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MATHS GR11
STUDY NOTES
Compiled by: Clarissa Iyer

[DATE]
[COMPANY NAME]
[Company address]
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
1. INTRODUCTION 2

2. Paper 1 3
a. Exponents 3
b. Equations and inequalities 4
c. Number patterns 10
d. Functions 11
e. Financial mathematics 17
f. Probability 18

3. Paper 2 22
a. Analytical geometry 22
b. Trigonometry 28
c. Euclidean geometry 42
d. Measurement 51
e. Statistics 53

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 INTRODUCTION
Tips and Advice for Maths Core
1. Practice past papers as much as possible. Once you begin to find the patterns and
understand the questions better, you are able to apply yourself accurately, and
provide in depth answers of what the teachers want
Here is a link to a website that provides past papers for Mathematics grade 11:
https://www.stanmorephysics.com/maths-grade-11/
2. Make sure to know how to answer the questions, and the method to use. A pro tip
would be to take time to analyse where the teacher allocates marks, and adjust your
system of answering to what has been given. This can ensure that achieve the
maximum amount of marks provided.
3. While answering past papers can be very useful, one of the biggest challenges
people create for themselves is sticking only to what they are exposed to. In maths,
the idea is to help educate and teach people how to effectively think critically and
problem solve. Therefore, its important to know and understand your formulae, how
they work and are derived, and be able to think in maths, and not just use it to
answer only what you have seen. This ensures that, no matter what question you
get, you are able to find a way around it, whether you have done something like it in
class/a revision paper, or not.

The material for Mathematics Grade 11 has been summarised down into 58 pages, and
includes the key terms, diagrams, graphs and formulae of the all the different sections in the
work covered.

Please Note: Always make sure to listen and read the additional content the teachers may
give you, especially before a test or exam, as the work they choose to cover or focus on more
is sometimes most likely to come out in the paper. Always keep eyes and ears open
throughout each lesson.

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 EXPONENTS

Xa.Xb = Xa+b

𝑎
𝑏
√𝑋 𝑎 =𝑋 𝑏
(Xa)b = Xa.b

Law of
𝑋𝑎
exponents = Xa-b
(XY)a = Xa.Ya 𝑋𝑏

1
X-n = 1
𝑋𝑛 𝑛
√𝑋 = 𝑋 𝑛

𝑋 𝑋𝑎
( )a =
𝑌 𝑌𝑎

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 EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
Completing the square

Writes ax2 + bx + c into the form a(x + p)2 + q

Example 1
Determine the value of c (the last term) in each of the following quadratic expressions
if the expressions are perfect squares.
1
(a) X2 + 4x + c (b) x2 – 10 x + (2 x -10)2 (c) x2 -5x + c
X2 - 5x + (1/2 x -5)2
X2 + 4x + (1/2 x 4)2 X2 – 10x + (1/2 x -10)2
= x2 – 5x + (-5/2)2
= x2 + 4x + (2)2 = x2 – 10x + (-5) 2
= x2 – 5x + 25/4
= x2 + 4x + 4 = x2 – 10x + 25

Example 2
Find the minimum value of x2 + 6x by completing the square.
We have to add a constant to the expression to make the expression a complete square
2p 2p = 6
2
X + 6x p=3
P2 = 9 (this is the value we add to the expression to make it a complete
square)
If we add 9 to the expression, it becomes a complete square. However, we cannot simply
change the expression by adding 9. We must also subtract 9 to keep the expression the same.
X2 + 6x + 9 -9
= (x + 3) – 9
The minimum value of the expression is -9

Example 3
For which value of x does the expression x2 – 2x – 2 have a minimum value?
The value to be added to (and subtracted from) the expression is:
𝟏
(𝟐 x -2)2 = (-1)2 = 1:
X2 + 2x + 1 – 1 – 2
= (x – 1)2 – 3
The minimum vaue is obtained when x = 1

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 Example 4
Determine the maximum value of y = x2 + 8x – 5
Before completing the square, the coefficient of x2 must be 1. To achieve this, we take out -1
as a common factor:
Y = - [x2 - 8x + 5]
The value to be added and subtracted to complete the square is (-4)2 = 16
We add and subtract the 16 inside the bracket:
Y = - [x2 – 8x +16 -16 + 5]

Y = - [(x – 4)2 – 11]

