they are
experiencing. This activity works well in classes of varying sizes. I have successfully used this
activity with 15, 30, and 85+ students. It has also been used in a variety of modalities and is an
easy activity to implement online for students to complete if a class is canceled or delivered
remotely.

Instructions for the Activity

For this activity, students will need a writing tool, a copy of The Student Stress Scale, and a
copy of the coping mechanisms worksheet (Baylor University, n.d.). The Student Stress Scale,
is an adaptation from the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) that was developed in
1967 (Holmes & Rahe, 1967). The SRSS included items that related to the test-taker’s spouse,
children, and profession. The Student Stress scale was developed to better assess stressors
and challenges that individuals in college will face versus the stressors a graduated adult will
experience.

To start, I have students complete The Student Stress Scale. I choose to read it aloud to the
students in order to allow for questions or to add clarifiers to some of the statements. Students
could fill out a paper copy of the scale or it could be posted online for students to review and
find their scores. After students add up their scores, I ask them who has a score of 0-149 (very
little stress); 150-199 (mild stress); 200-249 (moderate stress); 250-300 (serious stress); 300+
(major stress). Based on my assessments, over 75% of my students fall within the serious to
major stress categories.
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Next, I talk about the fact that many students have high levels of stress in the class and ask
them what they are doing to cope with their stress. A very common response is that they are
doing nothing to cope with their stress. I then ask students to complete a coping mechanisms
worksheet. The coping mechanisms worksheet asks them to check off any strategy they may
utilize when they are experiencing stress. The worksheet includes both positive and negative
ways that people manage stress. I clarify that students should only mark off strategies they use
in stressful situations, and to not check off the activities they regularly do in their everyday life.
For example, many people watch tv and listen to music daily, but they may not actually use
these activities to cope with stress.

Students then discuss their results of the worksheet in small groups, and I encourage them to
share strategies that may not be included on the worksheet. If time allows, I also talk about how
positive strategies can turn into negative ways to handle stress if we do not use them in
moderation (e.g., watching too much tv, sleeping too much, always wearing headphones and
listening to music). During this discussion, I use the example of binge watching tv when feeling
stressed. Although watching television can be used to take a break and relieve stress, if we
spend all day watching tv and not taking care of tasks that need to be accomplished, it will lead
to more stress and feeling like we do not have enough time to complete the things on our “to-do”
list. Another example I use is listening to music. Listening can be relaxing when we are
stressed, but if we are always listening to music and not engaging with the people and tasks
around us, it can create an isolating effect, which can lead to further feelings of stress, anxiety,
and depression. If offering points for this activity, I choose to use a sign-in sheet versus making
them share what is causing them stress and how they are handling it.

The Student Stress Scale takes 5 minutes to complete and the coping mechanisms worksheet
takes another 5 minutes to complete. Instructors could split up administering The Student Stress
Scale and coping mechanisms worksheet if running short on time. The students discussing their
coping mechanisms with one another takes 5-10 minutes, and then I wrap up the activity with a
5-minute lecture on how positive coping strategies can turn into negative coping strategies. The
total time needed for this activity is 10 minutes without discussion or 20-30 minutes if allowing
for discussion among classmates. The Student Stress Scale and coping mechanism worksheets
can be accessed through the QR codes in the wrap-up section of this chapter.

This activity works well in the health psychology chapter of most introductory textbooks. I
actually use this activity in multiple classes with many types of students, including those
beginning their educational journey to college seniors who are about to adventure into their
future career. It is an activity that is easily adaptable to many subjects and allows students to
stop, to reflect on their stress level, and to find new strategies to help manage their stress. This
activity is also easy to adapt to multiple modalities. In an online setting, for example, students
could have a discussion question related to the coping strategies they are interested in trying
based on the worksheet they completed.

A great time to circle back to this activity to see the impact it had would be around midterms or
final exam week. Instructors can ask students to pick a strategy they thought would be helpful
on the worksheet and implement it throughout midterms or finals. At the end, students could
complete a self-reflection discussing if they implemented their selected strategy, or if they used
other strategies, and the impact it had on their stress level.
/
Student Feedback

To determine if this activity was worth the class time dedicated to it, the students were surveyed
on their stress levels, coping strategies, and whether they found the activity worthwhile. Over
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130 students took the survey. Of these students, 77% had serious or major stress levels, 70%
felt their current stress level was somewhat to significantly negatively impacting their life, 75%
stated they found a new positive coping strategy they intended to use to reduce their stress
levels, and 89% felt this exercise was beneficial in identifying their current stress level and
developing new coping strategies.

When looking at the ways students were currently managing their stress, the most common
responses were that they were not managing their stress, exercising, hanging out with friends,
or that they were too busy to focus on their stress. After completing the assessment, the most
common responses for new ways the students were going to try and manage their stress were
meditation/deep breathing, journaling, being in nature, exercising, getting more sleep, and
hanging out with friends.

Conclusion

With such high rates of anxiety across campuses nationwide, it is important to help students
develop coping techniques they can use when stressed and overwhelmed with life. Over 75% of
my students have high levels of stress and many said they were not using any strategies to
cope with it. Although this is just a quick assessment/in-class activity, it allows students to
recognize their stress level and identify areas where the stress may be coming from, and it
allows them to learn about and develop new strategies to cope with their stress.

Although not required, I would highly encourage faculty to take the time to discuss how positive
coping strategies can easily turn into negative strategies. For example, many students discuss
listening to music to manage their stress. That being said, I cannot emphasize enough how
many students I see in class, with other students, in the cafeteria, or walking on campus who
constantly have their earbuds in. We discuss how, if we are using these strategies to escape
our surroundings, avoid engaging with others, or procrastinating on tasks that need to be
completed, listening to music is no longer a positive coping strategy.

One limitation in determining whether this activity was worth the class time it took was that I did
not have the students complete a pre/post test. I asked students “what coping mechanisms do
you use when stressed” after they had completed the coping strategies worksheet. I would have
been interested to know what strategies they came up with without having a worksheet that led
them to specific responses. It also would have been valuable to know if students had a list of
coping mechanisms they could use and, if so, what were the barriers to using those coping
mechanisms.

Another limitation that arose is that the stress scale focuses on major life events, and it is
important to note that some of the stress college students experience is from daily hassles, such
as homework or running late, and not necessarily major life events. This is reflected in feedback
from students when they share their surprise about their relatively low scores, especially since
they feel very stressed.

Students seem to enjoy this activity and have wonderful discussions regarding the stresses of
being a college student and how they are coping with that stress. I think it helps students to
know they are not alone on this journey and that other students feel like they are just trying to
keep their heads above the water, too. Students are often surprised to learn that positive events
can create stress response within their bodies and it is okey to feel stressed, event during
positive events in their lives.
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Wrap-Up

● This chapter offers a simple activity to assess student stress levels and the ways they
are coping with their stress.
● Great discussion prompt and opportunity to revisit for student reflection for stress
management throughout the course
● Works well for in-person, online, and hybrid courses.
● Takes 20-30 minutes to complete in-person, 10-15 minutes to complete independently.
● Scan QR codes for access to The Student Stress Scale and Coping Strategies
Worksheet.

The Student Stress Scale Coping Strategies Worksheet

References

American Psychological Association. (2013). APA guidelines for the undergraduate

psychology major: Version 2.0. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/about/psymajor-
guidelines.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)
student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
Baghurst, T., & Kelley, B. C. (2013). An examination of stress in college students over the
course of a semester. Health Promotion Practice, 15(3), 438–447.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839913510316
Baylor University. (n.d.). Student Stress Scale.
https://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php/183433.p
Bistricky, S., L., Harper, K., L., Roberts, C., M., Cook, D., M., Schield, S., L., Bui,J., & Short, M.,
B. (2018) Understanding and promoting stress management practices among college
students through an integrated health behavior model, American Journal of Health
Education, 49(1), 12-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2017.1377651
Frydenberg , E., Lewis, R., Bugalski, K., Cotta, A., McCarthy, C., Luscombe‐Smith, N., & Poole,
C. (2004). Prevention is better than cure: Coping skills training for adolescents at school.
Educational Psychology in Practice, 20(2), 117–134.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02667360410001691053
Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research, 11(2), 213–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(67)90010-4
Larson, E. A. (2006). Stress in the lives of college women: “Lots to do and not much time.”
Journal of Adolescent Research, 21(6), 579–606.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558406293965
Vogel, S., & Schwabe, L. (2016). Learning and memory under stress: Implications for the
classroom. Science of Learning, 1, 16011.
https://doi.org/10.1038/npjscilearn.2016.11
Whiting, S.B., Wass, S.V., Green, S., & Thomas, M.S.C. (2021). Stress and learning in pupils:
Neuroscience evidence and its relevance for teachers. Mind Brain Education, 15(2), 177-
188. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12282
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Author Contact Information

Kayla Boepple, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Psychology
Liffrig School of Education and Behavioral Science
University of Mary, Bismarck, ND
[email protected]
125

16 Gangel, Castelblanco, & Broomell

Dog Therapy for Stress Reduction in Introductory Psychology

Summary
This activity involves bringing a therapy dog (or dogs) to a class and leading a discussion on the
use of therapy animals for stress reduction in college students. This activity was well received
by students and incorporates empirical literature, active learning, and discussions about study
design, and it is a memorable activity for introductory psychology students. We introduce the
need for stress management skills in college students and describe how the activity fits into
Pillars 1 and 5 of the APA Pillars of Learning. We then describe the activity, including discussion
questions and protocols for running the activity depending on the class size, as well as an
alternate assignment. Finally, we describe student feedback of the activity and changes in
perceived stress.

