Agrochemicals and their Effect on the

Ecosystem
1. Introduction:
Agrochemicals may be defined as products which include fertilizers, fungicides,
insecticides, nematicides, etc. to enhance the crop/plant growth .

The immense use of pesticides has affected the entire ecosystem and also microorganisms in
soil . Weeds and insects are the major reducing biotic factors in agriculture and hamper crop
yield, productivity, and resource use efficiency .These agrochemicals cause pollution and are
costly. These agrochemicals enter the water bodies and cause pollution . The pesticides going
on accumulating in the soil residues and cause biomagnification in plants and animal tissues.

This is dangerous to the humans and can cause health problems . The microorganisms
become resistant to the pesticides which is a serious issue. The use of pesticides has also
killed fishes in many water bodies. In general, the effects of pesticides on microorganisms
will vary depending on the chemical dosage, the properties of the soil and various
environmental factors. The soil quality is affected due to reduction in organic matter,
ultimately affecting soil microbiota and also soil microbial enzymes . The use of herbicides
has affected symbiosis association of Rhizobium-legume. The use of fungicide has shown
reduction in soil fungi population.

Soil pollution - Affect the whole

Microorganisms in environment
the soil are affected

Agrochemicals

Water pollution - Air pollution - The

Aquatic animals agrochemicals can
and birds affected affect the respiratory
system of the humans

Fig. Effect of agrochemicals on the ecosystem

2. Types of agrochemicals:
Fungicides:
i) Inorganic fungicides: Bordeaux mixture, sulphur, mercuric chloride (HgCl2)
ii) Organic fungicides: dithane S-21, dithane M-22, dithane Z-78, oxanthiins
(e.g.,vitavax), mercury compounds (e.g.,agrosan, tillex), benzimidiazole derivatives (e.g.,
benlate)

Herbicides:
Aldirab, methyl and ethylene bromide, chloropicrin

Rodenticides:
Organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids, ethylene dibromide

Algicides:
Cupric sulfate, Bluestone, dichlorophen

Pesticides:
Organochlorines: DDT, BHC, Aldrin and Endosulphan.
Organophosphates: Malathion, parathion and fenitrothion
Carbamates: Carbofuran, Propoxur and Aldicarb

Pyrethroids
Triazines: Simazine, Atrazine
Urea derivatives: Fenuron, metoxuron, diuron, linuron, monuron

3. Advantages of agrochemicals:

 Food grain production increased from 50 million tons to 198 million tons in 1997.
This is due to improved quality of seeds, good irrigation and use of agrochemicals.
 The productivity of crops has also increased in many countries due to use of
fertilisers.
  The use of pesticides has protected crops from weeds, pests and nematodes. Pesticides
become less hazardous when they undergo photochemical transformation process
resulting in non-toxic metabolites.
 Herbicides also provide economic and labor benefit.
 Insecticides help to control the insects.

4. Effect of agrochemicals on the ecosystem:

4.1 Effects on Soil:

Soil pollution due to pesticides is a serious environmental problem that affects the health
and productivity of soil organisms, crops, and humans. Pesticides are chemicals that are used
to kill or control pests, such as insects, weeds, fungi, and bacteria, that can damage crops and
livestock. However, most of the pesticides do not reach their target and end up in the soil,
where they can persist for a long time and cause various negative effects.

Some of the effects of soil pollution due to pesticides are:

  Disruption of soil communities: Pesticides can reduce the diversity and abundance of
soil organisms, such as earthworms, beetles, ants, and bees, that play important roles
in soil formation, nutrient cycling, decomposition, and pollination.
 Increment in bacterial populations over fungal populations: Pesticides can alter the
balance between soil bacteria and fungi, which can affect the soil structure and
fertility. Fungi are more sensitive to pesticides than bacteria, and their decline can
lead to soil compaction, erosion, and reduced water infiltration.
 Alteration in biochemical processes: Pesticides can interfere with the biochemical
processes that occur in the soil, such as nitrogen fixation, carbon sequestration, and
enzyme activity. These processes are essential for maintaining soil quality and
function.
 Pesticides and human health: Pesticides can contaminate the food chain and the water
resources, and pose a risk to human health. Pesticides can cause acute and chronic
effects, such as skin irritation, respiratory problems, neurological disorders, hormonal
disruption, and cancer.

4.2 Effects on Water:

Water pollution due to pesticides is a serious environmental problem that affects the
quality and availability of water resources, as well as the health and biodiversity of aquatic
ecosystems. However, most of the pesticides do not reach their target and end up in the water,
where they can persist for a long time and cause various negative effects.