The -1 must be multiplied back to finish the process

Y = -(x – 4)2 + 11
The maximum value of y = 11

Example 5
Determine the maximum value of 2x2 + 3x + 5
Step 1: Take out 2 as a common factor:
2(x2 + 3/2x + 5/2)
𝟏 𝟑 𝟗 3 9 9 5
Now add and subtract (𝟐 x 𝟐)2 = 𝟏𝟔: 2 [x2 + 2x + 16 - 16 + 2]
3 31
= 2[(x + 4)2 + 16]
3 31
Multiply the 2 back in: = 2 (x + 4)2 + 8
31
The minimum value of the expression is: 8

Quadratic equations - completing the square

The CAB principle

Refer to the standard form: ax2 + bx + c = 0
Step 1: “Move” the c-value across
Step 2: Divide both sides by the a-value
1
Step 3: Add (2 x b-value)2 to both sides of the equation
Step 4: Factorise and solve the equation by square-rooting both sides

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 EXAMPLE 1
Solve by completing the square

4x2 – 12x – 7 = 0 3
X - = ±2
2
4x2 – 12 = 7
3
7 X= ±2
X2 – 3x = 4 2

−3 2 7 −3
X2 – 3x + ( ) =4 + ( 2 )2
2 7 −1
X= or x=
3 3 7 9 2 2
(x - 2) (x - 2) = 4 + 4
3 16
(x - 2)2 = 4
3
X - 2 = ±√4

EXAMPLE 2
Solve by completing the square:

2x2 + 10x – 14 = 0
2x2 + 10x = 14 5 5
√53 √53
X2 + 5x = 7 X+2= or x +2 = -
2 2
5 5
X2 + 5x + (2) =7 + (2)2 −5+ √53 −5− √53
25 25 X= x=
X2 + 5x + =7+ 2 2
4 4
5 53
(x + 2)2 = 4
5 53
X + 2 = ±√ 4

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The quadratic formula
If we use the formula: ax2 + bx + c = 0, and we wish to solve for x, we do the following:

ax2 + bx = -c 𝑏 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x+ =√
𝑏𝑥 −𝑐 2𝑎 4𝑎2
x2 + =
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 ±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑏 𝑏 −𝑐 𝑏 x+ =
x2 + x + ( )2 = + ( )2 2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎
−𝒃 ± √𝒃𝟐 −𝟒𝒂𝒄
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑐 x=
(x + ) (x + )= - 𝟐𝒂
2𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎2 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
(x + ) -
2𝑎 4𝑎2

Equations with fractions

Step 1: find the LCD and state the restrictions

- The restrictions are the value(s) of x for which the
denominator(s) are equal to zero.
- Remember that division by 0 is undefined.
Step 2: multiply each term by the LCD
Step 3: write the equation in standard form
Step 4: divide the numerical factor (if
Step 5: factorise and solve
Step 6: check answers with restrictions

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 EXAMPLE
5𝑥+9 2𝑥 𝑥 LCD = (x – 3)(x + 1)
- 3−𝑥 = 𝑥−1
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3
Restrictions: x ≠ 3 and x ≠ 1
(5𝑥+9) 2𝑥 𝑥
- (3−𝑥) = (𝑥+1)
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+1)

(5𝑥+9) 2𝑥 𝑥
- −(𝑥−3) = (𝑥+1) (x + 9) (x + 1) = 0
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+1)

(5𝑥+9) 2𝑥 𝑥 X = -9 or x = -1
+ =
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+1) (𝑥−3) (𝑥+1)

5x + 9 + 2x(x + 1) = x(x – 3) But x ≠ 1

5x + 9 + 2x2 + 2x = x2 – 3x
2x2 + 7x + 9 = x2 – 3x X = -9

Special cases

0 = 0 → infinite many solutions 0 = number → no solution

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
Solve for x if: Solve for x if:
3x + 6 = 3 (x + 2) 3x + 8 = 3 (x + 2)
∴ 3x + 6 = 3x + 6 ∴ 3x + 8 = 3x + 6
∴0=0 ∴2=0
∴ xEReal Numbers No solution

Equations with square roots

EXAMPLE
√𝑥 + 6 – x = 0 Test
√𝑥 = 2
√𝑥 + 6 = x If x = 3: √3 + 6 = 3
(√𝑥)2 = (2)2
(√𝑥 + 6)2 = (x)2 If x = -2: √−2 + 6 = -2
X=4
X + 6 = x2
0 = x2 – x – 6
0 = (x – 3)(x + 2)
X = 3 or -2

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 TEST:
We test both solutions in the step where the square root is isolated
and before both sides were squares (i.e. √𝑥 + 3 = 1 + x):
X = 1 LHS = √1 + 3 = 2 RHS = 1 + 1 = 2
LHS = RHS ∴The solution is valid