Introduction

College is difficult. And college students face many challenges: not just scholastic challenges,
but also challenges to their health and well-being. Evidence demonstrates that 48% percent of
college undergraduate students experience moderate-to-extreme stress (American College
Health Association, 2019). And sadly, 25% of college students have considered suicide
(American College Health Association, 2019). Many college students also engage in detrimental
health behaviors, such as getting little sleep and drinking alcohol (American College Health
Association, 2017), possibly as coping methods for that increased stress. Furthermore, the
COVID-19 pandemic intensified these mental health difficulties, and research has found in a
sample of undergraduate and graduate students in a large American university post-pandemic
that 71% of students reported their stress levels had increased during the pandemic (Wang et
al., 2020). Generally, this research suggests that, although college students should be in their
prime of health, they are struggling.

In order to counteract these negative outcomes and health behaviors, many college campuses
have created health and well-being programs for their students (e.g., Wake Forest University’s
Office of Well-being and Western Carolina University’s Campus Wellness program). Despite
university efforts, many students do not seek out these services or even know these programs
exist. However, students are required to attend class, and providing students with classroom
opportunities to increase their well-being might be extremely beneficial. In fact, evidence
suggests that explicitly teaching these skills in the classroom can improve student’s coping skills
and decrease their perceived stress (Tollefson et al., 2018).

Introduction to psychology is a perfect course to integrate well-being activities. This activity fits
into two of the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Pillars of learning: Pillar 1)
Biological (Neuroscience, Sensation, Consciousness) and Pillar 5) Mental and Physical Health
(Abnormal, Health, Therapies) (Gurung & Neufeld, 2021). In addition, most introductory
textbooks include a chapter that centers on stress, and well-being activities fit well with that
conceptual material. This activity meets APA Introductory Psychology Student Learning
Outcomes: 1.1 by defining and explaining psychological concepts, 1.2 by interpreting research
findings related to psychological concepts, and 2.2 by evaluating psychological research (APA,
2021). And while we can advise students on the services their university well-being programs
provide, we can also engage in valuable well-being activities within the classroom with the aim
of teaching conceptual material while reducing student stress. One well-being activity that is
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suited to an Introduction to Psychology course is “Dog Therapy.” Research has suggested that
within a college setting, therapy dogs have provided short-term relief to students, increasing
their well-being and decreasing loneliness and depression (Ward-Griffin et al., 2018). The
inclusion of reading and discussion of a peer-reviewed empirical article on dog therapy also
gives undergraduate students an opportunity to better understand, interpret, and evaluate
psychological research.

University, Classroom, and Student Characteristics

We most recently used this activity in two introductory psychology courses at a medium-sized,
public, regional, comprehensive university in the rural southeastern United States. Both classes
completed the activity in week 10 of the semester and were mostly first-year students
completing a liberal studies requirement (non-majors). Class sections were each capped at 42
students. One class section was 50 minutes, and the other class section was 75 minutes;
importantly, the activity was easily modified to span the full duration of each course meeting.

Dog Therapy Activity

This activity is best conducted with trained therapy dogs; however, well-behaved personal dogs
can be used in a pinch. Before starting, check institutional policies to ensure your school does
not have any rules explicitly preventing animals from being indoors on campus or require any
type of institutional waiver for engaging with animals. We were able to connect with the Western
Carolina Dog Fanciers Association through the public library, and they were very happy to bring
trained therapy dogs to campus. Other ideas for finding therapy dogs include reaching out to
dog training facilities in your area or contacting local branches of the American Kennel Club.
Additionally, other institutions might be able to provide access to therapy dogs through well-
being programs. When working with therapy dogs, make sure you work with the handler to best
communicate to the students how to engage with the therapy dogs (i.e., specific rules might
include allowing the dogs to first approach the students and not allowing the dogs to lick). This
information could be presented prior to the class starting, in an announcement or handout, or
during the class period when the handler and dog are introduced. Students were told in advance
that dogs would be present during class on a particular day during the semester, and this was
communicated on the syllabus, verbally, and through the learning management system’s (i.e.,
Canvas) announcements. Students who were not comfortable interacting with a dog could
choose to engage in an alternate stress-relieving activity during this class period, such as
engaging in a mindfulness meditation from the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
mindfulness website, which is further described below.

Materials
The materials needed for this activity include:

● Therapy dog and dog handler

● Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen et al, 1983)
● Ward-Griffin et al. (2018) study
● Dog therapy feedback survey
● Blanket (to put on ground for dog-student interactions)
● Lint rollers (in case students want to clean fur off of themselves after the activity)
● Hand sanitizer (for hygiene after the activity)
● Disinfecting Wipes or Paper Towels (for possible doggy accidents in the
classroom)
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At least one week before class, students were reminded to read the Ward-Griffin et al. (2018)
article (posted on the course Canvas page) on the benefits of dog therapy for a college
population. Past experience, class culture, and previous exposure/instruction on how to read an
empirical article influence students’ reading completion rates. If there is a concern that a few
students have not read the article prior to class, you can give a few minutes during class time
for students to quickly “refresh” their memory of the article, in addition to providing a brief
synopsis.

Procedure
After students arrived to class, the professor distributed the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS;
Cohen et al., 1983) for students to complete (10 items). After students completed the PSS, the
dog and handler were introduced as special guests. Before interacting with the dogs, the
professor took some time to introduce the concepts of stress and the biological response to
stress by describing Selye’s (1950) General Adaptation Model. This was an interactive brief
lecture based on the stress and health chapter in the introductory psychology textbook. The
concept of stress was introduced as an experience common to all students to varying degrees.
Selye’s (1956) definition of stress, “ [the] sum of all the non-specific effects of factors (normal
activity, disease-producers, drugs, etc.), which can act upon the body,” (p. 42) was shared with
students, and they were asked if and how Selye’s definition differed from their own
understanding of stress. Students concluded (with the professor’s guidance) that stress was
both a physical and mental experience. And, although there might be some commonalities in
their physical response, students’ perception of what is stressful is a unique cognitive
interpretation.

The professor then discussed the biological responses of the Sympathetic (SNS) and
Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) and how, when our body is exposed to stress, the
SNS becomes active, releasing adrenaline/epinephrine and cortisol into the bloodstream to
cause the physical feelings associated with stress and the “fight-or-flight” response. Conversely,
when the PNS becomes active it causes a release of acetylcholine allowing the body to “rest
and digest.” This activation of the PNS can be initiated by the reduction of the stressor or by
various coping strategies that can cause a release of oxytocin (a bonding hormone) into the
body. The professor connected these biological responses to the students’ lived experiences by
asking students to discuss their biological responses to stress, and to brainstorm coping skills
they have used and how those may cause a release of oxytocin. Guided by the professor,
students eventually discussed social support and spending time with animals as two methods
they have utilized to cope with stress.

At that point, in larger classes we divided students into two sections. One section went outside
with the dog and handler to interact with the dog and to ask questions of the handler. The other
group stayed in the classroom and had a discussion about the Ward-Griffin et al. (2018) article
led by the professor. Prompts to discuss the article included:

● What was the independent variable?

● What were the dependent variables?
● Who were the participants? Was the participant population generalizable (i.e,, good
external validity)?
● What were the results?
● Would these results generalize to children? Older adults?
● Is this kind of research valuable/important? Why or why not?
● Were there any limitations?
○ Types of dogs? Dog training?
○ Why weren’t there long-term effects?
128

○ What about the social support of participating as a group of people in the

classroom in addition to the dogs?
○ Did demand characteristics and/or study design influence the results?

After about 20 minutes, the groups switched so that both groups had time with the dog and
handler and for discussion. In a smaller class, or if more than one therapy dog was available, it
would not have been necessary to divide into two groups. In that case, we would suggest dog
exposure prior to discussing the article, simply because the dog and handler would not be
waiting through this discussion.

The class and activity ended with the professor asking students to regrade their PSS and
provide written feedback on the activity. We discussed as a class if their perceived stress
changed after engaging with the dogs, what the mechanisms of hormonal change were, and
why they may not be long-lasting. We also gave resources to become a dog walker at our local
animal shelter, and we thanked the therapy dog and their handler for spending time with us.

Alternate Assignment for Students

In lieu of attending the class period with dogs, students who were allergic, dog-phobic, or simply
choose not to do the primary activity were asked to access the UCLA Health Mindfulness
Website and to select the Breath, Sound, Body Meditation (12 minutes). After listening to the
meditation, students were asked to write a one-page response paper reflecting on how they felt
before, during, and after the meditation. Additionally, students were instructed to complete the
PSS before and after the activity. Interestingly, no students chose to complete the alternate
assignment. However, in the future, students who choose to complete the alternate assignment
should be provided with a handout on the discussion points they missed regarding the body’s
responses to stress.

Evidence of Efficacy

The goal of the dog therapy activity was to reduce stress. Thus, we included a measure of
perceived stress before and after the activity, specifically the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The
PSS is a 10-item measure, rated using a 4-point Likert scale (0 = never to 4 = very often). Items
4, 5, 7, and 8 were reverse scored, and then a total score was created by summing all items.
Total PSS scores ranged from 10-40, and higher scores indicated more perceived stress. Sixty-
seven students participated in the activity; however, four students did not complete the post-
PSS and were excluded from the paired samples t-test.