Some of the effects of water pollution due to pesticides are:

 Toxicity to aquatic organisms: Pesticides can harm or kill aquatic organisms, such as
fish, amphibians, invertebrates, and plants, that are exposed to them directly or
indirectly through the food chain. Some pesticides can bioaccumulate in the tissues of
aquatic animals and magnify in the higher trophic levels, posing a risk to predators
and humans1.
 Eutrophication: Pesticides can contribute to the eutrophication of water bodies, which
is the excessive growth of algae and cyanobacteria due to the enrichment of nutrients,
such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Eutrophication can reduce the dissolved oxygen
levels, increase the turbidity, and alter the pH of the water, creating hypoxic or anoxic
conditions that can suffocate aquatic life2.
 Contamination of drinking water: Pesticides can contaminate the sources of drinking
water, such as groundwater, surface water, and rainwater, and pose a threat to human
health.

4.3 Effects on Air:

Air pollution due to pesticides is a serious environmental concern that affects both human health
and wildlife. However, when pesticides are applied to crops or other areas, they can volatilize, drift, or
runoff into the air, water, and soil, potentially contaminating them.

Some of the health effects of exposure to pesticides in the air include :

  Irritation to the eye, nose, and throat
 Damage to the central nervous system and kidney and increased risk of cancer.
 Pesticides can contribute to the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which is linked
to premature deaths and respiratory diseases.

4.4 Effects on non-target fauna:

Cholinesterase inhibitors (organophosphorus and carbamates), pyrethroids, and
neonicotinoid insecticides are neurotoxic substances. These affect the nervous system of
arthropods and various animals. These agrochemicals target the similarities in the neuronal
physiology among animals make insecticides toxic not just for the insect target species, but
also to other aquatic and terrestrial arthropods and, to a variable extent, to vertebrates.

4.5 Effects on non-target flora:

Herbicides affect the diversity of flora. The young plants are more affected due to spray
of herbicides. The reproductive system of the plants is affected when exposed to maximum
doses of herbicides. The spray of agrochemicals drift affects the balance of species from the
second year of exposure. This also disturbs the composition of plant species. Fungicides and
insecticides have shown adverse effect on non-target flora. The spray of fungicides affects the
photosynthesis of plants. The carbon and nitrogen metabolism is also affected. The
pollination efficacy is also affected due to reduction in floral visits and a change in
community of floral visitors. The insecticides also affect the germination and plant growth.

4.6 Effects on vertebrates:

The organophosphates and carbamates reduce the metabolism function in vertebrates
such as temperature regulation, intake of nutrients, foraging time, reproduction, etc. The
insecticides, herbicides and fungicides affect the thyroid function in rodents, birds,
amphibians, and fish and also the immune system is affected. The terrestrial vertebrates are
not much sensitive to insecticides from toxins produced by plants or fungi which have less
toxicity to birds and mammals. Herbicides affect granivorous and frugivorous population of
vertebrates . There are very few reports on effect of pesticides on reptiles and amphibians .
Amphibians and reptiles are more affected by agrochemical compared to other vertebrates.

4.7 Effects on invertebrates:

Insecticides act in action similar to acetylcholine. They bring paralysis, and death of the
insects. Neonicotinoids are the most toxic which affect the reproduction and immune system,
responsible for susceptibility to the pathogens. They mainly affect the bees, butterflies and
moths. Larval stage of flies reduces due to neonicotinoid residues present in the soil.

5. Mechanism of action of Pesticides:

Ecotoxicological studies of the natural environment are necessary. All the pesticides
have different mechanism by which they affect the organisms and human. These pesticides
remain in the environment for a long time and slowly and slowly go on accumulating. Runoff
and erosion are the ways by which pesticides enter the surface waters. In the aquatic animals,
the pesticides enter through gills or skin, ingestion, contaminated food. Terrestrial wildlife
uptake pesticides by eating contaminated food or water. The pesticides going on
accumulating and enter the food chain and affect the food chain of the aquatic animals. The
pesticides also taken up by the birds.

5.1 Mechanism of action of fungicides:

5.1.1 Ergosterol biosynthesis blockers:

Conazoles fungicides block the cycle of ergosterol, essential component of the fungal
cell membrane.

5.1.2 Protein biosynthesis inhibitors:

In these, Dithianon are the protein inhibitors. The dithianon change the sulfhydryl
group in the proteins and also inhibit the germination and germ tube growth.

5.13. Inhibitors of mitochondrial respiration:

Azoxystrobin prevents electron transfer at the quinone “outside” site of the cytochrome
bc1 complex which is known as ubiquinol oxidizing or Qo site. Due to this, the ATP
formation which is the energy source does not take place.