X = -2 LHS = √−2 + 3 = 1 RHS = 1 + (-2) = -1

LHS ≠ RHS ∴The solution is invalid

Equations with substitution

EXAMPLE
10 √𝑥 − 2 = -5 √𝑥 − 2 = 2
√𝑥 − 2 + 3 = √𝑥−2
No solution (√𝑥 − 2)2 = (2)2
Let k = √𝑥 − 2
10 x–2=4
K+3= 𝑘
NB! x = 6 only
K2 + 3k = -10
√𝒙 = -7
K2 + 3k – 10 = 0
NO SOLUTION
(k + 5) (k-2) = 0
K = -5 or k = 2

EXAMPLE a: EXAMPLE b:
Y2 – 2y – 3 = 0 (x2 + 2x)2 – 2(x2 + 2x) – 3 = 0
(y – 3) (y + 1) = 0
Y = 3 or x = -1 Let y = x2 + 2x
X2 + 2x = 3 x2 + 2x = -1
X2 + 2x – 3 = 0 x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
(x + 3)(x – 1) = 0 (x + 1)(x + 1) = 0

X = -3 or x = 1 x = -1

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 NUMBER PATTERS

General Term (𝑻𝒏) of a Linear Number Pattern: 𝑻𝒏 = 𝒃 +𝒄 where 𝑏 = constant difference

and 𝑏 +𝑐 = 𝑇1 the first term

Quadratic number pattern

Calculate the first and second differences
a+b+c 4a + 2b + c 9a + 3b + c 16a + ab + c
First d: a+b 5a + b 7a + b
Second d: 2a 2a
Therefore: to calculate a: 2a = second difference
To calculate b: a + b = first term of first differences
To calculate c: a + b + c = first term of number pattern

Consider the number pattern: 1, 5, 12, 22, 35;…

Calculate the difference between consecutive terms:

1 5 12 22 35

4 7 10 13 First differences

3 3 3 Second differences

EXAMPLE
Consider the quadratic number pattern:
399; 360; 323; 288; 255
a) Determine the formula for general term:
b) Which term of the pattern will have the lowest value?

a) 399 360 323 288 255

-39 -37 -35 -33
2 2 2

b) To find the lowest value, complete the square

(Quadratic function = parabola)
Tn = n2 – 42n + 440
= n2 – 42n + (21)2 – 441 + 440
= (n – 21)2 – 1

Therefore, the function will have the lowest value when

N = 21 (T21 = 1)

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 FUNCTIONS

𝑎 determines the shape and orientation

𝒚=𝒂∙𝑴𝒙+𝒑+𝐪 p determines the horizontal position
q determines the vertical position

Parabolas

Orientation: 𝑎>0(positive)
𝑎<0(negative)

Shape: The bigger the value

Turning Point is found at (−𝑝;q)
of 𝑎 (ignoring the sign), the
narrower the graph becomes Axis of symmetry: The vertical line
passing through the turning point.

The equation is 𝑥=−𝑝

Domain: There are no

restrictions: 𝑥∈ℝ

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Range: if a>0, the range is all y-values greater than or equal to the y-value of the turning
point.
∞
The minimum value of the function is q

q
(-p ; q)
Range: y ≥ q. This can also be written as y E [q: ∞)
If a<0, the range is all the y-values less than or equal to the y-value of the turning point.
(-p ; q)
∞
The maximum value of the function is q

Range: y ≤ q. this can also be written as: y E (-∞ ; q]

Example

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 Hyperbolas

Shape: The greater the value of 𝑎, Orientation: 𝑎>0 (positive)

the “further” the graphs is stretched 𝑎<0 (negative)
away from the asymptotes

Axes of Symmetry: Asymptotes:

2 axes of symmetry The vertical asymptote moves along

with the horizontal shift: 𝒙=−𝒑
Both pass through
point (−𝑝;𝑞) where the The horizontal asymptote moves
asymptotes cross along with the vertical shift: 𝒚=𝒒

Domain: 𝑥≠−𝑝; 𝑥∈ℝ

Range: 𝑦≠𝑞; 𝑦∈ℝ

Example

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Exponential Function
Shape: The effect of 𝑎. The greater the
value of a, the “further” the graph is
stretched away from the asymptote
Asymptote: There is only 1
asymptote, a horizontal asymptote: 𝑦
=𝑞

Axes of symmetry: none Domain: no restrictions, thus 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

Range: If a > 0, the range is all y-values above the asymptote:

∞

q
Range: y > q also written as: y E (q ; ∞)
If a < 0, the range is all y-values below the asymptote:
q

