WAVES,

OPTICS
AND
THERMODYNAMICS
(PHYS1412)
WORKBOOK

Department of Physics
The University of the West Indies, Mona
TABLE OF CONTENTS

WAVES & OPTICS

Waves Part 1 W-1 Optics 1 W-26

Waves Part 2 W-7 Young’s Double Slit Experiment W-31

Waves Part 3 W-12 Thin Film Interference W-41

Wavefronts, Rays and Newtons’ Rings W-45

the Doppler Effect W-21
Diffraction W-48

HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Temperature H-1
Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas H-14
Ideal Gases H-2
Heat Engines and Efficiencies H-15
Heat H-3
Refrigerator H-19
Thermodynamics H-4
Entropy H-21
Kinetic Theory H-11
 W-1

WAVES – PART I

What is a wave? - A disturbance which enables information and energy to move from one point to
another without the need for a material object to travel the distance.

How is this different from a particle?

CLASSIFYING WAVES

There are different ways to classify waves. Let consider 3 ways below:

By Type
1) A Mechanical Wave - Waves that exist in a material medium and require the medium for
propagation.
 Examples:

 Ones most familiar with. Will use these to learn wave properties.
 Can apply Newton‟s laws.
2) Electromagnetic Waves – Require no material medium to exist or to propagate. Can travel
through a vacuum.
 Examples:

 All have the same speed in a vacuum, c =

 Will look later on some of these.
3) Matter Waves – Waves associated with atomic particles e.g. electrons, protons and other
fundamental particles.
 Think of particles as matters, hence the name.
 We will not examine.

We will concentrate on mechanical waves, but the principles dealt with will be generally
applicable to all types.

By the Motion of the Particles

Consider a mechanical wave e.g. on a string or on a spring. When the wave (disturbance) is created
and sent through the medium, the displaced particles of the medium will oscillate about their
immediate positions as the wave travels through the medium, but won‟t propagate the length of the
medium. How did we know this again?
They can oscillate in two ways with respect to the motion of the disturbance.

1) Transverse Wave – The displacement of the elements/particles of the medium is

to the direction of travel of the wave.

 Examples:

 Remember particles
displaced up and down.
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2) Longitudinal Wave - The displacement of the elements/particles of the medium is

to the direction of travel of the wave.
 Examples:

 Remember particle going side to side.

SOUND

SPRING

Note:
 In both cases, the particles are moving, and the wave is moving. (Remember this. It will
become important soon!) The particles therefore have a speed and the wave also has a
speed. Do you think the two speeds are the same?
 We will concentrate on transverse waves.

By the Motion of the Wave Form

1) Traveling Waves – If the wave form moves from one point to the
other it is called a traveling wave. We can further distinguish
between a pulse and a periodic wave.
a. Pulse – a (single) distortion/disturbance which moves
through the medium.
b. Periodic – Continuous. A wave consisting of cycles or
patterns that are repeated.

2) Standing Waves – If the wave form appears to be stationary, i.e.

you do not see a propagating wave. It is called a standing wave.
(We will return to this later!).
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Now that we know about different types of waves, let’s apply some physics. Can we write
an equation to characterize or describe a wave?

MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF A WAVE

We are going to make three provisions:

a) We are only considering transverse waves along a taut string, purely for ease of use. (Easy
to visualize). But the arguments are the same for longitudinal waves and for waves in other
media as well.

b) We are only considering propagation along an ideal string. So frictional effects that would
attenuate the wave as it travels are absent in the string. What would happen if we did not
ignore these effects?

c) We are assuming the string is long enough to ignore the rebounding (reflecting) of the wave
at the far end.

 The Equation:
Think of a wave on string. We want one equation that describes the wave. It therefore has to
describe the displacement (y position) of all the string particles (located in the x direction) and
how it changes with time (t) to allow the wave to propagate.
If you agree, the equation therefore has to be of the form:

where, y 

h 

If you were to choose a mathematical function that describes the shape of the wave you would
likely choose:

Therefore we write as the equation representing a traveling wave:

----- (1)

where, y(x,t) 

ym 

We’ll soon explain the other terms but let’s see why this is a really good equation for
describing the wave.