5.2 Mechanism of action of herbicides:

Herbicides affect various sites in the plants and each herbicide have different mode of
action which is as follows;
 5.2.1 Growth regulators:
The example of growth regulator is 2,4-dichlorophenoxiacetic acid. The mechanism of
2,4-D is based on auxin-like capacity. The receptor for auxin will recognize analogues such
as 2,4-D.

5.2.2 Seedling growth inhibitors:

The examples of seed growth inhibitors are thiocarbamates and acid amides. These seed
growth inhibitors affect the plant growth and cell division.

5.2.3 Photosynthesis inhibitors:

The photosynthesis inhibitors examples include herbicides (e.g. triazines, and copper-
containing pesticides). These rupture the biomembranes and block the photosynthesis. The
highly reactive molecules rupture the biomembranes, and then destroy the cell membranes.
The atrazine and copper-containing pesticides blocks electron transport chain in
photosystem II. This inhibition results in buildup of carbon dioxide (CO 2) within the plant
cell. Also, the magnesium ion (Mg2+) in the chlorophyll is replaced by other ions.

5.2.4 Inhibitors of amino acid biosynthesis:

These herbicides inhibit biosynthesis of amino acids. For example, glyphosate [N-
(phosphonomethyl) glycine], inhibits biosynthesis of tyrosine, tryptophan, and
phenylalanine amino acids. Many herbicides inhibit acetohydroxyacid synthase, the first
compound which inhibit biosynthesis of valine, leucine, and isoleucine, or 4-
hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase, a key enzyme in tyrosine catabolism and carotenoid
synthesis. Also, there are compounds which inhibit glutamine synthase that incorporates
ammonia (NH3) onto glutamate.

5.3 Mechanism of action of insecticides:

 5.3.1 Nerve and muscle targets:
5.3.1.1 Cholinesterase inhibition
Carbamate and organophosphate insecticides are used to kill insects. These inhibit
acetyl choline esterase and kill the insects.

5.3.2 Growth and development targets:

5.3.2.1 Chitin synthesis inhibitors
These inhibit the chitin synthesis insects and result in early death of the insects.

5.3.3 Insect growth regulators:

The insect growth regulators affect the endocrine system of the insects.

5.3.4 Nonspecific growth regulators:

The mode of action of nonspecific growth regulators is not known.

5.3.5 Energy production targets:

5.3.5.1 Electron transport inhibition
Organochlorine insecticides inhibit the electron transport. Due to this, the energy source
ATP generation is also inhibited.

6. Risk and mitigating measures in use of agrochemicals:

The use of pesticides can have adverse effect on the ecosystem. The tests are performed
as per standard guidelines as per the United States Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA) to assess the risk of exposure to pesticides. However, these may not capture the
complex interacting effects of repeated exposure of communities to complex mixtures of
pesticides. The exposure of dose of agrochemicals should be such that harmful pests,
nematodes, weeds, etc. are killed. The European (EU) framework of agri-environmental unit
develops schemes which make minimum use of agrochemicals and thus help to control the
population of pests . The use of fipronil and neonicotinoid should be stopped to minimize the
environmental and human health risk. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) make use of regulatory, technical aspects and best practices. There
should be sustainable approach to reduce the use of agrochemicals (for e.g. Integrated Pest
Management). All the countries must adopt National Action Plans (NAPs) to set their own
policies, legislations, rules, and objectives to reduce the use of agrochemicals. Therefore,
progress needs to be done on sustainable approach.

7. Conclusion:
The use of agrochemicals, such as fertilizers, pesticides, and plant growth regulators, has
been widely adopted to increase crop production and protect plants from pests and diseases.
However, these chemicals also have negative impacts on the environment and human health.
Agrochemicals can contaminate the soil, water, and air, affecting the biodiversity and
functioning of ecosystems. They can also harm beneficial organisms, such as pollinators, soil
microbes, and natural enemies of pests. Moreover, agrochemicals can accumulate in the food
chain and pose risks to consumers, such as respiratory illnesses, allergies, and cancers.
Therefore, there is a need to find alternative methods of pest and disease management that are
more eco-friendly and sustainable. One such alternative is biological control, which involves
the use of living organisms, such as predators, parasitoids, pathogens, and competitors, to
suppress the population of pests and diseases. Biological control can reduce the reliance on
agrochemicals, enhance the natural balance of ecosystems, and improve the quality and safety
of agricultural products. However, biological control also faces some challenges, such as the
specificity, efficacy, and compatibility of biological agents, as well as the potential risks of
introducing non-native species.
Thus, a detailed study is required to understand the mechanism and impact of biological
control at the molecular level, and to develop effective and safe strategies for its application.

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