-∞
Range: y < q also written as yE (-∞ ; q)
Note that the q-value is excluded

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 The base b of an exponential function is always positive and b≠0
The graph of y = bx and y = (1/b)x are reflections of each other in the y - axis

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 Example

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 FINANCIAL MATH

Simple interest Compound interest:

A = P (1+i.n) A = 𝑷(𝟏 + 𝒊)𝒏

Reducing balance
depreciation: Single line
depreciation:
A = P (1 − 𝑖)𝑛 FORMULAE A = P (1−i.n)

Effective and nominal interest:

𝐼𝑛𝑜𝑚 m
1 + ieff = ( 1 + )
𝑚

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 PROBABILITY
TERM DEFINITION
Event A subset of the sample space, consisting of outcomesthat satisfy a
particular condition
Outcomes The different ways an experiment can turn out

Sample space The set of all possible outcomesof an experiment

𝑛(𝐸)
P(E) = 𝑛(𝑆)

Venn Diagrams: A visual

representation of events in a
sample space. We represent the
sample space with a rectangle
and the events with circles.

Complement: A complement of an A
event A is the event consisting of all
the outcomes that are in the sample
space, but are NOT in A. We write
the complement of A as “not A”. Not A

For inclusive events A and B, The following rule is true:

𝑷(𝑨 or 𝑩) = 𝑷(𝑨) + 𝑷(𝑩) – 𝑷(𝑨 and 𝑩)

A B
4 Where P(A and B) ≠ 0
1 A = {1,2,3}
3 5
2 NOT A: A’ = {4,5,6,7}
6
7

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 For mutually exclusive events A and B, The following rule is true:
𝑷(𝑨 or 𝑩)= 𝑷(𝑨) + 𝑷(𝑩)

A B
Where P(A and B) = 0
1 4
A = {1,2}
5 NOT A: A’ = {3,4,5,6}
2 6
3

Events A and B are exhaustive if:

𝑷(𝑨 or 𝑩) = 𝟏
Events are exhaustive is they contain all the elements in the sample
space. Exhaustive events can be inclusive or mutually exclusive.

A B Where P(A and B) = 0 or ≠ 0

1 4
3 5 A = {1,2,3}
2 6 NOT A: A’ = {4,5,6}

Therefore 1 = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) – 0

Complementary events: So P(A) + P(B) = 1
Events that are both mutually exclusive and
exhaustive. If A and B are complementary: If A and B are complementary
𝑃(𝐴 and 𝐵) = 0 and 𝑃(𝐴 or 𝐵) = 1 then B = Not A and therefore
𝑃(𝐴 or 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) – 𝑃(𝐴 and 𝐵) • P(A) + P(Not A) = 1
• P(B) + P(Not B) = 1

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE INDEPENDENT

P(A and B) 0 P(A) x P(B)
P(A or B) P(A) + P(B) P(A) + P(B) – P(A) x P(B)

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 VENN DIAGRAMS
A and (not B) (not A) and B (not A) and B
Also called ‘only A’ Also called ‘only B’ Also called ‘only B’
A B

(not A) or (not B)
A or (not B) (not A) or B Also called not(A and B)

3-WAY VENN DIAGRAMS

A
A only and B B only

All 3
A and C B and C

None of the
C only above

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 2-WAY CONTINGENCY TABLES
When is a two-way contingency table effective?
- When Data is classified according to two different aspects simultaneously.
In a two-way contingency table:
- We use the rows for the categories of the one aspect
- We use the columns for the categories of the other aspect
- The rows as well as the columns are usually totalled
- We are often interested in whether there is any dependence between the different
aspects
EXAMPLE

Likes chocolate Dislikes chocolate Total

Boy 330 170 500
Girl 400 100 500
Total 730 270 1000

TREE DIAGRAMS

How Tree Diagrams work:

½ Heads P(HH) = ½ x ½ = ¼
- The probabilities are
written on the “branches” ½ Heads
½ Tails P(HT) = ½ x ½ = ¼
- Finale probabilities are
determined by multiplying ½ Heads P(TH) = ½ x ½ = ¼
the branch probabilities ½ Tails
along the path leading to ½ Tails P(TT) = ½ x ½ = ¼
each final outcome

When do we use Tree Diagrams?

- When an experiment is repeated
- When multiple experiments are performed successively
Why do we use Tree Diagrams?
- When dealing with repeated or multiple experiments, they help us
calculate probabilities.

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 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
TERM FORMULA/EXPLANATION
Distance between two points

Midpoint

Gradient

Parallel lines

Perpendicular lines

Collinear lines

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 Inclination
The inclination, 𝜽, of a line is the angle between the line and the positive 𝒙-axis in an
anti−clockwise direction.