Note:
 The units of y are:
 Sin (kx ± ωt) varies between and ; so y can vary between and .
 If the wave is moving to the right we use ; if it is moving to the left we use .
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 The Beauty of this Equation:

If we fixed t, then => A SNAPSOT of the wave at that time.

What would this plot look like?

If we fixed x, then we would be looking at how the displacement (y) of a single wave particle
(located at x) varies with time.

What would this plot look like?

What about the other terms in the equation? Let’s examine.

 Wavelength and Angular Wave Number

Let us consider a wave moving to the right, at time t = 0, (note we have fixed t). A plot of this
wave would look like below. Do you agree?

A B

1) We can define the wavelength, as the distance, λ, parallel to the direction of the wave‟s
travel, between successive repetitions of the wave pattern. Units:
2) In diagram above, A and B are a wavelength apart, which also implies: yA yB
3) From equation (1) for these conditions (i.e. t = 0), we can write:

----(2)

4) We call k the angular wave number. Units:

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 Period and Angular Frequency

Let us consider a single particle (located at x = 0) on a wave moving to the right. (Note we have
now fixed x). A plot of this wave would look like below. Do you agree?

t1 t2

1) We can define the period, T, as:

Units:
2) An aside: We can also talk about the frequency, f, of a wave:

Units:
3) In diagram above, what can you say about the displacement of the particle at t1 and t2 ?

4) From equation (1) for these conditions (i.e. x = 0), we can write:

----(3)

5) We call ω the angular wave frequency. Units:

 Final Note on Wave Equation

The equation we have chosen to use i.e. equation (1) is a simple function that can be used to
represent a traveling wave. It is not the only possible representation however. The general wave
function is given by: y = f(x – vt).
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SUMMARY

General wave equation: y(x,t) = ymsin(kx ± ωt)

Where, y(x, t) 

ym 
k 
ω 

SAMPLE QUESTION 1

The wave function for a harmonic wave on a string is y(x,t) = (0.03m)sin(2.2x – 3.5t).
(a) In what direction is the wave traveling?
(b) What is the amplitude, wavelength, frequency, and period of the wave?
(c) Determine two locations on the string which have maximum displacement at t = 2
seconds.
 W-7

WAVES PART 2

Let’s now consider speeds associated with the propagating wave.

1. PHASE SPEED (in terms of other wave equation variables)

Consider (2 snapshots) used to illustrate a wave propagating to the right as shown.

It will have a speed, v,

called the phase speed of
the wave.
(Note: This is different
from the speed of the
particles).

Can we find an equation for v?

Note two things from the diagram above:

1) Every point on the wave form will be displaced Δx in time Δt.

... The average speed of the wave v =
.
. . Instantaneous speed of the wave, (i.e. t  0), v =

(Hmmm…. if we had a relationship telling us how x of the wave varies with time t
we could find v).

2) The wave travels without a shape change. . . . Any given point on the wave retains its y
displacement. Example: Point A at t = 0 and at t = Δt have the same y displacement.
(Note: Points on the string however do not retain their displacement).

From our wave equation:

For the displacements to be the same:

Oh, so now we have relationship for x as a function of time.

 W-8

So, from point 1):

---(1)

Note:
a. The units are dimensionally consistent. True?
b. The fact that (kx-ωt) = constant implies that as t increases, x has to increase.
Can you see? The choice of –ωt for motion to the right is justified!!
[Prove for yourself that if we started with a wave going to the left we would
have had (kx+ ωt) = constant. Therefore as t increases, x would have to
decrease i.e. the wave would be moving to the left.]
c. We also know that: ω = and k =

Therefore, v = ----(2)

2. PHASE SPEED (in terms of the properties of the medium)

It shouldn‟t be hard to see that the speed of a propagating wave should also be related to the
properties of the medium it is traveling in. After all:
o As the wave passes through the medium it must cause the particles in the medium to
oscillate by imparting energy (kinetic and potential energy).
o KE and PE associated with properties of the medium e.g. mass and elasticity.
o . . . Wave speed in one medium may not be the same as that in another medium having
different physical properties.