To further examine the efficacy of the dog therapy activity and to generally gauge student
interest in the activity, we had students respond to a short feedback form consisting of 5 Likert
scale questions about their experience with the activity (1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly
disagree) and one open-ended question asking, “Is there anything else you would like the
researchers to know about this activity?”

Quantitative Assessment
Following the activity, we examined the mean difference of the pre- and post-PSS scores. Using
a paired samples t-test we found that students engaged in dog therapy reported significantly
lower perceived stress (Pre-PSS Mean(SD) = 22.08(6.08), Post-PSS Mean(SD) = 20.14(6.44),
t(64) = 4.82, p < .01). The majority of students (95%) responded that they “strongly agree[d]” or
“agree[d]” with the statements that they were “able to see the connection between the reading
and the activity” and that they “enjoyed the dog-therapy activity.” Eighty-seven percent of
129

students also responded that they “strongly disagree[d]” with the statement “that the dog
therapy activity did not add anything to the class.”

Qualitative Assessment
Twenty-eight students wrote a response to the open-ended feedback question. However, only
around half (n = 15) of students’ written responses contained feedback relevant to the activity.
Overall, student responses reflected a positive view of the activity (no students reported
negative experiences). Three themes emerged from the responses: 1) enjoyment, 2) questions,
and 3) suggestions. Students reported they enjoyed themselves, had fun, loved it, and that it
was a great interactive activity (n = 12). One student commented, “I think this activity was a
great way for students to learn while also destress[ing].” Student research questions generated
as a result of the activity included, “Could the same effect be achieved by a therapy cat?” and
“Do you think stress […] increase[s] over time?” Additionally, a student suggested that “Therapy
dogs should be a normal thing on a college campus,” and that the dogs and handlers should
“come back” and be a part of all introductory psychology classes. One student even suggested,
“having a consistant [sic] scheduel [sic] of seeing the dog (like dog therapy this day once a
week) so it could be something to look forward to and something that would destress [us]
regularly and improve [our] overall outlook on life and stress.”

Conclusion

Results revealed that students perceived significantly less stress after exposure to dog therapy.
Integrating a dog therapy activity into classroom learning requires minimal pre-planning, and it
offers students a fun and active way to learn about stress management and research. Ideally,
the dog therapy activity should be conducted when the class is learning about stress and health.
However, this activity could be easily incorporated into the curriculum when teaching chapters
dedicated to learning (operant conditioning), social psychology (dogs as social support),
psychological treatment (therapy dogs), or research methods (design). It is also recommended
that faculty bring a blanket or sheet to lay down on the floor in case students want to sit on the
ground to interact with the dog during this activity. Faculty can also suggest students wear
comfortable dog-friendly clothing.

Dog therapy is not without limitations, including the short-term benefits of dog therapy (Ward-
Griffin et al., 2018). However, our students identified several ways to promote the continued
stress-relieving benefits of dog therapy, such as volunteering at local dog shelters and dog
walking. And, if students choose to continue to engage in these dog-related activities outside of
class, not only will they experience personal benefits, but they will benefit the larger community
as a whole with their service.

Additionally, no students chose to engage in the alternative assignment, even though one
student suggested in the feedback that they have a “dog phobia.” Students might feel pressure
to attend the class, even when they are dog phobic or allergic, because they do not want to
miss out on the course material. Although the student commented that “this activity took away
my dog phobia,” it might also be helpful to have a separate area and teaching assistant to run
the alternative assignment in person.

Wrap-Up

● Students enjoyed the dogs coming to class and having a chance to interact directly with
the therapy animal.
130

● Students were able to understand empirical psychology research and applications to

their lived experiences.
● Students reported a significant reduction in stress, which was a primary goal of the
activity.
● This activity works for 50-minute and 75-minute classes.
● A QR code that links to relevant materials is provided below or you can access materials
here in a Google folder. We hope your students enjoy this activity.

References

American College Health Association (2017). ACHA-NCHA II American College Health

Association national college health assessment Fall 2017 reference group executive
summary. https://www.acha.org/documents/ncha/NCHA-
II_FALL_2017_REFERENCE_GROUP_EXECUTIVE_SUMMARY.pdf
American College Health Association (2019). ACHA-NCHA III American College Health
Association national college health assessment fall 2019 reference group executive
summary. https://www.acha.org/documents/ncha/NCHA-
III_Fall_2019_Reference_Group_Executive_Summary_updated.pdf
Gurung, R.A.R., & Neufeld, G. (2021, November 29). Selecting content for introductory
psychology: Recommendations from the APA Introductory Psychology Initiative.
American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psychology-
teacher-network/introductory-psychology/selecting-content
American Psychological Association (2021). APA introductory psychology initiative (IPI) student
learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385-396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
Selye, H. (1950). Stress and the general adaptation syndrome. British Medical Journal, 1(4667),
1383. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4667.1383
Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Tollefson, M. Kite, B., Matuszewicz, E., Dore, A., & Heiss, C. (2018). Effectiveness of student-
led stress reduction activities in the undergraduate classroom on perceived student
stress. College Student Journal, 52(4), 505-515.
Wang, X., Hegde, S., Son, C., Keller, B., Smith, A., & Sasangohar, F. (2020). Investigating
mental health of US college students during the COVID-19 pandemic: Cross-sectional
survey study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(9), e22817-e22817.
https://doi.org/10.2196/22817
Ward-Griffin, E., Klaiber, P., Collins, H. K., Owens, R. L., Coren, S., & Chen, F. S. (2018).
Petting away pre-exam stress: The effect of therapy dog sessions on student well-being.
Stress and Health, 34(3), 468-473. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2804
131

Authors Contact Information

Meghan Gangel, PhD

Assistant Professor
Psychology Department
Western Carolina University
[email protected]

Sam Castelblanco, PhD

Assistant Professor
Psychology Department
Western Carolina University
[email protected]

Alleyne P.R. Broomell, PhD

Assistant Professor
Psychology Department
Western Carolina University
[email protected]
132

17 Grobman & Amarlou

Counting Sheep and Counting the Consequences of Sleep Loss: A Personal

Reflection on How Losing Sleep Harms Your Competence

Summary
By adding a short personal reflection activity to our standard introductory psychology curriculum
about sleep, we can both help students more deeply understand consciousness (APA Pillar 1)
and contribute to their personal growth (APA Pillar 3). Based on clinical measures of sleep and
popular accounts of sleep by clinical experts (APA Pillar 5), we created a reliable and valid Loss
of Sleep Scale (LOSS) to describe everyday degrees of sleep deprivation students regularly
experience. We embedded the LOSS within an online classroom-like experience in which
students see how their sleep loss impacts their learning (APA Pillar 3). The data provided to
students about their experiences also highlights the impact on physical health (APA Pillar 5).
The literature review below provides examples to integrate into class discussion about larger
impacts on both physical (e.g., workplace injuries) and mental health (e.g., depression, anxiety).
We also provide examples of how sleep loss impacts learning, critical thinking, and creativity
(APA Pillar 2). Though not the focus of our activity, a subscale measures individual differences
(APA Pillar 4) between “night owls” and “early birds.” By bringing empirical data from students’
own experiences and personal reflection to the foreground, we help build understanding of how
challenging it can be to recognize the causes of our behaviors. Our lesson simultaneously
emphasizes psychology’s reliance on empirical data as well as the imperfect personal lenses
we bring to our experiences (APA Integrative Themes A and E).

Introduction

“Should I stay up an extra hour studying to ace the big test tomorrow?” Intuitively, students often
answer yes. Afterall, whatever we are studying, it is instantly apparent how extra time seemingly
yields extra knowledge or skills. Harder to see is what we are losing when we lose sleep. With
the following activity, students have an opportunity for self-reflection and to directly see what
they are losing from lack of sleep. We describe how the activity can be expanded or simplified
into short semester-long homework assignments for more self-reflection or into a quick in-class
activity. Finally, we summarize psychological research on the practical benefits of sleep we
might share with students when discussing states of consciousness.

Sleep is both a standard introductory psychology topic when discussing abstract ideas of
consciousness, and it is a concrete practical skill in students’ lives. Sleep is vital to our health,
from avoiding physical ailments like weight gain (e.g., Shilsky et al. 2012) to psychological
suffering like depression (e.g., Baglioni et al., 2016). Sleep loss leads to irritability, harming peer
relationships (e.g., Gordon & Chen, 2014), and to a loss of focus, harming school performance
(e.g., Dement & Vaughan, 1999). Yet sleep deprivation is tragically common as reported in
single item survey questions of college students and adults. For example, a quarter of US adults
report trouble falling or staying asleep most or every day in the last month, and the rates of
sleep loss are even higher for young adults, women, those without a college degree, and those
earning less than the federal poverty line (Adjaye-Gbewonyo et al. 2022). A Gallup poll with a
similar question suggested 40% of adults get less than 7 hours of sleep each night, and sleep
deprivation was especially common among those with less income and those under 50 years
old (Jones, 2013).
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Understanding Sleep Loss Activity

Many clinical measures aid treatment and research of disorders of sleep (e.g., Pittsburgh Sleep
Quality Index, Epworth Sleepiness Scale, Stanford Sleepiness Scale, Groningen Sleep Quality
Scale). Based on these measures, in addition to a popular book-based checklist meant to help
self-identify sleep loss (e.g., Maas, 1998), we created a reliable and valid Loss of Sleep Scale
(LOSS) to describe everyday degrees of sleep deprivation students regularly experience. Data
presented here are from 556 students after excluding those who failed careful response checks.
The sample was 85% female and 83% psychology majors, with 60% between 18 to 21 years
old. The sample was ethnically diverse: 56% Hispanic, 31% White, 8% Asian, and 5% Black.
Two (gender) by four (ethnicity) ANOVAs yielded neither significant main effects nor interactions
(all p > .2). Due to multiple iterations in refining the activity, only 339 students completed the
“quiz” portion described below.

