Figure 41.

1
CAMPBELL
The Need to Feed Concept 41.1: An animal’s diet must supply
BIOLOGY TENTH
EDITION
chemical energy, organic molecules, and
Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson
! Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the essential nutrients
process of animal nutrition ! An animal’s diet must provide

41 ! In general, animals fall into three categories

! Herbivores eat mainly plants and algae
! Chemical energy for cellular processes
! Organic building blocks for macromolecules
Animal Nutrition
! Carnivores eat other animals ! Essential nutrients

! Omnivores regularly consume animals as well as

plants or algae

Lecture Presentation by
! Most animals are also opportunistic feeders
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick 2 3 4

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.2

Essential Nutrients Essential Amino Acids

Gly
! Materials that an animal cannot assemble from Vitamin B3
Iron
Ile ! Animals require 20 amino acids and can ! Most plant proteins are incomplete in amino acid
simpler organic molecules are called essential Leu synthesize about half from molecules in their diet composition
Phe
nutrients NADH Phe
ESSENTIAL
Tyr
AMINO ACIDS ! The remaining amino acids, the essential amino ! Individuals who eat only plant proteins need to eat
! These must be obtained from an animal’s diet Glu acids, must be obtained from food in specific plant combinations to get all the essential
preassembled form amino acids
! There are four classes Phospholipids
Fatty acid desaturase
! Meat, eggs, and cheese provide all the essential ! Some animals have adaptations that help them
! Essential amino acids
amino acids and are thus “complete” proteins through periods when their bodies demand
Linoleic acid γ-Linoleic acid
! Essential fatty acids extraordinary amounts of protein
! Vitamins Prostaglandins

! Minerals
5 6 7 8

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 41.1

Essential Fatty Acids Vitamins Minerals

! Animals can synthesize most of the fatty acids ! Vitamins are organic molecules required in the ! Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients, usually
they need diet in very small amounts required in small amounts
! The essential fatty acids must be obtained from ! Thirteen vitamins are essential for humans ! Ingesting large amounts of some minerals can
the diet and include certain unsaturated fatty acids upset homeostatic balance
(i.e., fatty acids with one or more double bonds) ! Vitamins are grouped into two categories: fat-
soluble and water-soluble
! Deficiencies in fatty acids are rare

9 10 11 12

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 41.2 Figure 41.3

Dietary Deficiencies Deficiencies in Essential Nutrients

! Malnutrition is a failure to obtain adequate nutrition ! Deficiencies in essential nutrients can cause
deformities, disease, and death
! Malnutrition can have negative impacts on health
and survival ! Cattle, deer, and other herbivores can prevent
phosphorus deficiency by consuming concentrated
sources of salt or other minerals
! “Golden Rice” is an engineered strain of rice with
beta-carotene, which is converted to vitamin A in
the body

13 14 15 16

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Figure 41.4

Undernutrition Assessing Nutritional Needs Concept 41.2: The main stages of food
processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption,
! Undernutrition results when a diet does not ! Many insights into human nutrition have come and elimination
provide enough chemical energy from epidemiology, the study of human health and Results ! Ingestion is the act of eating or feeding
disease in populations Number of Infants/Fetuses
! An undernourished individual will Infants/Fetuses with a Neural ! Strategies for extracting resources from food differ
! Neural tube defects were found to be the result of Group Studied Tube Defect
widely among animal species
! Use up stored fat and carbohydrates
a deficiency in folic acid in pregnant mothers Vitamin supplements 141 1
(experimental group)
! Break down its own proteins
No vitamin supple- 204 12
! Lose muscle mass ments (control group)

! Suffer protein deficiency of the brain

! Die or suffer irreversible damage

17 18 19 20

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.5 Figure 41.6a

Video: Shark Eating a Seal

Mechanical Suspension Feeders Filter feeding

digestion
1 INGESTION Baleen
! Many aquatic animals are suspension feeders,
Chemical which sift small food particles from the water
2 DIGESTION digestion
(enzymatic
hydrolysis)

