SQL Commands

o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database.

It is also used to perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.
o SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the
table, modify the table, set permission for users.

Types of SQL Commands

There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.

1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table,
altering a table, etc.
o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save
all the changes in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

 o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o TRUNCATE

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:

1. CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]);

Example:

1. CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB

DATE);

b. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.

Syntax

1. DROP TABLE table_name;

Example

1. DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either
to modify the characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:

To add a new column in the table

1. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;

To modify existing column in the table:

1. ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY(column_definitions....);

EXAMPLE

1. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));

2. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));
d. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space
containing the table.

Syntax:

1. TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:

1. TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form
of changes in the database.
o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently
save all the changes in the database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

o INSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE

a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row
of a table.

Syntax:

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. (col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
3. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

Or

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

For example:

1. INSERT INTO javatpoint (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS");

b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the
table.

Syntax:

1. UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN]

[WHERE CONDITION]

For example:

1. UPDATE students
2. SET User_Name = 'Sonoo'
3. WHERE Student_Id = '3'

c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.

Syntax:

1. DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

For example:

1. DELETE FROM javatpoint

2. WHERE Author="Sonoo";

3. Data Control Language

DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

o Grant
o Revoke

a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example

1. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example
 1. REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

4. Transaction Control Language

TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE
only.

These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot
be used while creating tables or dropping them.

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

o COMMIT
o ROLLBACK
o SAVEPOINT

a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.

Syntax:

1. COMMIT;

Example:

1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. COMMIT;

b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already
been saved to the database.

Syntax:

1. ROLLBACK;

Example:

1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. ROLLBACK;

c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling
back the entire transaction.
Syntax:

1. SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

5. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

It uses only one command:

o SELECT

a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is used
to select the attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax:

1. SELECT expressions
2. FROM TABLES
3. WHERE conditions;

For example:

1. SELECT emp_name
2. FROM employee
3. WHERE age > 20;

Keys
o It is used to uniquely identify any record or row of data from the table. It is also
used to establish and identify relationships between tables.

Types of keys:
1. Primary key

o It is the first key used to identify one and only one instance of an entity uniquely.
An entity can contain multiple keys, as we saw in the PERSON table. The key
which is most suitable from those lists becomes a primary key.
o In the EMPLOYEE table, ID can be the primary key since it is unique for each
employee. In the EMPLOYEE table, we can even select License_Number and
Passport_Number as primary keys since they are also unique.
o For each entity, the primary key selection is based on requirements and
developers.

2. Candidate key

o A candidate key is an attribute or set of attributes that can uniquely identify a

tuple.
o Except for the primary key, the remaining attributes are considered a candidate
key. The candidate keys are as strong as the primary key.
For example: In the EMPLOYEE table, id is best suited for the primary key. The rest of
the attributes, like SSN, Passport_Number, License_Number, etc., are considered a
candidate key.

3. Super Key
Super key is an attribute set that can uniquely identify a tuple. A super key is a superset
of a candidate key.

For example: In the above EMPLOYEE table, for(EMPLOEE_ID, EMPLOYEE_NAME), the

name of two employees can be the same, but their EMPLYEE_ID can't be the same.
Hence, this combination can also be a key.

The super key would be EMPLOYEE-ID (EMPLOYEE_ID, EMPLOYEE-NAME), etc.

4. Foreign key

o Foreign keys are the column of the table used to point to the primary key of
another table.
o Every employee works in a specific department in a company, and employee
and department are two different entities. So we can't store the department's
information in the employee table. That's why we link these two tables through
the primary key of one table.
o We add the primary key of the DEPARTMENT table, Department_Id, as a new
attribute in the EMPLOYEE table.
o In the EMPLOYEE table, Department_Id is the foreign key, and both the tables
are related.

5. Alternate key
There may be one or more attributes or a combination of attributes that uniquely
identify each tuple in a relation. These attributes or combinations of the attributes are
called the candidate keys. One key is chosen as the primary key from these candidate
keys, and the remaining candidate key, if it exists, is termed the alternate key. In other
words, the total number of the alternate keys is the total number of candidate keys
minus the primary key. The alternate key may or may not exist. If there is only one
candidate key in a relation, it does not have an alternate key.