Activity: Are You Sleep Deprived and Does it Really Matter for Your Learning?
The activity for understanding sleep loss embeds our measure within an online classroom-like
learning experience taking most conscientious students less than 20 minutes (mean = 13.32 SD
= 5.81). The LOSS and the accompanying activity are freely available on the Copernican
Revolution website, a project of the first author to spark self-reflection about psychology
concepts by making them personally relevant. After completing any activity, participants receive
a certificate of completion including their personalized results and a guide for interpretation.

The activity begins by asking students simple questions about their sleep patterns in the last
month, as well as their best guesses for how often they tripped, bumped into, spilled, or dropped
something. Students then read five short paragraphs with a thought-provoking idea from five
different disciplines (e.g., natural science, math, art, literature, and history). For example, based
on Gombrich’s (1951) classic book, The Story of Art, we wrote:

Did Egyptians really “walk like an Egyptian” in that pose we find odd? No. Paintings are
two dimensional, but the world has three dimensions, and it wasn’t until the Renaissance
that artists figured out how to draw with linear perspective. The Egyptians came up with
a clever way to make flat art represent a world with depth - show each body part from its
most distinctive canonical perspective (e.g., “turn” hands so you can see all the fingers
instead of drawing just the parts of fingers you can see).

Immediately following each paragraph was a simple multiple-choice item, for example:

The “walk like an Egyptian” pose was actually:

A. The real way ancient Egyptians walked
B. A special dance calling upon the Gods to help Egypt
C. An artistic effort to represent a 3D world in 2D
D. Entirely make up by the 80’s band, The Bangles, with no connection to reality

Students overwhelmingly answered these questions correctly (mean = 86.17%, SD = 24.21%).

After reading and answering questions, students responded to 50 statements about their sleep
on a 7-point Likert scale (LOSS). Factor analysis without rotation revealed three subscales: an
8-item lack-of-adequate-sleep subscale (α=.825), a 5-item not-a-morning-person subscale
(α=.706), and a 5-item drowsiness-while-awake subscale (α=.632). A composite score
correlated with each subscale and especially the first factor (α=.838). See Appendix A via the
supporting materials link for the complete measure.
134

Finally, students were asked to read five multiple choice questions and to take their best guess
for each without looking up answers. The answer to each question was embedded within each
of the earlier paragraphs. For example:

When did artists first figure out how to represent our three-dimensional world with linear
perspective in two-dimensional art?

A. In Ancient Egypt (around 3000 BCE)

B. During the Iron Age as Ancient Israel reached its Golden Age (around 1000 BCE)
C. During the Renaissance in Italy (around 1400 AD)
D. Within Ukiyo-e Japanese Art (around 1700 AD)
E. Actually artists never struggled to represent our 3D world in 2D

Though students were forewarned about additional questions after the survey, students found
the post-survey-test much more challenging (mean = 44.23% SD = 28.50%). Nevertheless, they
performed above chance of 17.5%, t(338)=28.467, p < .001.

Students’ certificates of completion include their three subscale scores, composite score, and
percent correct for quizzes. The guide for interpretation includes normative data, everyday
language to aid understanding numbers (e.g., “some sleep loss”), and descriptions of
relationships between variables in both statistical and everyday language. The guide also helps
students to consider the implications of their scores, and it provides tips for improving sleep.

Table 1 provides a summary of the lack-of-adequate-sleep subscale which is positively

correlated with the total number of trips, bumps, drops, and spills over the last month, r=.184,
N=547, p<.001. Similarly, the drowsiness-while-awake subscale correlates negatively with quiz
grade, r=-.176, N=339, p<.001. That is, those with little sleep loss scored about 49% on the
post-survey quiz, those with some sleep loss scored 45% (8% lower), and those with severe
sleep loss scored 39% (22% worse). The results are nearly identical for the post-survey quiz
among students scoring perfectly on the pre-survey questions with the paragraphs, r=-.165,
N=288, p=.005. There are concrete consequences to loss of sleep.

Table 1

Lack of adequate sleep subscale descriptors

Score Sleep Loss Typical Sleep on Weekend

Drop, Spill, Trip, & Bump
Range Description School/Work Night Extra Sleep
Once every 3 to 4 days (people
1.00 to
Little ≈ 7.5 hr. ≈ 1 hr. daily vary for reasons other than sleep,
3.00
so your “best”)
3.00 to Once every 2 days (50% more
Some ≈ 6.5 hr. ≈ 2 hr. daily
5.00 often)
5.00 to Once every day (more than double
Severe < 6 hr. > 2.5 hr. daily
7.00 with adequate sleep).

Variations of the Activity

We recommend the full online activity, including the paragraphs and “quiz,” for students to have
the full experience of directly observing how their attention and learning could be impacted. An
online version of the 18-item LOSS is also available on Copernican Revolution if readers would
like students to complete an especially quick homework assignment. In contrast, after having
135

done the full activity, instructors might ask students to complete the 18-item version once a
month, and to reflect on how they are improving their sleep habits or why they may be struggling
to do so. To minimize the need for internet access, we also prepared a handout with the 8 item
lack-of-adequate-sleep LOSS subscale for self-scoring during class, with its reverse side
offering tips for improving sleep.

Sleep and Performance - Empirical Findings

Naturalistic correlational studies suggest children and adolescents with poorer sleep quality
perform worse in school (e.g., Dewald et al., 2010). Similarly, among introductory psychology
students carrying a full course load, those reporting lower sleep quality earned lower course
grades (Howell et al., 2004). Similarly, medical school students with poorer sleep quality prior to
the board exam performed worse on it (Ahrberg et al. 2012). A longitudinal SEM model with
thousands of college students suggested those with chronic sleep deprivation from their
freshman to senior year earned lower GPA’s and were less likely to graduate even when
controlling for many possible confounding health-related factors (Chen & Chen, 2019).

Experimental interventions suggest improving sleep causes improved performance across a

wide range of ages and outcomes. Older children allowed only five hours of sleep one night
performed worse on measures of creativity and abstract thinking (Randazzo et al., 1998).
Similarly, college students who were kept awake for 24 hours performed worse on critical
thinking tasks and – perhaps most importantly to emphasize to our students – the sleep-
deprived participants were unaware of their own cognitive impairment (Pilcher & Walters, 1997).
Interventions to improve sleep in adults led to improved mental health, such as reducing
symptoms of depression and anxiety (Scott et al., 2021).

Some of the most interesting studies to share with students are quasi-experiments that make
real-world implications apparent and suggest causality. Annual shifts between daylight savings
time and standard time provide us a chance to see what happens when the population loses or
gains an hour of sleep Monday morning. Traffic accidents generally, and fatal car accidents
specifically, rise with a lost hour of sleep and fall with a gained hour of sleep (Varughese &
Allen, 2001). When a county chose to begin school an hour later, high school students reported
more sleep on school nights and less catch-up sleep on weekends. Moreover, the teen car
crash rate dropped 16.5% (Danner & Phillips, 2008). Quasi-experimental findings are not limited
to car accidents; workplace injury rates similarly rise and fall on Monday with a loss or gain of an
hour of sleep (Barnes & Wagner, 2009).

Students’ Immediate Qualitative Reactions

Students’ reactions varied widely in anonymous qualitative feedback. Many students found it
informative and interesting. In their feedback, many students compared and contrasted their
results with their belief about their sleep quality; most saw the results as validating what they
suspected, but some wrote of finding it disconcerting to realize they are not getting adequate
sleep. A number of students expressed frustration at needing to score by hand, so we
recommend the online variation of the activity unless instructors would specifically like students
to discuss their immediate reactions during class (e.g., in small groups). It also may be useful
for students to compute by hand to learn more about psychometrics (e.g., reverse-scoring).

Another common frustration expressed was, “I had no idea how to estimate” on the item asking
about bumps, trips, spills, and drops. Yet this was also the biggest source of surprise for
students. While some were arbitrarily guessing three to five occurrences, others were similarly
136

arbitrarily guessing 30 to 50 occurrences. The activity provides no anchor for estimation, and
many came to the realization they may be especially likely to experience mishaps due to their
lack of quality sleep!

Many students wrote about their newfound motivation to improve their sleep. This is by design.
Contrary to common sense, trying to persuade someone with dramatically strong fear appeals
(e.g., fatal car accidents) is not nearly as persuasive at altering behavior than softer fear
appeals (e.g., tripping) (e.g., Janis & Feshbach, 1953). Moreover, when you couple a fear
appeal with concrete steps, people are more likely to change their behavior (e.g., tips to improve
sleep quality) (e.g., Leventhal et al., 1967). In fact, I (first author) plan to try the 8-item handout
version during a social psychology class to illustrate how we can apply classic psychological
research on fear with persuasion.