 For a wave on string: v   / ----(3)

τ  So speed depends on string

properties i.e. how taut and how
μ  dense the string is!!

 For other medium we get similar equations.

For speed of sound: v  B/  ----(4)
B 
o
vsound in air (20 C) = 343 m/s
o
vsound in water (20 C)
ρ 
= 1482 m/s
 W-9

Proof of Equation for Taut String

 Consider a pulse (or a segment of a wave) traveling from left to right with speed v.
 View the pulse and the string from a reference frame in which the pulse is at rest. In this frame,
the pulse is at rest and the string appears to move from right to left with speed v.

 Also now consider:

a. A very small length of the string, Δl, of mass Δm, at the top of the pulse.
b. Since the string is curved, the small element, Δl, can be considered as moving through a
part of an arc of a larger circle of radius R.
c. But anything moving in a circle is subject to a centripetal force, such that;
Fcentripetal =
Therefore for string element, Fcentripetal = -----(a)

If we can find Fcentripetal then we have an equation for v.

 Fcentripetal is the net force acting to the center of the circle.
Force acting on the element is: It acts on both ends.
On each side it can be resolved into horizontal component =
And a vertical component toward the centre O =
What happens to the two horizontal components?

... FNET to center =

... Fcentripetal =

Assuming small angles: Fcentripetal =

From our knowledge of radians: 2θ =

... Fcentripetal = ----(b)

 Equating (a) and (b):

 W-10

2. SPEED OF THE OSCILLATING PARTICLES/SEGMENTS OF THE MEDIUM

TRANSPORTING THE WAVE (STRING)

We know that string elements are displaced in the y-direction according to the wave equation:

We also know that instantaneous speed, v =

-----(5)
Is v for the particle constant?

What is the maximum value of v?

3. ENERGY AND POWER OF A WAVE

Consider a Snapshot of a traveling wave

 When a wave is set up on a stretched

string, energy is provided for the
oscillatory motion of the string
elements.
 As the wave moves away, it transports
that energy as both kinetic, K, and
elastic potential energy, U.

 At b, K and U are at maximum. Why?

 At a, K and U are at minimum. Why?

 Change in Kinetic Energy, dK associated with a string element of mass dm is given by;
dK =

 Rate of Change of the Kinetic Energy:

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 Average Rate at which Kinetic Energy is transported:

Can you see that this also an expression for average power due to KE?

 Average Power transmitted by the wave

Remember that energy transported by both U and K
But it turns out that average KE = average PE in an ideal oscillating system.
.
. . Paverage = (dK/dt)avg + (dU/dt)avg
= 2(dK/dt)avg
= ----(6)

Note: Energy and power are proportional to Amplitude2

CLASS QUESTION 2

Consider the wave function given before for a wave on a string i.e. y(x,t) = (0.03m)sin(2.2x – 3.5t).
(a) What is the phase speed of the wave?
(b) Derive the equation for the speed of a very short string segment.
(c) What is the maximum speed of a short string segment?
 W-12

WAVES PART 3

Interference and Superposition

Suppose two or more waves pass simultaneously through the same region. Example: Two
waves on a string or sound waves from two instruments. What will be expected to happen?

The phenomenon of combining waves is referred to as the interference.

Is there any way that we can find the resultant wave?
Yes (because physics simplifies things). But before we do so let us note some things!

 Phase Constant
The resultant wave will depend on the extent of shift of one wave with respect to the other
i.e. on the extent to which the waves are in phase or out of phase with respect to each other.

Consider the simplest case of two identical waves, located in the same space at a given time.
We can describe them by: y1 = ym sin(kx – ωt) and y2 = ym sin(kx – ωt + φ)

How did we know the waves were identical?

In the 2nd wave equation, φ, is called the phase constant. Since it is the only difference
between the 2 waves it tells how much y2 is out of phase with y1 i.e. it is the phase
difference between the 2 waves. φ is an angle usually given in radians.