For example, employee relation has two attributes, Employee_Id and PAN_No, that
act as candidate keys. In this relation, Employee_Id is chosen as the primary key, so the
other candidate key, PAN_No, acts as the Alternate key.
6. Composite key
Whenever a primary key consists of more than one attribute, it is known as a composite
key. This key is also known as Concatenated Key.

For example, in employee relations, we assume that an employee may be assigned

multiple roles, and an employee may work on multiple projects simultaneously. So the
primary key will be composed of all three attributes, namely Emp_ID, Emp_role, and
Proj_ID in combination. So these attributes act as a composite key since the primary
key comprises more than one attribute.
What is Normalization?
o Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.
o Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of
relations. It is also used to eliminate undesirable characteristics like Insertion,
Update, and Deletion Anomalies.
o Normalization divides the larger table into smaller and links them using
relationships.
o The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

Why do we need Normalization?

The main reason for normalizing the relations is removing these anomalies. Failure to
eliminate anomalies leads to data redundancy and can cause data integrity and other
problems as the database grows. Normalization consists of a series of guidelines that
helps to guide you in creating a good database structure.

Data modification anomalies can be categorized into three types:

o Insertion Anomaly: Insertion Anomaly refers to when one cannot insert a new
tuple into a relationship due to lack of data.
o Deletion Anomaly: The delete anomaly refers to the situation where the
deletion of data results in the unintended loss of some other important data.
 o Updatation Anomaly: The update anomaly is when an update of a single data
value requires multiple rows of data to be updated.

Types of Normal Forms:

Normalization works through a series of stages called Normal forms. The normal forms
apply to individual relations. The relation is said to be in particular normal form if it
satisfies constraints.

Following are the various types of Normal forms:

Normal Description
Form

1NF A relation is in 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

2NF A relation will be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully funct
dependent on the primary key.

3NF A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no transition dependency exists.

BCNF A stronger definition of 3NF is known as Boyce Codd's normal form.

4NF A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd's normal form and has no multi-va
dependency.

5NF A relation is in 5NF. If it is in 4NF and does not contain any join dependency, joi
should be lossless.
Advantages of Normalization
o Normalization helps to minimize data redundancy.
o Greater overall database organization.
o Data consistency within the database.
o Much more flexible database design.
o Enforces the concept of relational integrity.

Disadvantages of Normalization
o You cannot start building the database before knowing what the user needs.
o The performance degrades when normalizing the relations to higher normal
forms, i.e., 4NF, 5NF.
o It is very time-consuming and difficult to normalize relations of a higher degree.
o Careless decomposition may lead to a bad database design, leading to serious
problems.

Three schema Architecture

o The three schema architecture is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or three-
level architecture.
o This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database system.
o The three schema architecture is also used to separate the user applications and
physical database.
o The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the database
down into three different categories.

The three-schema architecture is as follows:

In the above diagram:

o It shows the DBMS architecture.

o Mapping is used to transform the request and response between various
database levels of architecture.
o Mapping is not good for small DBMS because it takes more time.
o In External / Conceptual mapping, it is necessary to transform the request from
external level to conceptual schema.
o In Conceptual / Internal mapping, DBMS transform the request from the
conceptual to internal level.

Objectives of Three schema Architecture

The main objective of three level architecture is to enable multiple users to access the
same data with a personalized view while storing the underlying data only once. Thus
it separates the user's view from the physical structure of the database. This separation
is desirable for the following reasons:
 o Different users need different views of the same data.
o The approach in which a particular user needs to see the data may change over
time.
o The users of the database should not worry about the physical implementation
and internal workings of the database such as data compression and encryption
techniques, hashing, optimization of the internal structures etc.
o All users should be able to access the same data according to their
requirements.
o DBA should be able to change the conceptual structure of the database without
affecting the user's
o Internal structure of the database should be unaffected by changes to physical
aspects of the storage.

1. Internal Level

o The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage
structure of the database.
o The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.
o It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be
stored in a block.
o The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in detail.

The internal level is generally is concerned with the following activities:

o Storage space allocations.

For Example: B-Trees, Hashing etc.
o Access paths.
For Example: Specification of primary and secondary keys, indexes, pointers
and sequencing.
 o Data compression and encryption techniques.
o Optimization of internal structures.
o Representation of stored fields.