Conclusion: Connecting Our Obliviousness about Sleep Loss with Other Psychological
Phenomena

“Should I stay up an extra hour studying to ace the big test tomorrow?” No matter the outcome
of the test, we can easily miss the role sleep plays, as aforementioned experimental research
illustrates (Pilcher & Walters, 1997). But, our obliviousness is not unique to sleep, and here we
have an opportunity to bring up connections across the introductory psychology curriculum.
Decades of research across widely varied psychological phenomena - as summarized in one of
the most cited meta-analyses - illustrates we simply do not know the causes of our own
behavior (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). Indeed, many of us begin our introductory psychology
classes with the failed historical scientific effort of Structuralism. It’s a common-sense approach
to psychology; while adults know introspection is not perfect, they overwhelmingly believe theirs
is accurate (e.g., Kozuch & Nichols, 2010).

Wrap-Up

● This activity helps to bring one of our misconceptions to our attention. Moreover,
introspection does have value. Personal reflection makes concepts real for us, focuses
our depth-of-processing, and consequently dramatically improves our learning (e.g.,
Hyde & Jenkins, 1969).
● We designed this activity with the importance of connecting personal reflection to
psychology in mind. By combining our standard curriculum about sleep with personal
reflection requiring little class-time, we can hopefully help students more deeply
understand consciousness and grow personally from the experience.
● The Loss of Sleep Scale (LOSS) and the accompanying activity are freely available on
the Copernican Revolution website (www.CopernicanRevolution.org), a project of the
first author to spark self-reflection about psychology concepts by making them
personally relevant. After completing any activity, persons receive a certificate of
completion including their personalized results and a guide for interpretation.

● QR code for CopernicanRevolution.org as well as Appendix A

137

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Author Contact Information

Kevin H. Grobman, PhD

Associate Professor of Psychology
Department of Psychology
California State University – Monterey Bay
[email protected]
Copernican Revolution

Navid Amarlou, BSc Biology

Undergraduate Student
Department of Psychology
California State University – Monterey Bay
[email protected]
139

18 Waggoner Denton

A Core Values Activity for Increased Self-Awareness: Identification, Alignment, &

Reflection

Summary
In this activity students are guided through the process of identifying their core values and
creating a core values wheel that helps them determine how well their daily behaviors align with
their core values. While values clarification is known to be an important part of cognitive
behavioral therapy, being aware of one’s values can help guide decision making across a host
of contexts (e.g., Vyskocilova et al., 2015). Completed at the beginning of a first-year seminar,
this activity is intended to help students set goals, prioritize their activities, and cope with
setbacks. Because the task involves intense self-reflection, most of it is completed outside of
class time. At the end of the activity students submit a brief written reflection on what they
learned. In this chapter I set the context for the activity, reviewing what is covered in class both
before and after it is completed. I provide detailed instructions for three different components of
the activity, and I review initial evidence of its effectiveness based on anonymous survey data.
Supplemental materials include a ready-to-use activity handout for students and sample rubrics
for the reflection paper. This is an easy activity that can be very powerful for students. Although
I have only ever completed this activity in the context of a small (25 student) first-year seminar,
it can be adapted easily to different course contexts as described in the conclusion.

Introduction
“Find out who you are and then do it on purpose.”
Dolly Parton (Twitter, April 8, 2015)

In my first-year seminar, The Psychology of Student Success, students are introduced to a

multitude of evidence-based strategies for better managing their attention, energy, and
emotions so that they may thrive (not just survive) in university. But, the first thing that we do in
the course, which sets the stage for everything else, is take time to reflect on why they are here
at university in the first place. As part of our discussion of emerging adulthood and identity
development (Pillar 3: Development; APA, 2014), we discuss the importance of living with
purpose and identifying one’s core values. Reflecting on these “big picture” questions,
especially during the first few weeks of university life, helps remind the students why they are
here and what is important to them. The most significant part of this lesson is the completion of
a core values activity, which is outlined in detail in the next section. Here I wish to establish the
context of the activity by briefly reviewing what is covered before and after its completion. For
those interested, a full copy of the course syllabus can be found on my website.

Before the Activity

Before class, students complete readings that introduce them to the ideas of emerging
adulthood and a meaningful life. This includes the Noba chapter, Emerging Adulthood (Arnett,
2022) and a journal article about finding a meaningful life in emerging adulthood (Mayseless &
Keren, 2014). The students also watch a video of Dr. Vic Strecher (2019) from the University of
Michigan School of Public Health who talks about his journey to finding purpose in life and
shares key findings from research examining the consequences of having (versus not having) a
purpose.
140

After the Activity

The week following completion of the activity, we discuss how we can use our core values to
prioritize our most important activities and to help us during times of stress. In terms of
prioritization, much of this comes from student reflections on the alignment of their behaviors
with their values. For example, many students will realize they have been neglecting something
that is very important to them (e.g., family, service), and they will set intentions for modifying this
discrepancy (our discussion of goal setting intentionally comes after this activity, but it is outside
the scope of this chapter). If desired, instructors could also review prioritization strategies, such
as the use of the Einsenhower matrix, and discuss how students might use their values to help
them distinguish between what is important versus what is not important or what is important
versus what is urgent (see Zhu et al., 2018). Importantly, we also review the basic tenets of self-
affirmation theory and discuss how students can use their core values to engage in self-
affirmation. (A sample lesson on self-affirmation is included with the supplemental materials.)
Although this activity is done as part of a first-year seminar, it could easily be completed in an
introductory psychology course and serves as a nice demonstration of the APA IPI Integrative
Theme concerning applying psychological principles that can change lives, organizations, and
communities in positive ways (APA, 2021).

Core Values Activity

The core values activity consists of three interconnected components. I give the students time to
get started on Part 1 in class, but the bulk of the activity is done on their own and outside of
class, given the individual and reflective nature of the task.

Part 1: Identifying Your Core Values

Students are provided with the following instructions:

Your core values are the things that are the most important to you in terms of who you
are and how you want to live your life. Just as purpose “directs life goals and daily
decisions by guiding the use of finite personal resources” (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009,
p. 242), having a defined set of core values can also help guide you through life’s many
decisions. Sociologist Steven Hitlin (2003) argues that our values are the glue that holds
our personal identities together. Taking the time to reflect on what is truly important to
you (and not what you think should be important to you, or what your parents or partner
thinks should be important to you) is an important part of identity development and can
be one way of helping you find your purpose and meaning in life.

If you are having trouble self-generating a list of values, here is a list you can use to help
you get started. While I understand the draw of choosing your core values from a
predetermined list, remember these values are meant to come from within – they are
coming from you, not from some list. These are YOUR core values, and you alone get to
determine what they are.

Once you’ve identified your core values (aim for 4-8), you will be ready to create your
core values wheel.

For some students, this will be a relatively easy task, however some will struggle and spend a
significant amount of time on it. This is not a bad thing, but it makes it challenging to complete
this as an in-class activity. I asked my most recent class to estimate how long it took them to
generate their list of core values and the most frequent response was 10-20 minutes, although
some took less than five minutes and others took over 30 minutes.
141

Part 2: The Core Values Wheel

Students are provided with the following instructions:

The goal of this activity is to assess how well your daily behaviors and activities align
with your core values. Now that you have your core values in hand, it’s time to consider
how much each of these values is present in your life. On the back of this page there is a
large circle. Divide your circle into segments so there is one segment for each of your
core values, with the relative size of each segment reflecting its importance (i.e., most
cherished value = biggest slice of pie). If you haven’t thought about the relative
importance of these values, take some time to think about this now. Label each segment
with its respective value (along the circumference or wherever makes sense). Then,
think about your behavior over the past week (if the past week was atypical in some
way, you may reflect on a more typical week). How much has your behavior been guided
by each of these values? Shade in each segment according to how present it has been
in your life, starting from the center and working your way to the outer edge. For
example, if that value has been present about 60% of the time, shade in roughly 60% of
the segment (don’t agonize over being precise, this is just a thought exercise!). When
you are done shading, step back and observe which pieces of your pie are relatively full
and which are relatively empty. Take some time to reflect on what this means.

This activity was inspired by O’Connor et al. (2019) and many similar activities can be found by
Googling “core values wheel” or “values alignment exercise,” for example:

● https://positivepsychology.com/values-clarification/
● https://virtusinc.com/wp-content/uploads/Core-Values-Worksheet-1.pdf

Completion of the core values wheel typically takes students less time than the initial
identification of their values. Most students reported that it took 5-10 minutes to complete the
wheel, although there again was a significant range (from less than 5 minutes to 20-30
minutes).

Part 3: Reflection
For the final part of the activity, students complete a 2 to 3 page reflection paper. Students are
provided with the following instructions for their reflections:

Complete this week's reflection after you have finished completing your core values
wheel. If you like, you may submit a copy of your core values wheel along with your
reflection (but it is also okay if you would prefer to keep your wheel private). When
writing your reflection for this week, you may wish to consider the following regarding
your core values wheel:

● Does anything surprise you?

● Are your larger segments (more important values) more present in your life than
your other values? That is, does the variation in your segments correspond to the
respective importance of these values? If not, why do you think this discrepancy
exists? How might you be able to prioritize these values more in your daily life?
● Are there any segments that are almost empty? What impact do you think this is
having on your life?
● If a stranger were to watch you for a week, would they be able to guess what is
most important to you?
142

Importantly, writing these papers is meant to add value to your learning by encouraging
you to reflect deeply on the material and to find what is meaningful to you. Do not simply
outline or summarize the material we have covered. I want to know what the material
means to you!