Scenario One: φ = 0 rad (or 0o)

Physical meaning: Illustrating Implication for the

resultant amplitude:

 2 waves are exactly in

phase

 Known as fully
constructive
interference
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Scenario Two: φ = π rad (or 180o)

Physical meaning: Illustrating Implication for the

resultant amplitude:

 2 Waves are exactly out

of phase

 Known as fully
destructive
interference

Scenario Three: φ = 2π/3 rad (or 120o)

Physical meaning: Illustrating Implication for the

resultant amplitude:

 Neither crests and

crests or crests and
troughs exactly overlap.

 Known as intermediate
interference

Back to our original question:

Can we write an equation for the resultant wave? Of course we can!
CASE ONE:
 W-14

If we have two identical waves (same amplitude, frequency and wavelength) traveling the
same space in the same direction, with a phase difference of φ between them.

We can represent our two waves by:

We can find an equation for the resultant wave using the Principle of Superposition.
Principle of Superposition: When several effects occur simultaneously, the resultant effect
is the sum of the individual effects.
So for 2 waves in the same space: yR = y1 + y2  Principle of Superposition

... yR = y1 + y2
Two Trig Identities
= A B A B
sin A  sin B  2 sin cos
2 2
= cos(-A) = cos(A)

Note that {2 ym cos½ φ} is a constant. Why?

Let yRm = {2 ym cos½ φ}
... yR = -----(1)

Note the following:

1. We could only use this method (i.e. the Trig Identity) because we could factor out ym.
2. We get back a wave! Equation for the resultant looks like our previous wave equations.
3. The resultant for this case has the same wavelength and frequency as the two interfering
waves, and travels in the same direction. How did we know this?
4. In comparison to the first wave the resultant is phase shifted by
5. The resultant has a new amplitude given by: yRm =
i. Suppose φ = 0 rad i.e.
yR =
True for Φ = n2π, n = 0, 1, 2 etc., an integer
ii. Suppose Φ = π rad i.e.
yR =
True for Φ = nπ, n = 1, 3, 5 etc., odd integer
 W-15

CLASS QUESTION 3
A wave given by y1 = 0.2 sin(4πx - 60 πt) interferes with a wave given by y2 = 0.2 sin(4πx - 60
πt + π/2). What is the equation of the resultant wave?

CASE TWO:
If we have two waves (same frequency and wavelength) traveling the same space in the
same direction, with a phase difference of φ but with different amplitudes!!!

We can represent our two waves by:

Can‟t use previous method i.e. the Trig Identity! Why?

We use the Phasor Method.

 Says that all waves can be represented by a phasor.
 A phasor is a vector that has a magnitude equal to the amplitude of the wave.
 A phasor also has an angle above the x-axis which equals to the argument of the sin
function in the wave equation.
 A phasor rotates about the x and y axes with an angular speed equal to the angular
frequency of the wave.

We can therefore represent y1 and y2 as vectors drawn below.

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We can now easily get the resultant wave yR by adding the two vectors.
We know the resultant will be a
wave and therefore will have an
equation given by:
yR = yRm sin (kx –ωt + β).

Label on the diagram:

 yRm
 β

The resultant wave still has the

same k and ω of the original
waves!

CLASS QUESTION 4
A wave given by y1 = 3 sin(4πx - 60 πt) interferes with a wave given by y2 = 4 sin(4πx - 60 πt +
π/2). What is the equation of the resultant wave?

CASE THREE (Standing Waves):

If we have two identical waves (same amplitude, frequency and wavelength) traveling the
same space but in opposite directions. (For simplicity there is no phase difference).

We can represent our two waves by:

We can again find an equation for the resultant wave using the Principle of Superposition.
Why can we go back to this method i.e. using the Trig Identities?
 W-17

... yR = y1 + y2

-----(2)

This is an interesting equation! Compare to original wave equation.

 There is no ± ωt in the sin term =>
 Called a Standing Wave. Looks like below.

 y” is the amplitude of oscillation of a particle located at x. Do all particles of a

standing wave have the same amplitude?