If the gradient of the line is 𝑚, the inclination If 𝑚<0 (negative) the

is the unique angle 𝜃 such that inclination is an obtuse
angle and therefore

Line Gradient (m) Inclination (θ)

Positive Acute (between 0°
and 90°)

Negative Obtuse (between

90° and 180°)

0 0°

Undefined 90°

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 Angle between two lines

In order to calculate the angle

between any two lines, we draw
a horizontal line through the lines
at the point of intersection and
then use the inclinations of the
two lines to determine the angle
between them

Triangles
Median: the line drawn from the vertex of a triangle
to the midpoint of the opposite side

Altitude: the line drawn from the vertex of a

triangle, perpendicular to the opposite side

Perpendicular Bisector: the line that passes through

the midpoint of a line segment and is perpendicular
to that line segment.

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25 | P a g e
Quadrilaterals
QUADRILATERAL PROPERTIES
Trapezium - One pair of opposite sides parallel

Parallelogram - Both pairs of opposite sides parallel

> - Both pairs of opposite sides equal
- Both pairs of opposite angles equal
- Diagonals bisect each other

>
Rhombus - All four sides equal
- Diagonals are perpendicular to each other
- Diagonals bisect each other
(in addition to this, the rhombus also inherits all the
properties of the parallelogram)

Rectangle - All four angles are 90°

- Diagonals are equal in legnth
(in addition to this, the rectangle also inherits all the
properties of the parallelogram)

Square In a square, all four sides are equal and all four angles 90°
(the square inherits ALL the properties of BOTH the
rhombus and rectangle, and therefore also the
parallelogram)

Kite - Two pairs of adjacent sides equal

- Diagonals are perpendicular to each other
- The main diagonals bisects the other diagonal
- The main diagonals bisect angles
- The angles opposite the main diagonal are equal.

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 To prove that a Show that…
qudrilteral is a…
Trapezium One paire of opposite sides are parallel
Paralellogram Diagonals bisect each other
Rhombus It is a parallelogram AND diagonals are pependicular to each other
Rectangle It is a paralellogram AND one angle is 90°
Square It is a rhombus AND one angle is 90°
It is a rectangle AND diagonals are perpendicular to each other
Kite One diagonal is besicted by the other at 90°

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 TRIGONOMETRY
On a cartesian plane

𝑦
sin ∅ =
𝑟
𝑥
cos ∅ =
𝑟
𝑦
tan ∅ =
𝑥

The C.A.S.T. Diagram

In quadrant 1, all ratios are positive

In quadrant 2, Sin is positive, the rest are negative
In quadrant 3, Tan is positive, the rest are negative
In quadrant 4, Cos is positive, the rest are negative

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Reduction

NOTE: The ratios have the same numerical value for each of the four angles given
(although the signs differ)

y y y y
150° 210°
330°
30° 30°
30° 30° x
x x x

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 Each of the angles above can be rewritten in terms of 30° and either 180° or 360°;
150° = 180° - 30°; 210° = 180° + 30° and 330° = 360° - 30°
180°- ; 180°+; 360°- indicate the quadrants as shown in the diagram:

90°
II
I
90° + 30° S A 30°
180° - 30°

30° 30°
180° 0°/360°
30° 30°

180° + 30° 360° - 30°

270°- 30° T C 270° + 30°
III IV
270°

sin (180° - θ) = sin θ sin (360° - θ) = - sin θ

cos (180° - θ) = - cos θ cos (360° - θ) = cos θ
tan (180° - θ) = - tan θ tan (360° - θ) = - tan θ

By using the same reasoning, we can

Sin (180° + θ) = - sin θ
reduce the trigonometric ratio of angle
cos (180° + θ) = - cos θ greater than 90° to the same ratio of
an acute angle.
tan (180° + θ) = tan θ

NOTE: we only use the horizontal

axis to determine the acute angle

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 Sin (90 – x) = cos x
Cos (540 – x) = -cosx
Cos (90 – x) = sin x
Because: cos (540 – x – 360)
Sin (90 + x) = cos x
= cos (180 – x)
Cos (90 + x) = -sin x
= -cosx

Sin (-x) = -sinx

Sin (x – 180)
Cos (-x) = cosx
= sin (x – 180 + 360)
Tan (-x) -tanx
= sin (x + 180)..which is the
same as.. Sin (180 + x)
Sin (x – 90) = -sinx
= sin [-1(-x + 90)]
= -sin (90 – x) Cos (x – 90)
= -cos x = cos [-1(90 – x)]
→We know that cos(-x)
Sin (720 – x) = cosx
= sin (720 – x – 360) Therefore, cos [-1(90 – x)]
= sin (360 – x) = cos (90 – x)
= -sinx = sinx

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Negative angle

Negative Angles occur when the terminal arm is moved from the
0° position in a clockwise direction.

