INDEX

• Certificate of Excellence

• Acknowledgement

• Aim of project

• Introduction

• Theory

• Apparatus required

• Procedure followed

• Observation

• Conclusions

• Precautions

• Bibliography
 AIM OF PROJECT
The aim of the project is to demonstrate the underlying
principles of electrical conduction under the influence of
light. Various applications are possible by employing this
simple principle such as

(a) Automatic switching of street lamps,

(b) Intruder's alarm,
(c) Morning wake up alarm,
(d) Fire alarm,
(e) Light intensity meters,
(f) Automatic elevator doors etc. to name a few.

In this project, I have demonstrated the intruder's alarm

in a simple manner which is easy to understand. The
heart of the project is an LDR or Light Dependent
Resistor. This project could have been done using a
photo-voltaic cell in place of LDR but the circuit would
have become complicated in the case of photocell.
 INTRODUCTION
A photoresistor or light-dependent resistor(LDR) is a
light-controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a
photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light
intensity; in other words, it exhibits Photoconductivity.

A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector

circuits, and light and dark activated switching circuits.
These resistors use pure semiconductors like silicon or
germanium. When the light falls on the LDR, then the
electrons get excited by the incident photons and move
from the valence band to the conduction band and
therefore the number of charge carriers increases. In
other words, the conductivity goes up.

Distinction needs to be made here between photocells

and LDRs. In a photocell, when it is excited by light
(photons), electricity is generated. Unlike photocells,
LDRs, do not generate electricity but only change their
conductivity.
 THEORY
1. Semiconductor Material:
LDRs are typically made of semiconductor materials
such as cadmium sulphide (CdS) or cadmium selenide
(CdSe). These materials have a unique property: their
electrical conductivity changes when exposed to light.
The basic principle behind this phenomenon is the
generation and movement of charge carriers within the
semiconductor.

2. Band Gap:
Semiconductor materials have a forbidden energy gap or
"band gap" between their valence band and conduction
band. In the absence of external energy, electrons in the
valence band do not have enough energy to move to the
conduction band. This gap
prevents the flow of electric
current through the material.

3. Photoconductivity:
When photons (particles of
light) with sufficient energy
strike the semiconductor material, they can excite
electrons from the valence band to the conduction band,
creating electron-hole pairs. This process reduces the
band gap, allowing electrons to move more freely within
the material, thereby increasing its electrical
conductivity.
4. Resistance and Illuminance:
The electrical resistance of an LDR is inversely
proportional to the intensity of incident light. As more
light falls on the LDR, more electron-hole pairs are
generated, reducing the material's resistance. Conversely,
in low light conditions, fewer pairs are created, causing
an increase in resistance.

5. Dark Resistance:
The resistance of an LDR in complete darkness is known
as its "dark resistance" or "off-state resistance." This
resistance value is relatively high as no light-induced
electron-hole pairs are being generated.

6. Applications:
LDRs are commonly used as sensors in light-activated
circuits. For example, in a simple light-sensitive switch,
when the LDR is exposed to light, its resistance
decreases, allowing current to flow through the circuit
and activate a load (e.g., turning on a light bulb). In the
absence of light, the LDR's high resistance prevents
current flow, deactivating the load.
 APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

2. A resistor for creating a voltage divider

3. Breadboard and jumper wires

4. Power Supply

5. Multimeter

6. Light source

7. Dark room or controlled lighting environment.

 PROCEDURE FOLLOWED
1. Prepare Your Workspace:
• Ensure you have a clean and well-lit workspace.
• Set up your breadboard, power supply, LDR, and
resistor.

2. Connect the Circuit:

• Place the LDR and a resistor (e.g., 10kΩ) on the
breadboard.
• Connect one end of the LDR to the positive (red)
rail of the breadboard.
• Connect the other end of the LDR to one leg of the
resistor.
• Connect the other leg of the resistor to the ground
(black) rail of the breadboard.