 Consider what happens when kx = nπ, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. At these points

(irrespective of the value of t) :
y” =

So points that satisfy kx = nπ are always at rest. These points are called nodes.
And nodes occur when x = nπ/k
Now, k = 2π/λ,
. . . nodes occur when x = -----(3)
Nodes occur every half of a wavelength.
 W-18

 Consider also points where kx = (n + ½ )π, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.

y” =

These points that can achieve amplitude 2ym are called antinodes. (Note this can
also be stated as: The amplitude of the antinodes = 2ym).
So antinodes satisfy kx = (n + ½ )π
Now, k = 2π/λ
. . . antinodes occur when x =

-----(4)
Antinodes also occur every half of a wavelength.
 Because the wave is not propagating, the positions of nodes and antinodes never
change!
 A standing wave on a stretched string (string with clamped ends) can be set up by
letting a traveling wave be reflected from the far end of the string. In this situation
the reflected wave travels back with the same amplitude, wavelength and combines
with the incident wave to produce a standing wave pattern.

Resonance

Before we leave the principle of interference, let us consider the case of a string stretched
between two clamps (so there is tension in the string), and a continuous sinusoidal wave of
a certain frequency is sent along the string. So for example as below:

The wave travels from one end to the other,

gets reflected and returns to the first end. It then
gets reflected from the first end and then
reflected again at the second end, and the
process continues. At the same time, the source
is also generating more sinusoidal waves. In a
short time there will be many waves of the
same amplitude going back and forth. The waves interfere and (as expected) produce a
standing wave pattern, which is also called an oscillation mode.

If we vary the frequencies of the waves (e.g. by varying the frequency of the source) we
will notice that at certain frequencies, the interference produces a standing wave pattern
with clear (very distinct) nodes and antinodes, with the antinodes also having very large
amplitudes. When this occurs we say that the string is in resonance with the applied
frequencies. So at resonance we get a distinct standing wave pattern with large amplitudes
for the antinodes.
 W-19

Question: What happens at other non resonant frequencies? Think of the lab!

There are many resonant frequencies. Three are shown below:

Note the following:

1. In (a), the first oscillation mode for resonance is shown. (Remember the two ends
are fixed and therefore are constrained to be nodes). The first resonance mode has
only one antinode at the centre.
. . . The wavelength has to satisfy: L = ½λ . Can you see why?
2. In (b), the second oscillation mode is shown. There are two antinodes.
. . . The wavelength has to satisfy: L = 2 (½λ) = λ
3. In (c), the third oscillation mode is shown. There are three antinodes.
. . . The wavelength has to satisfy: L = 3 (½λ) = (3/2)λ
4. Generalising, for the nth oscillation mode, there are n antinodes.
. . . The wavelength has to satisfy:

... The wavelength of the standing wave for the nth oscillation mode is given by:
λ =

Now, f =
... Resonant frequencies are given by:

-----(5)
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5. For a given stretched string, you can change the frequency at which a resonance
mode will occur by altering the tension in the string. Can you see why?

6. For a given stretched string, the lowest resonant frequency is achieved when n =1. It
is f = v/2L. Other resonant frequencies are integer multiples of this lowest
frequency.
7. The oscillation mode at this lowest frequency is termed the fundamental mode, or
the first harmonic (associated with musical instruments).
8. Therefore n=2 corresponds to the second harmonic; n=3 is the third harmonic, etc.

CLASS QUESTION 5
An oscillator of frequency 300 Hz sets up standing waves on a taut string which is clamped at
both ends. The wave speed for the string is 200 m/s. The standing wave pattern was observed
to have 5 loops and the amplitude was measured as 4.0 mm. (i) Determine the wavelength of
the wave and the length of the string? (ii) Also obtain an equation for the displacement of the
string as a function of position and time.
 W-21

Wavefronts, Rays and the Doppler Effect

Wavefronts and Rays

So far we have used a wave on a string to illustrate most of the wave principles. We will
now look at representing a wave via wavefronts and rays. This will be useful when we
examine sound waves and optic phenomena.