Nutrient
molecules
3 ABSORPTION enter
body cells

4 ELIMINATION Undigested
material
21 22 23 24

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.6b

Video: Lobster Mouth Parts

Substrate Feeders Fluid Feeders

Substrate
! Substrate feeders are animals that live in or on feeding ! Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living
their food source host

Caterpillar
Feces

25 26 27 28

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.6c Figure 41.6d

Bulk Feeders ! Digestion is the process of breaking food down

Bulk feeding
into molecules small enough to absorb
! Bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food
Fluid feeding
! Mechanical digestion, such as chewing, increases
the surface area of food
! Chemical digestion splits food into small molecules
that can pass through membranes; these are used
to build larger molecules
! In chemical digestion, the process of enzymatic
hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules with the
29 30 31 addition of water 32

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Digestive Compartments Intracellular Digestion Extracellular Digestion

! Absorption is uptake of nutrients by body cells ! Most animals process food in specialized ! In intracellular digestion, food particles are ! Extracellular digestion is the breakdown of food
compartments engulfed by phagocytosis particles outside of cells
! Elimination is the passage of undigested material
out of the digestive system ! These compartments reduce the risk of an animal ! Food vacuoles, containing food, fuse with ! It occurs in compartments that are continuous with
digesting its own cells and tissues lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes the outside of the animal’s body
! A few animals, such as sponges, digest their food ! Animals with simple body plans have a
entirely by this mechanism gastrovascular cavity that functions in both
digestion and distribution of nutrients

33 34 35 36

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.7 Figure 41.8

Crop
Gizzard
Video: Hydra Eating Daphnia (Time Lapse) Esophagus
Intestine
Mouth Pharynx

Tentacles
! More complex animals have a digestive tube with Anus
Mouth
two openings, a mouth and an anus
(a) Earthworm

Food 1 Digestive enzymes ! This digestive tube is called a complete digestive Foregut Midgut Hindgut
are released from a
gland cell. tract or an alimentary canal
Rectum
2 Enzymes break ! It can have specialized regions that carry out Esophagus
Anus
food down into small
particles. digestion and absorption in a stepwise fashion
Gastric cecae Stomach
Mouth Crop
Gizzard
3 Food particles are (b) Grasshopper
engulfed and digested Mouth Intestine
in food vacuoles. Esophagus
Epidermis Gastrodermis Crop Anus
37 38 39 40
(c) Bird
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.9

Concept 41.3: Organs specialized for sequential Tongue Oral cavity The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
stages of food processing form the mammalian Salivary Mouth
digestive system ! Food is pushed along by peristalsis, rhythmic glands Pharynx
Salivary ! The first stage of digestion is mechanical and
glands
! The mammalian digestive system consists of an contractions of muscles in the wall of the canal Esophagus Esophagus takes place in the oral cavity
alimentary canal and accessory glands that Gall- Stomach
! Valves called sphincters regulate the movement Liver
Sphincter bladder ! Salivary glands deliver saliva to lubricate food
secrete digestive juices through ducts
of material between compartments
! Mammalian accessory glands are the salivary Small
! Teeth chew food into smaller particles that are
Gall-
glands, the pancreas, the liver, and the gallbladder bladder Sphincter Liver intestine exposed to salivary amylase, initiating breakdown
Pancreas Stomach
Large
of glucose polymers
Pancreas
Small intestine
intestine
Anus Rectum ! Saliva also contains mucus, a viscous mixture of
Large
intestine water, salts, cells, and glycoproteins
Duodenum of
Rectum small intestine
41 42
Anus 43 44

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.10

Digestion in the Stomach

! The tongue shapes food into a bolus and provides ! The esophagus conducts food from the pharynx Bolus of
! The stomach stores food and begins digestion of
help with swallowing down to the stomach by peristalsis food proteins
Tongue
Epiglottis
! The throat, or pharynx, is the junction that opens ! Swallowing causes the epiglottis to block entry to Pharynx up ! The stomach secretes gastric juice, which
to both the esophagus and the trachea the trachea, and the bolus is guided by the larynx, Esophageal converts a meal to chyme
sphincter
the upper part of the respiratory tract Glottis
contracted Epiglottis Esophageal
! The esophagus connects to the stomach Larynx down sphincter
relaxed
! Coughing occurs when the swallowing reflex fails Trachea Esophagus Glottis up
! The trachea (windpipe) leads to the lungs and food or liquids reach the windpipe
and closed
To To
lungs stomach
(a) Trachea open (b) Esophagus open