3. Apply Power:
• Connect the positive lead of the power supply to the
point where the LDR and resistor are connected.
• Connect the negative lead of the power supply to
the ground rail of the breadboard.

4. Measure Dark Resistance:

• Ensure the room is dark or the LDR is shielded from
light.
• Set your Multimeter to measure resistance (Ω).
• Measure the resistance across the LDR. This is the
"dark resistance" or "off-state resistance" of the
LDR.
5. Measure Resistance in Light:
• Expose the LDR to light from your light source
(e.g., flashlight or desk lamp).
• Observe the resistance across the LDR using the
Multimeter.
• Note any changes in resistance as the intensity of
light changes (e.g., move the light source closer or
farther away).

6. Record Data:
• Record the resistance values corresponding to
different light intensities. You can use a table to
organize your data.
7. Plot a Graph:
• Plot a graph with light intensity on the x-axis (e.g.,
distance from the light source) and resistance on the
y-axis.
• You should observe an inverse relationship between
light intensity and resistance.

8. Analysis:
• Analyse your data and graph to understand how the
LDR's resistance changes with varying light levels.
It should decrease as light intensity increases.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Now, let us understand how the switching takes place
when the LDR is illuviated by light. For the automatic
switching, we have used the following circuit consisting
of Transistors. One of the most common uses for
transistors in an electronic circuit is as simple switches.
In short, a transistor conducts current across the
collector-emitter path only when sufficient voltage is
applied to its base. When no sufficient base voltage is
present, the switch is off. When sufficient base voltage is
present, the switch is on.

The circuit uses two transistors, connected in series. The

base voltage of the first transistor is adjusted carefully
through the variable resistor (potentiometer) so that the
slightest increase in the base voltage can fire the
transistor T1. Thus, when there is no light on the LPR,
the transistor retains un-fired. But when light falls on the
LPR, the LPR starts conducting and the net base voltage
of transistor Ti. crosses the threshold voltage, causing T1
to fire. As a consequence, the collector current of T1
drives transistor T2 and T2 begins to fire. The collector
current of T.2 is now large enough to energize the relay.

The relay gets energized and changes the contact position

from 1 to 2. When fight is cut off, the base voltage of Ti,
falls back to less than the threshold voltage of its base
emitter junction and therefore, the relay gets de-
energized.

As stated earlier, the relay is connected to a buzzer

through a battery. So, whenever, fight is interrupted, the
relay goes to position-i where, the buzzer is connected
and the buzzer starts ringing.

The ringing buzzer wards off the intruder and also alerts
the neighbours about the intrusion. In addition to the
buzzer, one can also connect a high intensity flask light
to warn the people in the neighbourhood about the
intrusion.
Needless to say, one has also to install a stealth switch
that is known only to the owner so that the owner can
disable it for his own entry.
 OBSERVATION

In the set up described, the following observations were

made by (a) varying the nature of light source, (b)
varying the translucency or the interceptor object.

Sr.No Type of light Material Result

Source Interceptor
1 White light Opaque Buzzer Rings
Transparent Buzzer does
not ring
2 Near ultra- Opaque Buzzer Rings
violet
Transparent Buzzer does
not ring
3 Low intensity Opaque Buzzer Rings
Red laser Transparent Buzzer does
not rings.
 Extension of scope in future
The device was also tested under invisible light using a
TV remote control as an infrared light source. The same
observations were made as above. This extends the scope
of the project to the invisible light sources such as
ultraviolet and infrared. The advantage is that; we can
dupe the intruder by using invisible light as the light rays
will not be visible even in the night.