I am not sure how long it takes students to write their reflection papers, but I would assume
there is a lot of variation here as well. Two examples of rubrics I have used for grading the
reflection papers are included in the supplemental materials.

Evidence of Effectiveness

The main goal of this activity is for students to increase their awareness of what is important to
them. It is clear from their reflections that this goal is typically reached. Last year about one-third
of the class (36%) who completed an anonymous end-of-semester survey (N = 14) indicated the
discussion of finding purpose/meaning and the completion of the core values activity was one of
their favorite topics from the course (e.g., “I think the most important thing I learned about was
probably how identifying my core values helped reorient what I focused on, including in terms of
academics. And the different other topics helped me build on this.”).

This past fall, I invited my students to fill out an additional anonymous survey about the activity
and 13 of the 24 students in the class did so. Table 1 and Figure 1 below provide a summary of
the results. While obviously prone to sample bias, results indicate the activity is successful in
making students more aware of their values, and that they find this to be a helpful, eye-opening,
and somewhat challenging task.

Table 1.

Responses to Core Values Statements

Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Agree

Agree nor
Disagree
“the core values activity 8% 54% 38%
helped me reflect on what I
think is most important in my
life”.
“completing the core values 8% 54% 38%
activity made me more aware
of my personal values than I
was previously.”
“I feel more “in tune” or 23% 46% 31%
connected with myself after
completing the core values
activity”.

When combined with the qualitative feedback I receive in the form of the students’ reflections,
the evidence indicates this is a valuable activity that helps students gain significant insight into
themselves. In the future, it would be helpful to survey students later in the course to see
whether and how they have revisited their core values throughout the semester (e.g., to see
whether students have engaged in self-affirmation or used their values to inform their decisions
about how to spend their time).
143

Figure 1

Summary of Students’ Results

9
8
7
Frequency (N = 13)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Challenging Eye-opening Helpful Difficult Comforting
Very much Somewhat A little bit Not at all

Conclusion

I have found this core values activity to be a relatively simple yet highly rewarding task (as one
student commented, “Thank you for these assignments. I think I really needed this time to
reflect on my life and what I want the future to hold”). Reading the students’ reflections and
reviewing their core values wheels, if students share them, also helps me get to know the
students better, which is a nice bonus, especially since this occurs during the first few weeks of
the course.

This activity would be easy to conduct both in-person and online, and the reflection portion of
the activity could be removed or modified in large courses where grading papers would present
an obstacle. For example, instead of submitting a written reflection, students could discuss in
small groups what they learned from reviewing their core values wheel, or they simply could be
encouraged to take time for personal reflection. In an upper-level course, the lessons around
the activity could be adjusted (for level/content) to make it more appropriate for the course. For
example, an upper-level developmental course could delve more deeply into the connection
between values and identity, whereas a positive psychology course could focus on the
connection between value congruence and resilience. Anyone can benefit from an opportunity
to identify and align their values.
144

Wrap-Up

● Identifying our core values can help us prioritize what is important and affirm our self-
worth when we find ourselves threatened.
● In a three-part activity, students identify their core values, determine how well their
behaviors and values are aligned, and reflect on what they have learned.
● After completing this activity, students report being more aware of their personal values
and feeling more connected with themselves.
● Supplemental materials can be found in the Google Drive or by scanning the QR code:

References

American Psychological Association. (2014). Strengthening the common core of the introductory
psychology course. https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/intro-psych-report.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)
student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
Arnett, J. J. (2022). Emerging adulthood. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds.), Noba textbook
series: Psychology. DEF publishers. http://noba.to/3vtfyajs
Cohen, G. L., & Sherman, D. (2014, January 3). A lecture in psychology: Self-affirmation and
social psychological intervention [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQ06XYhuQF8
Hitlin, S. (2003). Values as the core of personal identity: Drawing links between two theories of
self. Social Psychology Quarterly, 66(2), 118-137. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519843
Jordt, H., Eddy, S. L., Brazil, R., Lau, I., Mann, C., Brownell, S. E., ... & Freeman, S. (2017).
Values affirmation intervention reduces achievement gap between underrepresented
minority and white students in introductory biology classes. CBE—Life Sciences
Education, 16(3), ar41. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.16-12-0351
Mayseless, O., & Keren, E. (2014). Finding a meaningful life as a developmental task in
emerging adulthood: The domains of love and work across cultures. Emerging
Adulthood, 2(1), 63-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696813515446
McKnight, P. E., & Kashdan, T. B. (2009). Purpose in life as a system that creates and sustains
health and well-being: An integrative, testable theory. Review of General Psychology,
13(3), 242-251. https://doi.org/10.1037/a00171
O’Connor, M., Tennyson, A., Timmons, M., & McHugh, L. (2019). The development and
preliminary psychometric properties of the Values Wheel. Journal of Contextual
Behavioral Science, 12, 39-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.01.005
Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 261-302.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60229-4
145

Strecher, V. (2019, June 20). Life on purpose: How living for what matters changes everything
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8WYZW5uHMyM
Vyskocilova, J., Prasko, J., Ociskova, M., Sedlackova, Z., & Mozny, P. (2015). Values and
values work in cognitive behavioral therapy. Activitas Nervosa Superior Rediviva, 57(1-
2), 40-48. http://www.rediviva.sav.sk/57i1/40.pdf
Zhu, M., Yang, Y., & Hsee, C. K. (2018). The mere urgency effect. Journal of Consumer
Research, 45(3), 673-690. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucy008

Author Contact Information

Ashley Waggoner Denton, PhD

Associate Professor, Teaching Stream
Department of Psychology
University of Toronto
[email protected]
https://teachreflectrepeat.com
146

19 Niederjohn

Confronting Fear of Career Through Exposure

Summary
Students enter the introductory psychology course with varying levels of familiarity with career
opportunities and plans. With all of the potential paths that can be taken with a psychology
degree, considering options and developing a plan can be daunting. This “desensitizing” activity
focuses on strategies that can be used in an introductory psychology course to help students
overcome avoidance when considering career and post-graduation plans. The activity includes
a Likert-type self-assessment, open-ended self-reflection, and class discussion of career self-
efficacy and transferable skills. Data was collected to measure the impact of the activity and
more broadly the utility of reflective practices in teaching. The specific exercise included a pre-
test, a desensitizing activity (identifying transferable skills, self-exploration, and classroom
discussion), and a post-test. The results showed that taking part in this classroom activity
increased short-term career confidence, independent of how students assessed their levels of
transferable skills.

In short, the act of reflection was the important factor, not the level of transferable skills
developed. This study helps to further the argument that self-reflection is a useful teaching
technique that can be used more broadly for student success and development. Findings from
this exercise can be used to shape future teaching practices and ultimately to help students
experience less fear of their career by approaching and reflecting on their experiences in a
supportive educational environment.

Introduction

“I’m not sure what I’d like to do with my degree.”

This is a comment that stopped me in my tracks several years ago as I was celebrating
graduation day with a student from my senior capstone course and her family. As the learning
outcomes for this course did not specifically focus on career planning, I did not emphasize or
have teaching modules that specifically addressed future plans. After hearing this comment
from my student, I began to think much more about why some students have not yet developed
post-graduation plans. In addition, it transformed some of my goals and the ways I think about
undergraduate education in psychology. I still value traditional liberal arts concepts that tend to
be broad and related to overall personal development, but moving forward I began to have a
simultaneous goal that was much more specific to helping students understand how to
approach their career and life goals. One of my ideas was to create specific career-related
assignments throughout the courses that I teach and, in addition, to focus some class time on
discussions that are career-centered. This was my attempt to help students approach the
process of career- and self-exploration, and to get a better understanding of any type of
resistance or avoidance that seemed to be at the root of the avoidance.

I thought considerable progress was being made towards approaching these challenges in the
seminar course, and I wondered if a similar process could be used in an introductory
psychology course to get this ball rolling sooner. As a result, I began to research specific ideas
about career self-efficacy, transferable skills, and strategies for reflection. This ultimately led to
the creation of the activity that is the focus of this chapter. But, before getting into those details, I
147

would like to discuss some of the theoretical underpinnings that helped me reconsider how to
help my students reflect and increase their confidence, or self-efficacy, through exposure and
reflection.

Previous research emphasized that when predicting career success, individual behaviors or
ability levels are far less predictive than students’ beliefs about their abilities, competencies, and
opportunities for success (Taylor & Betz, 1983). In addition, career indecision is related to lack
of structure and confidence (Osipow et al., 1976), instead of skill assessment and knowledge of
the career field. Taken together these findings suggest that beliefs and confidence are likely at
the crux of whether or not students approach and ultimately find success in relation to career
planning.

Similarly, the concept of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) has been found to be a significant
mediating factor between behavior and behavior change. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's
belief in their ability to perform behaviors necessary to produce specific performance outcomes.
The research on self-efficacy has consistently shown that those with higher self-efficacy are less
stressed, more confident and composed, and show more improvement over time than those
with low self-efficacy. Given these findings, if we want to predict career success, we should look
to students’ beliefs about their abilities in relation to job opportunities. Bandura found that by
shaping self-efficacy beliefs he was able to change the experience of tasks and their outcomes
positively. In the teaching environment, beliefs about the self and levels of confidence can
change through self-reflection, which can ultimately lead to behavior change, improved
confidence, and approach behavior more generally.