45 46 47 48

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Figure 41.11 Figure 41.11a
Gastric pit
Chemical Digestion in the Stomach on the interior
Stomach Epithelium
surface of
stomach
! Gastric juice has a low pH of about 2, which kills ! Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions
bacteria and denatures proteins separately into the lumen (cavity) of the stomach Gastric pit
on the interior
Epithelium
! Gastric juice is made up of hydrochloric acid (HCl) ! Chief cells secrete inactive pepsinogen, which is surface of 3 Gastric gland
stomach
and pepsin activated to pepsin when mixed with hydrochloric Pepsinogen
2
Pepsin
(active
acid in the stomach Chief
HCl enzyme)
! Pepsin is a protease, or protein-digesting enzyme, Gastric gland
cell 1
Mucous cell
that cleaves proteins into smaller peptides ! Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric H+
juice Mucous cell
Cl−

Parietal Chief cell

cell
Chief cell

49 50 Parietal cell 51 Parietal cell 52

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.11b-1 Figure 41.11b-2 Figure 41.11b-3

Production of gastric Production of gastric 3 Production of gastric

juice juice juice
Pepsinogen Pepsinogen Pepsin Pepsinogen Pepsin
! Gastric ulcers, lesions in the lining, are caused
1 Pepsinogen and 1 Pepsinogen and 1 Pepsinogen and
HCl secreted into
2 (active HCl secreted into
2 (active HCl secreted into mainly by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori
HCl lumen HCl enzyme) lumen HCl enzyme) lumen
Chief 1 Chief 1 Chief 1
2 HCl converts 2 HCl converts
cell cell cell
pepsinogen to pepsinogen to
pepsin. pepsin.
H+ H+ H+
Cl− Cl− Cl− 3 Pepsin activates
more pepsinogen,
Parietal Parietal Parietal starting a chain
cell cell cell reaction.

53 54 55 56

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.12 Figure 41.12a

CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION

Stomach Dynamics Digestion in the Small Intestine ORAL

CAVITY,
Polysaccharides Disaccharides
(starch, glycogen) (sucrose, lactose)
PHARYNX,
ESOPHAGUS
Salivary amylase

! Coordinated contraction and relaxation of stomach ! The small intestine is the longest compartment of
Smaller Maltose
polysaccharides PROTEIN DIGESTION

Proteins ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, ESOPHAGUS

muscle churn the stomach’s contents the alimentary canal
STOMACH
Pepsin
CARBOHYDRATE
Small polypeptides NUCLEIC ACID DIGESTION FAT DIGESTION DIGESTION
! Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the ! Most enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules SMALL
INTESTINE
(enzymes Pancreatic amylases
DNA, RNA Fat (triglycerides)
Polysaccha- Disaccha-
rides rides
esophagus and regulate its entry into the small from food occurs here from Pancreatic trypsin and Pancreatic
pancreas) chymotrypsin nucleases
Disaccharides (starch, (sucrose,
intestine Nucleotides Pancreatic lipase
glycogen) lactose)

Smaller
polypeptides
Salivary amylase
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase

Small peptides
Glycerol, fatty acids, Smaller Maltose
monoglycerides
polysaccharides
SMALL Nucleotidases
INTESTINE
(enzymes Dipeptidases, carboxy- Nucleosides
from Disaccharidases peptidase, and
intestinal aminopeptidase Nucleosidases
epithelium) and
phosphatases

Nitrogenous bases,
57 58 Monosaccharides Amino acids sugars, phosphates 59 60

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.12b Figure 41.12c Figure 41.12d

SMALL INTESTINE (enzymes from pancreas)