Negative angles are reduced in the same way as angles in the fourth quadrant

sin−𝜃 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
cos−𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
tan−𝜃 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

If you add or subtract a full revolution (360°) to any angle, you end up at the
same position as the original angle. (including any multiple of 360°)

sin(A + 360°) = sinA 360°

cos(aA + 360°) = cosA

tan(A + 1080°) = tanA

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Co – Functions
If the sum of the two angles is equal to 90°, then the sin ratio of the one
angle will always equal the cos ratio of the other angle and vice versa.

- (sin 20 ° = cos 70 °; cos 35 °= sin 55)

Why? A

Consider the following right-angled triangle:

90° - O
If B = O, then A = (90° – O) c b
𝑏 𝑏
Now sinB = 𝑐 → sinO = 𝑐
O
𝑏 𝑏 B C
And cosA = 𝑐 → cos(90 – O) = 𝑐 a

Therefore, sinO = cos(90° - O) A and B are called complementary angles

because they add up to 90°
𝑎 𝑎
cosB = → cosO =
𝑐 𝑐 The sin ratio and the cos ratio are called
𝑎 𝑎 co-functions
sinA = 𝑐 → sin(90 – O) = 𝑐
Therefore, in summary: the co-functions
Therefore, cosO = sin(90° - O) of complementary angles are equal to
each other

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Reduction Involving Numerical Angles

SPECIAL ANGLES - Either use the Special Angles in the Cartesian Plane or use the
Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles to determine the values of the ratios of special angles:

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Identities

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Trig Graphs

y = Asin (Bx + C) + D

Place shift = 0 Period = 2π/B

Vertical
Amplitude = 3 shift = 0

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 F(x) = a Sin bx F(x) = sin (θ – c) + d
c → x-axis
𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝒎𝒊𝒏 X;Y
a= (1 period) Start
𝟐
Sinθ (0;0)
𝒐𝒍𝒅 Cosθ (0;a)
b= (look at x-axis)
𝒏𝒆𝒘 (0;0)
Tanθ
360°/180°= 2
Y=0
d= 2
180° 360°
-30°
Sin (θ – 30°)

Sin (θ + 30°)
d → y-axis

Sine Rule

A
D
c
b

B C
a

BD = Sin A x c
= Sin C x a

Therefore, since BD = BD
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶
=
𝑎 𝑐

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Cosine Rule

B
(XB ; YB)

c a

A b C (b ; 0)

Construction: construct ▲ABC, with AC along

the x-axis and A at the origin
𝑋𝑏 𝑌𝑏
CosA = and sina =
𝐶 𝐶
Therefore, XB = ccosA and YB = csinA
Cosine rule
Distance formula: proof
BC2 = (XB – XC)2 + (YB – YC)2
= (ccosA – b)2 + (csinA – 0)2
= c2cos2A – 2bccosA + b2 + c2sin2A
= c2(cos2A + sin2A) + b2 – 2bccosA
= c2 + b2 – 2bccosA

THEREFORE: a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bccosA

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Area Rule
A

c b
h

B C
D
a

PROOF

Area of Triangle
= ½ bh
= ½ (a)(h)

In △ABD:
SinB = h/c
h= cSinB

Therefore, Area of a triangle = ½ (a)(c)sinB

Similarly, Area of a triangle = ½acsinB
OR = ½ (b)(c)sinA

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EXAMPLES

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41 | P a g e
 EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

THEORM 1

- A line drawn from the centre of a circle,

perpendicular to a chord, bisects the chord.
GIVEN: A circle with centre O. AB is a chord. P
is a point on AB such that OP ⊥AB
R.T.P: AP=PB
PROOF: Construct: Draw OA and OB O
In ▲s OAP, OBP
1. OA = OB (radii)
2. P1 = P2 = 90° (given)
3. OP = PO (common) A P B
∴ ▲OAP = ▲OBP (r,h,s)

∴ Ap = PB (congr. ▲s)

THEORM 2

- The angles at the centre of a circle is equal to twice the angle at the
circumference subtended by the same chord.
GIVEN: A circle with centre O and A, B and C on the circumference
R.T.P: B<OC = 2B<AC
PROOF: Construct: Draw AO and extend

A A

B
O O O

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 FOR CASES 1 AND 2 FOR CASE 3