Another important component is that avoidance may likely be a result of low self-efficacy or fear
of ambiguity. In essence, avoidance is negatively reinforced, which can create a cycle that is
hard to break. As teachers, we can expose students to some of these fears in a supportive
environment which can lead to breaking this avoidance cycle. Research related to exposure
therapy (Rothbaum & Schwartz, 2002) emphasized the need for fear to be activated in order for
change to occur. Once the fear system is active, a corrective experience can be experienced if
the environment is supportive and trusting. Essentially, the fear loses its strength once it is
experienced and worked through. This ultimately leads to increased confidence and more
approach behavior. So, exposure to that which has been avoided can be a helpful activity, yet it
also can spark some fear.

Together the ideas of exposure and self-efficacy can be used to help students approach difficult
tasks with a more positive outlook. This ultimately led me to come to the hypothesis that
exposure to a classroom exercise that promotes career self-exploration increases feelings of
career efficacy. In short, the activity activates fears related to future career plans and supports
students in the process of accessing their transferable skills from college to career. In addition,
this activity fits nicely with the American Psychological Association’s (APA, n.d.) Committee on
Associate and Baccalaureate Education 21st-Century Skills task force, which created an
evidence based list of top transferable skills for undergraduates within the field of psychology.
Specifically, this class exercise helps students become aware of their transferable skills, which
is step one in the process.

Reflection and Exposure Activity

This activity can be completed at any point in the semester, but it would be more beneficial
following a lecture on careers related to psychology. The activity can be broken up into three
parts: measurement of transferable skills (approximately 10 minutes), self-exploration and open-
148

ended questions related to those skills (approximately 10 minutes), and class discussion and
sharing (approximately 30 minutes). Before beginning the activity, it is important to create an
environment that is supportive and collaborative in nature. In my experience, most students
believe their classmates have it all “figured out,” so it is important to take a moment prior to
beginning the activity to discuss the benefits of self-reflection and to acknowledge that this
activity can be useful no matter where students are in the career planning process.

Transferable Skills Inventory

There are many measures of transferable skills that can be used to get this process started.
After researching some of these options, I used the APA’s (2016) guidelines for the
undergraduate psychology major (Version 2.0) as the starting point. In addition, I integrated
measures related to more global skills from research focused on transferable skills in student-
athletes (https://www.supportforsport.org). In total, I developed a measure of 22 items (see the
QR code for the full measure) that assessed a wide array of abilities related to the classroom,
career, and more global life skills.

The resulting Likert-type measure asks students to reflect upon how their education has
contributed to general skill development. The items include some of the broad APA goals such
as communication, critical thinking, and sociocultural awareness (APA, 2016). In addition, there
are items that focus on more concrete skills related to following instructions, getting along with
others, and overcoming obstacles. My goal was to include diverse skills in order for students to
be more likely to find ways to link the academic and career abilities. Although I have found this
measure to be helpful in my courses and research, it can be adapted to more specific courses
and career options as needed. For example, in some of my courses, I have used the learning
outcomes to help focus this initial part of the process, which is a relatively easy revision
process.

Open-Ended Self-Exploration
The second part of the activity is more open-ended. I again used a model developed for
student-athletes to help broaden the assessment of transferable skills
( https://www.supportforsport.org). Please see the Wrap-Up materials for the complete measure,
but essentially this part of the activity takes a deeper dive and helps students identify personal
characteristics and skills that have been developed in their educational experience that can be
transferred to future plans. Taking approximately 30 minutes to complete, students are then
given the opportunity to reflect upon how those qualities are similar to and different from what
employers look for in prospective employees.

Classroom Discussion
The final part of the process is for students to talk openly about their experience with the self-
reflection component. Although I do not try to guide the conversation in particular directions, I do
make two points along the way. The first is that, if students reflect on their abilities and skills,
they invariably can find ways to connect their career and future plans. The second point is that
all students experience some level of avoidance when thinking about their future, which is
expected and completely normal. I think it is best for students to drive the conversation, and I
have found that several “aha” moments can occur once they feel comfortable and connected
with their classmates. I do not grade this exercise, but there is room for grading based upon
completion or depth of reflection.
149

Effectiveness of the Exposure Activity

Procedure
Although students have expressed their support for this activity informally through comments
during and after, I have completed a pre-post design in order to measure its effectiveness. In
particular, I used the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (CDSES-SF) to measure
change in confidence before and after the activity (Taylor and Betz, 1983). Sample items from
the CDSES-SF assess confidence in plans and goals, making career decisions, and accurately
assessing abilities. The activity took place near the end of the semester following a discussion
of career fields related to psychology.

Participants
Students in an introductory psychology course at a comprehensive R2 University in the
Southeastern section of the United States took part in the study. The sample was predominantly
female (89%), White (48%) and African-American (31%), with 57% reporting being fully
employed.

Results
Dependent repeated-measure/paired t-tests were conducted to measure the difference between
the mean career efficacy scores pre- and post-activity. There was a significant difference
between scores after participating in the exposure activity (t(28) = 4.82, p < .001, d = 0.89). In
addition, an analysis of individual items found a significant improvement in confidence related to
finding out employment trends for an occupation over the next ten years, determining ideal job,
and making plans and goals for the next five years (ps < .05).

Further analyses showed there was not a significant correlation between the average difference
in CDSES-SF scores and the average transferable skills inventory scores. This may indicate
that, regardless of the actual score related to self-reflection of transferable skills, the act of self-
evaluation improved confidence following the activity. Put differently, the assessment of one’s
current skills and abilities did not have an impact on scores. Instead, the exposure activity itself
appeared to improve scores related to confidence and self-efficacy.

Overall, these results indicate the exercise of self-exploration and discussion does increase
career self-efficacy, at least temporarily. Specifically, confidence increased for items related to
making plans and approaching career decisions. Although the data supports the effectiveness
of the activity, there are limitations that should be considered. The first of these is the lack of
medium- or long-term follow up. It may be that this increase in confidence and self-efficacy is
short-lived and it certainly warrants further study. Also, without a control group, it is hard to know
for certain that the specific elements of the activity led to the increase in confidence. Future
research can investigate which aspects of the activity are most beneficial.

Conclusions

This brief classroom exercise allows students to confront potential fears about their futures in a
supportive environment and it has been shown to increase career self-efficacy. Although not
captured in the qualitative data, students have reported these types of reflective conversations
are often the most impactful on their future strivings. In addition, I have found these activities to
have a positive overall impact on the sense of classroom cohesion and community. Once
students begin to approach these and other topics about which they may feel vulnerable or
150

uncertain, they often develop more supportive relationships within the classroom setting, which
only helps to improve the overall course experience and learning environment. Lastly, the theme
of confronting fears through exposure is one that I hope students can take with them in life when
“scary” things are avoided. Using self-reflection and sharing with others is a very transferable
skill that can be used throughout life.

Wrap-Up

● Self-evaluation has positive immediate effects.

● Approaching something that was feared can increase efficacy.
● Try to model the following themes:
o “Don’t stress – prepare. Stressing won’t change the outcome.”
o “When I confront troubles, I can act wisely.”
o “Experience is often the best teacher in the world.”
o “Even if something sucks in the moment, odds are it’s going to teach you
something.”
● Confronting career decisions and preparedness leads to increased self-efficacy and
confidence.
● Use the QR code to access materials for activity:

References

American Psychological Association. (2016). Guidelines for the undergraduate psychology

major: Version 2.0. American Psychologist, 71(2), 102-111.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037562
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). The skillful psychology student: Skills you will need
to succeed in the 21st-century workplace.
https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/psn/2019/02/skillful-student.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review,
84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
Osipow, S. H., Carney, C. G., & Barak, A. (1976). A scale of educational-vocational undecidedness: A
typological approach. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 9(2), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-
8791(76)90081-6
Rothbaum, B. O., & Schwartz, A. C. (2002). Exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder.
American Journal of Psychotherapy, 56(1), 59–75.
https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2002.56.1.59
Support For Sport (n.d.). The presenter's guide provides a step-by-step explanation of a career
self- exploration program for student-athletes. Retrieved from
http://www.supportforsport.org/index3.html
Taylor, K. M., & Betz, N. E. (1983). Applications of self-efficacy theory to the understanding and
treatment of career indecision. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 22(1), 63–81.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(83)90006-4
151

Author Contact Information

Daniel Niederjohn, PhD

Associate Professor
Kennesaw State University
[email protected]
152

Conclusion Beyer & Lazzara

Conclusion: Where Do We Go from Here?

Closing
The purpose of this concluding chapter is to further explore the activities covered in this book
and to offer additional “toolbox” resources that can be used in psychology classes.

How Can We Incorporate These Activities?

In an Introduction to Psychology course, we often have challenges meeting depth while also
covering the breadth of content in the course. Instructors also often receive additional guidance
from their departments or districts about specific learning outcomes to achieve in their
psychology courses. So, how can we integrate thought-provoking and meaningful activities into
our classes that will support students’ learning of foundational psychology content? The first
strategy might be to choose tools from each pillar, and Table 1 organizes each activity shared in
this book based on the APA Pillars (2014).