2. Conceptual Level

o The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual

level. Conceptual level is also known as logical level.
o The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.
o The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and
also describes what relationship exists among those data.
o In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data
structure are hidden.
o Programmers and database administrators work at this level.

3. External Level

o At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes called
as subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of the
database.
o An external schema is also known as view schema.
o Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is
interested and hides the remaining database from that user group.
o The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems.

Mapping between Views

The three levels of DBMS architecture don't exist independently of each other. There
must be correspondence between the three levels i.e. how they actually correspond
with each other. DBMS is responsible for correspondence between the three types of
schema. This correspondence is called Mapping.

There are basically two types of mapping in the database architecture:

o Conceptual/ Internal Mapping

o External / Conceptual Mapping

Conceptual/ Internal Mapping

The Conceptual/ Internal Mapping lies between the conceptual level and the internal
level. Its role is to define the correspondence between the records and fields of the
conceptual level and files and data structures of the internal level.

External/ Conceptual Mapping

The external/Conceptual Mapping lies between the external level and the Conceptual
level. Its role is to define the correspondence between a particular external and the
conceptual view.

SET Operators in SQL

SET operators are special type of operators which are used to combine the result of two
queries.

Operators covered under SET operators are:

1. UNION
2. UNION ALL
3. INTERSECT
4. MINUS
There are certain rules which must be followed to perform operations using SET
operators in SQL. Rules are as follows:

1. The number and order of columns must be the same.

2. Data types must be compatible.

1. UNION:
o UNION will be used to combine the result of two select statements.
o Duplicate rows will be eliminated from the results obtained after performing
the UNION operation.

2. UNION ALL
o This operator combines all the records from both the queries.
o Duplicate rows will be not be eliminated from the results obtained after
performing the UNION ALL operation.

3. INTERSECT:
 o It is used to combine two SELECT statements, but it only returns the records
which are common from both SELECT statements.

4. MINUS
o It displays the rows which are present in the first query but absent in the second
query with no duplicates.

ER (Entity Relationship) Diagram in DBMS

o ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level data model. This
model is used to define the data elements and relationship for a specified system.
o It develops a conceptual design for the database. It also develops a very simple and
easy to design view of data.
o In ER modeling, the database structure is portrayed as a diagram called an entity-
relationship diagram.

For example, Suppose we design a school database. In this database, the student will
be an entity with attributes like address, name, id, age, etc. The address can be another
entity with attributes like city, street name, pin code, etc and there will be a relationship
between them.
Component of ER Diagram

1. Entity:
An entity may be any object, class, person or place. In the ER diagram, an entity can be
represented as rectangles.

Consider an organization as an example- manager, product, employee, department

etc. can be taken as an entity.
a. Weak Entity

An entity that depends on another entity called a weak entity. The weak entity doesn't
contain any key attribute of its own. The weak entity is represented by a double
rectangle.

2. Attribute
The attribute is used to describe the property of an entity. Eclipse is used to represent
an attribute.

For example, id, age, contact number, name, etc. can be attributes of a student.

a. Key Attribute

The key attribute is used to represent the main characteristics of an entity. It represents
a primary key. The key attribute is represented by an ellipse with the text underlined.
b. Composite Attribute

An attribute that composed of many other attributes is known as a composite attribute.

The composite attribute is represented by an ellipse, and those ellipses are connected
with an ellipse.

c. Multivalued Attribute

An attribute can have more than one value. These attributes are known as a
multivalued attribute. The double oval is used to represent multivalued attribute.

For example, a student can have more than one phone number.
d. Derived Attribute

An attribute that can be derived from other attribute is known as a derived attribute.
It can be represented by a dashed ellipse.

For example, A person's age changes over time and can be derived from another
attribute like Date of birth.

3. Relationship
A relationship is used to describe the relation between entities. Diamond or rhombus
is used to represent the relationship.
Types of relationship are as follows:

a. One-to-One Relationship

When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, then it is known
as one to one relationship.

For example, A female can marry to one male, and a male can marry to one female.

b. One-to-many relationship

When only one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of an
entity on the right associates with the relationship then this is known as a one-to-many
relationship.

For example, Scientist can invent many inventions, but the invention is done by the
only specific scientist.

c. Many-to-one relationship
When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and only one instance of an
entity on the right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-one
relationship.