In ▲AOB In ▲AOB

<O1 = <A1 + <B (ext. <▲) <O1 = <A1 + <B

But AO = OB (radii) But AO = OB (radii)

∴A1 = B ∴<A1 = <B

∴ O1 = 2<A1 ∴<O1 = 2<A1

Simly: In ▲AOC, <O2 = 2A2 Simly: in ▲AOC, <O2 = 2<A2

∴<O1 + <O2 = 2<A1 + 2<A2 ∴<O1 - <O2 = 2<A1 – 2<A2

= 2(<A1 + <A2) = 2(<A1 - <A2)

∴BOC = 2BAC ∴BOC = 2BAC

THEORM 3

- An angle at the circumference, subtended

by a diameter, is a right angle
GIVEN: A circle with centre O, diameter AB C
and C at the circumference
R.T.P: <C=90°
PROOF: <AOB = 180° (St. line)
A B
∴ = 90° (< at centre = 2 x < at circumference) O
NOTE: theorems proved previously can be
used to prove subsequent theorems.

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 THEOREM 4

- The opposite angles of a cyclic

quadrilateral are supplementary
GIVEN: A circle with centre O and a cyclic A
quadrilateral ABCD
R.T.P: <A + <C = 180°; <B + <D = 180°
PROOF: Construct: Draw OB and OD
<O1 = 2<A …. (< at centre = 2 x < at circum) O

<O2 = 2<C…. (< at centre = 2 x < at circum) B D

BUT <O1 + <O2 = 360°…. (<s round apt.)
∴ 2(<A + <C) = 360°
∴ <A + <C = 180° C

Similarly, by drawing OA and OC it can be

proven that <B + <D = 180°

THEOREM 5

- An exterior angle of a cyclic

quadrilateral is equal to the opposite
interior angle A
GIVEN: Cyclic quadrilateral ABCD with
CD extended
R.T.P: <D1 = <B
PROOF: <D2 + <B = 180°… (opp <s cyc D
quad) B
∴ <B = 180° - <D2
<D1 + <D2 = 180°… (<s on st. line) C
∴ <D1 = 180° - <D2
∴ <B = <D1… (both = 180° - <D2)

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 THEORM 6

- Angles at the circumference, subtended

by a chord, on the same side of the
chord, are equal A B
GIVEN: a circle with centre O and A,B,C and
D on the circumference, such that ∴A and <B
are subtended by a chord CD and on the
same side of chord CD O
R.T.P.: <A = <B
PROOF: construct: Draw OC and OD
C D
<A = ½ <O1… (< at centre = 2 x <at circum)
<B = ½ <O1… (< at centre = 2 x < at circum)
∴ <A = <B… (Both = ½ <O1)

THEOREM 7

- A tangent is perpendicular to
the radius drawn from the point
of contact
ACCEPTED WITHOUT PROOF: O
OP ⊥AB
This theorem is regarded as an
axiom in the curriculum;
therefore, proof is not required. A P B

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 THEOREM 8

- Two tangents drawn to a circle from a

common point outside the circle are P
equal in length
GIVEN: A circle with centre O. P is a point
outside the circle, A and B are on the
circumference, such that PA and PB are
tangents
A
R.T.P.: PA = PB B
PROOF: Construct: Draw PO, OA and OB
In ▲s AOP, BOP
O
1. OA = OB …(radii)
2. OP is common
3. <A1 = 90°… (rad⊥tan)
∴▲AOP = ▲BOP… (r,h,s)
∴ PA =PB… (congr ▲s)

THEOREM 9

- The angle between a tangent to a circle and the chord drawn from the point of
contact is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.
GIVEN: A circle with centre O and tangent PA at P. B and C are points on the
circumference.
R.T.P.: construct: Draw PO and extend to D on the circumference. Draw DB

D D
C
B

O C O
B

A A
P
P

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 FOR CASE 1:
<P1 + <P2 = 90°… (rad ⊥tan) FOR CASE 2:

∴ <P1 = 90° - <P2 <P1 = 90°… (rad ⊥tan)

<B1 + <B2 = 90°… (< in a semi circle) <B1 = 90°… (< in a semi-circle)

∴ <B1 = 90° - <B2 ∴<P1 = <B1… (both = 90°)

BUT <B2 = <P2… (<s in a same seg) <B2 = <P2… (<s in same seg)