CARBOHYDRATE PROTEIN NUCLEIC ACID FAT SMALL INTESTINE (enzymes from intestinal epithelium)
DIGESTION DIGESTION DIGESTION DIGESTION
CARBOHYDRATE PROTEIN NUCLEIC ACID ! The first portion of the small intestine is the
Smaller Disaccha- Small DNA, RNA Fat
STOMACH polysaccha- rides polypeptides (triglycerides)
DIGESTION DIGESTION DIGESTION
duodenum, where chyme from the stomach mixes
rides (sucrose,
CARBOHYDRATE PROTEIN lactose, Pancreatic Disaccha-
rides
Small
peptides Amino acids
Nucleotides
with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver,
DIGESTION DIGESTION Pancreatic nucleases
maltose)
trypsin and
(sucrose,
lactose,
gallbladder, and the small intestine itself
Smaller Maltose Disaccha- Proteins chymotrypsin Nucleotidases
polysaccha- rides Pancreatic maltose)
Pepsin amylases Nucleotides Pancreatic Dipeptidases,
rides (sucrose, lipase carboxypeptidase,
lactose) Smaller
Small and aminopeptidase
polypeptides Disaccharidases Nucleosidases
polypeptides Disaccharides and
Pancreatic phosphatases
carboxy-
peptidase
Nitrogenous bases,
Monosaccharides Amino acids sugars, phosphates
Glycerol,
Small Amino fatty acids,
peptides acids monoglycerides

61 62 63 64

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pancreatic Secretions Bile Production by the Liver Secretions of the Small Intestine Absorption in the Small Intestine

! The pancreas produces proteases trypsin and ! In the small intestine, bile aids in digestion and ! The epithelial lining of the duodenum produces ! The small intestine has a huge surface area, due
chymotrypsin that are activated in the lumen of the absorption of fats several digestive enzymes to villi and microvilli that are exposed to the
duodenum intestinal lumen
! Bile is made in the liver and stored in the ! Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis
! Its solution is alkaline and neutralizes the acidic gallbladder moves the chyme and digestive juices along the ! The enormous microvillar surface creates a brush
chyme small intestine border that greatly increases the rate of nutrient
! Bile also destroys nonfunctional red blood cells absorption
! Most digestion occurs in the duodenum; the
jejunum and ileum function mainly in absorption of ! Transport across the epithelial cells can be
nutrients passive or active depending on the nutrient

65 66 67 68

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.13

BioFlix: Membrane Transport

Microvilli
(brush border)
at apical (lumenal) ! The hepatic portal vein carries nutrient-rich blood ! Epithelial cells absorb fatty acids and
Vein carrying
blood to liver Villi
surface from the capillaries of the villi to the liver, then to monoglycerides and recombine them into
Blood
Epithelial
cells
Lumen the heart triglycerides
capillaries
! The liver regulates nutrient distribution, ! These fats are coated with phospholipids,
Epithelial
cells
interconverts many organic molecules, and cholesterol, and proteins to form water-soluble
Muscle layers Large
(toward
capillary)
detoxifies many organic molecules chylomicrons
circular
Villi
folds
Intestinal
wall
Basal ! Chylomicrons are transported into a lacteal, a
surface
Lacteal
Lymph
lymphatic vessel in each villus
Nutrient
absorption vessel
! Lymphatic vessels deliver chylomicron-containing
69 70 71 lymph to large veins that return blood to the heart72
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.14 Figure 41.14a Figure 41.14b

LUMEN Triglycerides 1 Triglycerides
OF SMALL
INTESTINE
are broken
down to fatty
Processing in the Large Intestine
Epithelial acids and LUMEN Triglycerides 1 Triglycerides
Fatty
cell
acids Monoglycerides
monoglycerides OF SMALL are broken Triglycerides
by lipase.
INTESTINE down to fatty ! The colon of the large intestine is connected to
acids and
Epithelial
cell Fatty Phospholipids,
the small intestine
monoglycerides
acids Monoglycerides
2 Monoglycerides by lipase. cholesterol,
and fatty acids and 3 Triglycerides are ! The cecum aids in the fermentation of plant
diffuse into
epithelial cells
and are reformed
proteins incorporated into material and connects where the small and large
chylomicrons.
Triglycerides into triglycerides. Chylomicron intestines meet
Phospholipids, 2 Monoglycerides
cholesterol,
and
and fatty acids
4 Chylomicrons
! The human cecum has an extension called the
3 Triglycerides are
proteins
incorporated into
diffuse into
enter lacteals appendix, which plays a minor role in immunity
Chylomicron chylomicrons. epithelial cells
and are carried
and are reformed
Triglycerides away by lymph.
into triglycerides. Lacteal
4 Chylomicrons
enter lacteals
and are carried
away by lymph. 73 74 75 76
Lacteal
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.15