Table 1

Activities Organized by APA Pillars (APA, 2014)

Pillar 1 Pillar 2 Pillar 3 Pillar 4 Pillar 5

Biological Cognitive Developmental Social and Mental and

Personality Physical Health

Loneliness Study habits Values Setting the tone Anxiety (option 2)

(option 1) affirmation
Retrieval practice (option 1) Goal-setting Loneliness
Mindfulnes (option3)
s Reading strategies Career (option Self-compassion
2) Stress and coping
Sleep Source reliability Empathy
deprivation Values affirmation
Best Possible Term Loneliness (option (option 2)
Dog 2)
therapy Limitations in
research methods Acceptance
Anxiety
(option1) Career (option 1)

Strategy 2
Another strategy to consider is linking the tools to the results of students’ individual self-
assessments. For example, at the start of the semester, instructors can show a list of the APA
Skillful Psychology Student Skills (Naufel et al., 2018) and ask students to pick the top three
skills they desire to improve. Instructors can then match the chosen skills to related toolbox
activities. Table 2 shows ways to connect the Skillful Psychology Student to the activities
discussed in this book.
153

Table 2

Activities Organized by APA 21st Century Skills (Naufel et al. 2018)

Cognitive Skills Study habits

Reading strategies

Retrieval practice

Source reliability

Limitations in research methods

Communication Skills Loneliness

Empathy

Personal Skills Acceptance

Mindfulness

Goal setting

Values affirmation

Best Possible Term

Anxiety

Stress and coping

Dog therapy

Social Skills Setting the Tone

Loneliness

Empathy

Technological Skills Source reliability

Sleep deprivation (online tool)

Strategy 3
A third strategy might be incorporating as many of these activities as possible in a given
psychology course. Table 3 shows a suggested outline for including these tools in a 14-week
semester-long class.

Table 3
154

Example Course Outline for an Introductory Psychology Course

Week Topic Tool activity from the book

1 Expectations & Course Layout Setting the Tone – C1

Best Possible Term – C2
Critical reading skills- C4

2 Introduction to the Field and Science of Reading strategies- C3

Psychology Retrieval practice- C6

3 Research Methods Loneliness – C3

Limitations of research- C8

4 Biological Pillar 1 of the 3 learning strategies-C5

Mindfulness-C9

5 Biological Pillar Dog therapy – C16

Sleep deprivation – C17

6 Mental and Physical Health Pillar Values affirmation – C18

7 Cognitive Pillar 1 of the 3 learning strategies -C5

Self-compassion – C11

8 Cognitive Pillar Source reliability -C7

9 Developmental Pillar Career self-efficacy -C19

10 Developmental Pillar 1 of the 3 learning strategies-C5

11 Social and Personality Pillar Goal setting (need at least 4 weeks)-C10

Acceptance -C12

12 Social and Personality Pillar Mindfulness- C9

Empathy- C13

13 Mental and Physical Health Pillar Stress and coping- C15

14 Mental and Physical Health Pillar Anxiety-C14

What Other Resources Are Out There?

The chapters included in this volume provide a rich collection of resources that provide an
excellent foundation for revitalizing your classes. The activities create moments that truly
engage students by inviting them to reflect and embark on self-directed and experiential
learning while also grasping the essential psychology concepts embedded within the activities.
However, we also recognize the possibilities that lie beyond these pages. To further enhance
your students' learning about and attainment of psychological tools, we have compiled an
additional list of resources that can be seamlessly integrated into your teaching toolbox. In
Table 4, we offer a glimpse of these resources, including some brief notes highlighting their
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relevance to specific topics. We also invite you to contribute to this ever-growing list, allowing us
to collectively expand our pool of resources.

Table 4

Compiled Toolbox Resources for Psychology Skill Building

Topic Source Citation/Website Notes

Growth Mindset Increasing growth mindset and performance in the 5 tips for infusing growth
college classroom mindset in classroom-
APA article

Class discussion Fast Friends Question prompts for

building students to get to know
relationship each other more quickly
prompts

Resilience APA modules on resilience teaching Online module - high

school level

Skill-based Baker, F. R., Baker, K. L., & Burrell, J. (2021). This describes a skills-
model of Introducing the skills‐based model of personal based model of personal
personal resilience: Drawing on content and process factors to resilience which is drawn
resilience build resilience in the workplace. Journal of from psychological
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 94(2), research in resilience,
458-481. positive psychology, and
general psychology.

Resilience Beyer, A.A. (12 July 2022). A toolbox to enhance Shares Canvas course
student resilience and success. STP E-xcellence in that has 3 activities
Teaching Blog. https://teachpsych.org/E-xcellence-in- embedded
Teaching-Blog/12846066

Learning Making things hard on yourself but in a good way. Article introduces
desirable difficulties and
learning strategies

Student Open and Free Version! https://oli.cmu.edu/product- A short course introducing

Cognition category/student-success-indep/ and providing practice in
Toolbox study strategies that are
informed by the science
of learning research.
There is an LMS-
integrated instructor
version as well.

Self-regulation Positive Psychology website: What is Self- Includes defining self-

Regulation? regulation and a list of 33
techniques
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Learnin Putnam, A. L., Sungkhasettee, V. W., & Roediger III, The table summary at the
H. L. (2016). Optimizing learning in college: Tips from end is an excellent
cognitive psychology. Perspectives on Psychological resource to share
Science, 11(5), 652-660.

Online Lethbridge College e-learning, Online Reading Tips Practical tips for students
reading/informati Script reading online
on management coursework

Teaching Supporting Students, "Teach Teamwork Skills" from Useful resources for team
teamwork skills the University of Minnesota’s Center for Education projects, UMN also has a
Innovation team project that is a
zombie theme to check
out here.

Personal Science of Happiness Podcast, How to Craft Your The 21-minute episode
development Life shares the 4-step process
for Life Crafting Exercise-
(other episodes could be
helpful too)

Interpersonal Interpersonal Helping Skills Instruction in Introduction to Resources

skill building Undergraduate Psychology Internship Courses and Background
Himelein (2017), STP instructional resource award
winner Student Handouts

Instructor’s Guide

Employable Ciarocco & Strohmetz (2017), The Employable Skills 51-item inventory for 4
Skills Self- Self-Efficacy Survey: An Assessment of and domains of employable
Efficacy Survey Resource for Fostering Skill Development (2017) skills

Transferable The Skillful Psychology Student and the Making the This is an instructor guide
Skills Most of Your Courses: A Transferable Skills on how to use the The
Resource for Psychology Students (2021) Ashley Skillful Psychology
Waggoner Denton Student in your course.

Major and Career Kitchen, J. A. (2021). Promoting college students’ Major and Career Self-
Self-efficacy major and career self-efficacy through validating efficacy Scale
support. Journal of College Student Development,
62(4), 422–437.
https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2021.0045

Assessment Find assessments to measure some of these skills in This is a digital library of
APA's Project Assessment. learning assessments
(e.g., assignments,
quizzes, evaluations)
designed to help
psychology instructors
demonstrate evidence of
teaching and learning
effectiveness.

Have Additional Share here Thank you for adding to

Ideas? the list!
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Closing Message

As we come to the end of this book, we would like to express our gratitude to those who have
contributed to it. We sincerely hope that our insights and recommendations have provided you
with valuable guidance and support in your efforts to help students succeed in their introductory-
level psychology courses.

We understand that teaching can be a challenging and rewarding profession, and we believe
that by sharing our collective knowledge and experience we can make a positive impact on the
lives of our students. Our goal has been to provide you with a comprehensive set of tools and
strategies that will help you engage your students, promote their critical thinking skills, and
ultimately enhance their understanding and appreciation of the field of psychology. Our hope is
that amidst these chapters, you have discovered pearls of wisdom that resonate deeply with
you.

We recognize that every instructor has their own unique style and approach to teaching, and we
have aimed to provide a flexible framework that can be adapted to suit your individual needs
and preferences. Whether you are a seasoned veteran or a new instructor, we hope our insights
have provided you with fresh ideas and inspiration to take your teaching to the next level. Just
as psychology evolves and adapts to new discoveries, so, too, must our teaching practices.

References

American Psychological Association. (2014). Strengthening the common core of the

introductory psychology course. https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/intro-psych-
report.pdf
American Psychological Association. (2021). APA Introductory Psychology Initiative (IPI)
student learning outcomes for introductory psychology.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/introductory-psychology-initiative-student-outcomes.pdf
Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating
desirable difficulties to enhance learning. Psychology and the real world: Essays
illustrating fundamental contributions to society, 2(59-68).
Kitchen, J. A. (2021). Promoting college students’ major and career self-efficacy through
validating support. Journal of College Student Development, 62(4), 422–437.
https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2021.0045
Naufel, K. Z., Appleby, D. C., Young, J., Van Kirk, J. F., Spencer, S. M., Rudman, J., Carducci,
B. J., Hettich, P., & Richmond, A. S. (2018). The skillful psychology student: Prepared
for success in the 21st-century workplace.
https://www.apa.org/careers/resources/guides/Transferable-skills.pdf
Naufel, K. Z., Spencer, S. M., Appleby, D., Richmond, A. S., Rudman, J., Van Kirk, J., Young,
J., Carducci, B. J., & Hettich, P. (2019). The skillful psychology student: How to
empower students with workforce-ready skills by teaching psychology. Psychology
Teacher Network. https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/ptn/2019/03/workforce-ready-skills
158

Author Contact Information

Alisa Beyer, PhD

Residential Faculty
Social & Behavioral Sciences
Chandler Gilbert Community College
[email protected]

Julie Lazzara, MC
Residential Faculty
Division of Behavioral Sciences
Paradise Valley Community College
[email protected]