For example, Student enrolls for only one course, but a course can have many
students.

d. Many-to-many relationship

When more than one instance of the entity on the left, and more than one instance of
an entity on the right associates with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-
many relationship.

For example, Employee can assign by many projects and project can have many
employees.

ACID Properties in DBMS

DBMS is the management of data that should remain integrated when any changes
are done in it. It is because if the integrity of the data is affected, whole data will get
disturbed and corrupted. Therefore, to maintain the integrity of the data, there are four
properties described in the database management system, which are known as
the ACID properties. The ACID properties are meant for the transaction that goes
through a different group of tasks, and there we come to see the role of the ACID
properties.

ACID Properties
The expansion of the term ACID defines for:

1) Atomicity
The term atomicity defines that the data remains atomic. It means if any operation is
performed on the data, either it should be performed or executed completely or
should not be executed at all. It further means that the operation should not break in
between or execute partially. In the case of executing operations on the transaction,
the operation should be completely executed and not partially.

Example: If Remo has account A having $30 in his account from which he wishes to
send $10 to Sheero's account, which is B. In account B, a sum of $ 100 is already
present. When $10 will be transferred to account B, the sum will become $110. Now,
there will be two operations that will take place. One is the amount of $10 that Remo
wants to transfer will be debited from his account A, and the same amount will get
credited to account B, i.e., into Sheero's account. Now, what happens - the first
operation of debit executes successfully, but the credit operation, however, fails. Thus,
in Remo's account A, the value becomes $20, and to that of Sheero's account, it
remains $100 as it was previously present.
In the above diagram, it can be seen that after crediting $10, the amount is still $100
in account B. So, it is not an atomic transaction.

The below image shows that both debit and credit operations are done successfully.
Thus the transaction is atomic.

Thus, when the amount loses atomicity, then in the bank systems, this becomes a huge
issue, and so the atomicity is the main focus in the bank systems.

2) Consistency
The word consistency means that the value should remain preserved always. In DBMS,
the integrity of the data should be maintained, which means if a change in the
database is made, it should remain preserved always. In the case of transactions, the
integrity of the data is very essential so that the database remains consistent before
and after the transaction. The data should always be correct.

Example:

In the above figure, there are three accounts, A, B, and C, where A is making a
transaction T one by one to both B & C. There are two operations that take place, i.e.,
Debit and Credit. Account A firstly debits $50 to account B, and the amount in account
A is read $300 by B before the transaction. After the successful transaction T, the
available amount in B becomes $150. Now, A debits $20 to account C, and that time,
the value read by C is $250 (that is correct as a debit of $50 has been successfully done
to B). The debit and credit operation from account A to C has been done successfully.
We can see that the transaction is done successfully, and the value is also read
correctly. Thus, the data is consistent. In case the value read by B and C is $300, which
means that data is inconsistent because when the debit operation executes, it will not
be consistent.

3) Isolation
The term 'isolation' means separation. In DBMS, Isolation is the property of a database
where no data should affect the other one and may occur concurrently. In short, the
operation on one database should begin when the operation on the first database gets
complete. It means if two operations are being performed on two different databases,
they may not affect the value of one another. In the case of transactions, when two or
more transactions occur simultaneously, the consistency should remain maintained.
Any changes that occur in any particular transaction will not be seen by other
transactions until the change is not committed in the memory.

Example: If two operations are concurrently running on two different accounts, then
the value of both accounts should not get affected. The value should remain persistent.
As you can see in the below diagram, account A is making T1 and T2 transactions to
account B and C, but both are executing independently without affecting each other.
It is known as Isolation.

4) Durability
Durability ensures the permanency of something. In DBMS, the term durability ensures
that the data after the successful execution of the operation becomes permanent in
the database. The durability of the data should be so perfect that even if the system
fails or leads to a crash, the database still survives. However, if gets lost, it becomes
the responsibility of the recovery manager for ensuring the durability of the database.
For committing the values, the COMMIT command must be used every time we make
changes.

Therefore, the ACID property of DBMS plays a vital role in maintaining the consistency
and availability of data in the database.

Thus, it was a precise introduction of ACID properties in DBMS. We have discussed

these properties in the transaction section also.