Another interesting application that can be thought of is

an automatic 'people counter' that can be used to measure
the number of people traversing a certain passage or
entrance in an auditorium or theatre. It can also be used
as a 'traffic counter' in check posts and toll gates. For
this, we have to simply replace the buzzer with a digital
counter. Atypical digital counter is shown in the
accompanying picture.
 CONCLUSION
The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a fascinating
component that has been extensively studied in this
physics investigatory project. Throughout our research
and experimentation, we have gained valuable insights
into the behaviour of LDRs and their applications in
various real-world scenarios. As we draw this project to a
conclusion, several key points and findings emerge:

1. Understanding of LDR Operation: We have learned

that LDRs are passive electronic components whose
resistance varies with the intensity of incident light. This
property makes them incredibly useful in applications
where light levels need to be detected or controlled.

2. Factors Affecting LDR Resistance: We have explored

how various factors, such as light intensity, wavelength,
and temperature, can influence the resistance of an LDR.
This understanding is crucial for designing circuits that
rely on LDRs.

3. Applications of LDRs: LDRs find widespread

applications in fields like photography, street lighting,
security systems, and solar energy harvesting. Their
ability to respond to changes in light levels makes them
an essential component in these technologies.

4. Circuit Design: We have discussed and demonstrated the

construction of a simple light-sensing circuit using an
 LDR and a voltage divider configuration. This circuit can
be used as a foundation for more complex applications.

5. Real-World Relevance: Our project has emphasized the

importance of LDRs in energy-efficient systems, as they
enable automatic control of lighting and power
consumption based on ambient light levels. This aligns
with the growing global emphasis on energy
conservation and sustainability.

6. Future Scope: While we have covered the fundamental

aspects of LDRs, there is still much more to explore in
this field. Research into advanced materials and
technologies can lead to even more sensitive and
versatile light sensors.

In conclusion, this physics investigatory project has

provided us with a comprehensive understanding of
LDRs and their significance in contemporary technology.
We hope that our findings and insights will serve as a
valuable resource for those interested in working with
LDRs or exploring related topics in the field of
electronics and photonics. The continued development
and application of LDRs hold great promise for a more
energy-efficient and automated future.
 PRECAUTION
When working with Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs),
it's essential to take certain precautions to ensure safety
and accurate results. Here are some precautions to keep
in mind when handling LDRs:

1. Avoid Mechanical Stress: LDRs are typically sensitive

to physical stress and pressure. Handle them gently to
prevent any damage to the component.

2. Protect from Moisture: LDRs are sensitive to moisture

and can degrade if exposed to high humidity or
immersion in liquids. Store them in a dry environment
and avoid contact with water or other liquids.

3. Mind the Operating Voltage: Ensure that the voltage

applied to the LDR does not exceed its specified limits.
Excessive voltage can damage the component or affect
its performance.

4. Avoid Direct Sunlight: Direct sunlight can overwhelm

the LDR and affect its readings. When using LDRs for
light sensing applications, shield them from direct
sunlight or use appropriate filters or diffusers to attenuate
the light.

5. Temperature Considerations: LDRs may exhibit

changes in resistance with temperature. Be aware of this
and account for temperature fluctuations if your
application requires precise measurements.
6. Calibration: LDRs can have variations in their
characteristics, even within the same batch. Calibrate
your circuit if high precision is needed to account for
these variations.

7. Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Protection: Like many

electronic components, LDRs can be sensitive to static
electricity. Use proper ESD precautions, such as
grounding yourself and your workspace, to prevent
damage during handling.

8. Avoid Excessive Current: LDRs typically have low

power ratings. Do not subject them to high currents,
which can lead to overheating and damage.

9. Proper Circuit Design: When incorporating LDRs into

circuits, ensure that the voltage divider or related
circuitry is designed correctly to meet the desired
application requirements.

10. Read Data Sheets: Always consult the datasheet

provided by the manufacturer for specific information on
the LDR's operating parameters and recommended usage
guidelines.

11. Eye Safety: If you are working with high-intensity

light sources or lasers in conjunction with LDRs, take
appropriate eye protection measures to prevent eye
damage.
12. Ventilation: In applications where LDRs are used
alongside heat-generating components, ensure proper
ventilation to prevent overheating.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• www.google.com
• https://en.wikipedia.org/
• www.electrical4u.com
• www.slideshare.net