Concept 41.4: Evolutionary adaptations of

vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet
! The colon completes the reabsorption of water that ! Feces are stored in the rectum until they can be ! Digestive systems of vertebrates are variations on
Ascending began in the small intestine eliminated through the anus a common plan
portion
of colon
! Feces, including undigested material and bacteria, ! Two sphincters between the rectum and anus ! However, there are intriguing adaptations, often
Small
intestine become more solid as they move through the control bowel movements related to diet
colon

Appendix

Cecum

77 78 79 80

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Figure 41.16 Figure 41.17

Dental Adaptations Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations

Carnivore Herbivore

! Dentition, an animal’s assortment of teeth, is one ! Many carnivores have large, expandable
example of structural variation reflecting diet stomachs Small intestine
Small
! The success of mammals is due in part to their ! Herbivores and omnivores generally have longer intestine Stomach
dentition, which is specialized for different diets alimentary canals than carnivores, reflecting the
Omnivore
longer time needed to digest vegetation
! Nonmammalian vertebrates have less specialized Cecum
teeth, though exceptions exist
! For example, the teeth of poisonous snakes are
modified as fangs for injecting venom Colon
(large
Key Incisors Canines Premolars Molars Carnivore intestine)
81 82 83 84
Herbivore
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.17a Figure 41.17b Figure 41.18

Mutualistic Adaptations

100

Percent of sampled stomach bacteria

! The coexistence of humans and many bacteria Uninfected
individuals
involves mutualistic symbiosis 80 Individuals
with H. pylori
infection
! Some intestinal bacteria produce vitamins; 60
intestinal bacteria also regulate the development
of the intestinal epithelium and the function of the 40
H. pylori
innate immune system 20

! Using a DNA sequencing approach based on the 0

polymerase chain reaction, scientists have found
more than 400 bacterial species in the human
digestive tract
85 86 87 Phylum 88

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.18a Figure 41.19

Mutualistic Adaptations in Herbivores Concept 41.5: Feedback circuits regulate

Reticulum Rumen
digestion, energy storage, and appetite
! Many herbivores have fermentation chambers, Esophagus
! The processes that enable an animal to obtain
where mutualistic microorganisms digest cellulose nutrients are matched to the organism’s
circumstances and need for energy
! The most elaborate adaptations for an herbivorous
diet have evolved in the animals called ruminants 3 Intestine

Omasum
2
Abomasum
4

H. pylori

89 90 91 92

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.20 Figure 41.20a Figure 41.20b

Regulation of Digestion 1
Gallbladder
Liver Food
2
Bile
Stomach
2
! Each step in the digestive system is activated as Chyme 1
Liver Food
Stimulation Bile
Gastric Gastrin Gallbladder Inhibition
needed juices CCK

Pancreas
Stomach
! The enteric division of the nervous system helps to HCO3-, enzymes Chyme
regulate the digestive process Duodenum of
small intestine Secretin
CCK Gastric Gastrin CCK
juices
! The endocrine system also regulates digestion 3

HCO3-, enzymes
through the release and transport of hormones Pancreas
Secretin
and CCK
Duodenum of Secretin CCK
Gastric Stimulation
juices small intestine
Inhibition
Stimulation
Inhibition
93 94 95 96