∴ <B1 – ()° - <P2 ∴ <P1 + <P2 = <B1 + <B2

∴<P1 = <B1… (both = 90° - <P2) ∴ <APC = <PBC

∴ <APC = <PBC

How to prove a cyclic quadrilateral

1
2

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Past Papers

Prove EFG = EDF

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50 | P a g e
 MEASUREMENT
AREA OF 2D SHAPES
NAME SHAPE FORMULA
Rectangle A= L x W

Triangle A = ½ b x ⊥h

Circle A = πr2

Parallelogram A = b x⊥h

Kite A = ½ x d1 x d2

Trapezium A = ½ (a + b) x
⊥h

Regular Hexagon A=
3√3
𝑠2
2

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 SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME
NAME SHAPE SURFACE AREA VOLUME
Rectangular Prism (2 x Area of Base) + Area of base x
(Sum of Areas of height
Rectangles joining
bases)
Pyramid (Area of Base) + (sum of 1/3 x area of base x
areas of Triangles height
joining base to Apex)

Cone πr2 + πrs 1/3 π𝑟 2 h

where
s = √𝑟 2 + ℎ2

Cylinder 2πr2 + 2πrh πr2h

Sphere 4πr2 4/3πr3

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 STATISTICS
KEY EXPLANATION
Ungrouped data Ungrouped data is data that has not been classified or subdivided
Mean in any way

Measures of central A measure of central tendency is a single value that is used to

tendency summarise an entire data set.
The three most common measures of central tendency are the
mean, median and mode

Mean is the average of the data

Median The median value is the middle of an ordered data set.

(Ordered value set means the set has been arranged in
ascending order)
The number of observations below the median is equal to the
number of observations above the median

Mode The mode is the most common value in the data set
the data
value with the highest frequency
Measures of Measures of dispersion tell us how the data is spread
dispersion
Range
Range = Maximum value - Minimum value
Interquartile range = 𝑄3−𝑄1
Semi-interquartile = ½ (𝑄3−𝑄1)
range

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 Calculating Variance
The variance is the square of the
STEP 1: Calculate the mean
standard deviation and is used more
extensively in later statistics studies STEP 2: Add all the (x- x ̄)2
STEP 3: Divide the answer by the
𝛴(𝑥− 𝑥̄ )2 number of values present (N)
𝜎2 = 𝑛

Calculating Standard deviation

Standard deviation gives an idea of how far a

σ = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 typical data value deviates from the mean.
The distance from any data value from the
mean can be compared to the standard
STEP 1: Square root the
deviation. The larger this distance is, the less
variance
typical (and thus more extreme) that
Done! observation is.

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 DISTRIBUTION OF DATA
Symmetrical Data Positively Skewed Data Negatively Skewed
data
Data is spread symmetrically High concentration of data High concentration of data
around the middle towards the lower end towards the upper
and there is a high and data more spread out end and data more spread
concentration of data towards the upper out towards the lower
around end. end.
the mean. (mean = median) Also said to be “skewed to Also said to be “skewed to
the right” the left”
(mean > median) (mean < median)

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NOTE: The more skewed the data, the less reliable the mean becomes: If data is positively
skewed, mean tends to be too high; if data is negatively skewed, means tends to be too low.
The median remains reliable as a measure of tendency, regardless of skewness

Outliers
Outliers can occur as a result of:
• A chance phenomenon (e.g. a
person who is 2,1m tall)
• A measurement or recording error
• An experimental error

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Grouped Data
Grouped data is data that has been grouped into intervals.
The original, individual observations are not given, but only the number of observations in
each class. When given grouped data, we are not able to find the actual measures of central
tendency (mean, median and mode) We use statistical methods to find estimates of each.

Ogive Curve
The cumulative frequency at a specific value is the total number of frequencies that are
equal to or less than that value.

ESTIMATING THE MEAN ESTIMATING LOWER AND UPPER

QUARTILES
1. Calculate the position of the mean
using the formula 1/2𝑛 The same process is used to estimate
2. Read the 𝑥 value that corresponds to lower and upper quartiles.
that figure. The formulae to use are:
3. Read off the est. mean on the graph: Position of 𝑄1=1/4𝑛
Position of 𝑄3=3/4n

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Scatterplots

Scatterplot are used to show the

Line of best fit relationship between two data sets.
One variable is place on the 𝑥 axis and
one on the 𝑦 axis.
Corresponding values of the variables
are plotted as coordinates on the
Outlier Cartesian plane

LINE OF BEST FIT OUTLIERS

A line of best fit (“Trend Line”) goes through When a point is very far from the other
the centre of a scatterplot. The line of best points and/or the line of best fit, it is
fit can be used to predict unknown values considered an outlier

NON – LINEAR TRENDS

Quadratic Trend Exponential Trend

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