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 41.20c Figure 41.21
Insulin Transport of
Regulation of Energy Storage Glucose Homeostasis Secretion glucose into
of insulin body cells
by beta and storage
cells of the of glucose
3 ! The body stores energy-rich molecules that are ! Glucose is a major fuel for cellular respiration and pancreas as glycogen
not needed right away for metabolism a key source of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis Blood glucose Blood glucose
level rises level falls.
Secretin ! In humans, energy is stored first in the liver and ! The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate the (such as after eating).

and CCK muscle cells in the polymer glycogen breakdown of glycogen into glucose NORMAL BLOOD
GLUCOSE
Gastric (70–110 mg glucose/
juices ! Excess energy is stored in fat in adipose cells ! The liver is the site for glucose homeostasis 100 mL)
Blood glucose Blood glucose
Stimulation ! When fewer calories are taken in than expended, ! A carbohydrate-rich meal raises insulin levels, level rises. level falls
Inhibition the human body expends liver glycogen first, then which triggers the synthesis of glycogen (such as after fasting).

muscle glycogen and fat ! Low blood sugar causes glucagon to stimulate the Breakdown of
Secretion of
glucagon by
glycogen and alpha cells
breakdown of glycogen and release glucose release of of the
97 98 99 glucose into blood Glucagon pancreas 100

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

BioFlix: Homeostasis: Regulating Blood Sugar Diabetes Mellitus

! Insulin acts on nearly all body cells to stimulate ! The disease diabetes mellitus is caused by a ! Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder in which
glucose uptake from blood deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to the immune system destroys the beta cells of the
insulin in target tissues pancreas
! Brain cells are an exception; they can take up
glucose whether or not insulin is present ! Cells are unable to take up enough glucose to ! It usually appears during childhood
meet metabolic needs ! Type 2 diabetes is characterized by a failure of target
! Glucagon and insulin are both produced in the
cells to respond normally to insulin
islets of the pancreas ! The level of glucose in the blood may exceed the
capacity of kidneys to reabsorb it ! Excess body weight and lack of exercise significantly
! Alpha cells make glucagon and beta cells make increase the risk of type 2 diabetes
insulin ! Sugar in the urine is one test for diabetes
! It generally appears after age 40, but may develop
101 102 103
earlier in younger people who are sedentary 104

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.22 Figure 41.UN02a

Regulation of Appetite and Consumption

Satiety
center

! Overnourishment causes obesity, which results ! Hormones regulate long-term and short-term Average Change
Genotype Pairing (red type in Body Mass
from excessive intake of food energy with the appetite by affecting a “satiety center” in the brain indicates mutant genes) Subject (g)
excess stored as fat Subject Paired with
! Ghrelin, a hormone secreted by the stomach wall,
+ + + + + + + +
! Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer of triggers feelings of hunger before meals (a) ob /ob , db /db ob /ob , db /db 8.3

the colon and breasts, heart attacks, and strokes Ghrelin

(b) ob/ob, db /db
+ +
ob/ob, db /db
+ +
38.7
! Insulin and PYY, a hormone secreted by the small + + + + + +
Insulin (c) ob/ob, db /db ob /ob , db /db 8.2
! Researchers have discovered several of the intestine after meals, both suppress appetite Leptin + + + +
mechanisms that help regulate body weight (d) ob/ob, db /db ob /ob , db/db −14.9*
! Leptin, produced by adipose (fat) tissue, also PYY * Due to pronounced weight loss and weakening, subjects in this pairing were
suppresses appetite and plays a role in regulating remeasured after less than eight weeks.

body fat levels

105 106 107 108

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 41.UN02b Figure 41.UN03 Figure 41.UN04 Figure 41.UN05

Stages of food
processing
Veins to heart Hepatic portal vein
1 INGESTION
(eating) Lymphatic system
Liver

2 DIGESTION Absorbed food Absorbed

(enzymatic breakdown Mouth Stomach (except lipids) water
of large molecules) Esophagus Lipids

3 ABSORPTION
(uptake of nutrients
by cells)
Undigested Small intestine Anus
material Secretions Secretions
4 ELIMINATION from from Secretions from liver
(passage of undigested Large Rectum
salivary gastric Secretions from pancreas intestine
materials out of the glands glands
body in feces)
109 110 111 112

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.