Wavefronts: Surfaces over which the oscillations of the particles of the medium
transporting the wave (e.g. air) have the same value.
Rays: Directed lines perpendicular to the wavefronts that indicate the direction of
travel of the wavefronts.

a) Spherical Wavefronts: Consider a point source S. It emits (for e.g. sound) in all
directions. We represent the direction of travel and the spread of the waves by the
diagram shown below.

o The spherical lines are the wavefronts.

o Wavefronts are like contours of a
specified value of displacement of the
particle e.g. the amplitude.
o Therefore distance between wavefronts
=

o Because of the 3 dimensional nature, the

wavefronts are spherical.
o The farther from the source the curvature gets less.
o Rays are perpendicular to the wavefronts.
o If the wave is a sound wave, the particles of air oscillate parallel to the direction
of the ray.

b) Planar Wavefronts: Consider 5th point above. Sufficiently far away the source, the
curvature becomes so gradual that the wavefront is like a straight line. Wavefronts
represented by straight lines are called planar wavefronts.
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Doppler Effect

 Consider a police car with a blaring siren. You are standing at your gate. What do you
hear:
(i) When the car is far away?
(ii) As the car approaches?
(iii) After the car passes you and is driving away.

 The Doppler Effect is the change/modification in the observed frequency of a wave that
occurs when the source (e.g. the car) or the detector, or both move relative to the
transmitting medium (air). (However: If the transmitting medium is stationary then it
can be seen as due to relative motion between the detector and source).

The difference between the actual frequency and the observed frequency is called the
Doppler Shift.

The Doppler Effect holds for sound waves, electromagnetic waves including
microwaves, radio waves, and even visible light. Practical uses: Astronomy, and more
importantly in speed traps.

 We are only going to consider sound waves.

 Can we write an equation for the frequency we hear relative to the actual frequency?
f’  f 

vD  vS 

v

In writing this equation we have assumed that the transmitting medium is air and air is
at rest with respect to ground.

How do we use the equation?

a) Note first that the detector controls the numerator. The source controls the
denominator.
b) Now consider the motion of the detector and source independently (i.e. irrespective
of what the other is doing) and its effect on f to determine the correct sign.
c) So (for example) consider first the detector:
 If the detector is moving toward the source, we expect the frequency of the
sound heard to be getting higher/lower i.e. f ‘ is increasing/decreasing.
Detector can only achieve this by sign in numerator. Why?
 If the detector is moving away from the source, we expect the frequency of the
sound heard to be higher/lower i.e. f ‘ is increasing/decreasing.
Detector can only achieve this by sign in numerator. Why?
 W-23

d) Consider now the source:

 If the source is moving toward the detector, we expect the frequency of the
sound heard to be higher/lower i.e. f ‘ is increasing/decreasing.
Source can only achieve this by sign in denominator. Why?

 If the source is moving away from the detector, we expect the frequency of the
sound heard to be higher/lower i.e. f ‘ is increasing/decreasing
Source can only achieve this by sign in denominator. Why?

Note then that toward => Doppler shift up to higher frequencies. Away from => Doppler
shift down to lower frequencies.

CLASS QUESTION 6

Write the equation to describe the scenarios below. (Remember consider what detector is doing
irrespective of what the source is doing and its effect on f and vice versa).

Source Detector Equation Source Detector Equation

0 speed
(a) (d)

0 speed
(b) (e)

(c) (f)

Using Wavefront analysis to prove the Doppler Equation

(a) Detector and Source Stationary

 No Doppler Effect. Why?

 The detector is represented by an ear.

 Wavefronts are drawn one wavelength apart.
 Waves move with speed v.
 vt/λ is the no. of wavefronts moving to right over time t
 In time, t, the frequency is the rate at which
wavefronts are intercepted by the detector i.e. f = no of wavefronts/ t
=
 W-24

=
Did you expect this solution?

(b) Detector Moving to Stationary Source

 In time t, the detector intercepts waves moving to

right plus an additional amount of wavelengths due
to its motion to the left.
 Additional amount = vD t/λ.
 Therefore, frequency is now the new rate of
interception of wavelengths:
i.e f’ =

Could do the same if detector had been moving away from the source i.e. would
intercept less wavefronts so: f’ =

v  vD
Generalizing:
f ' f -----(1)
v

(c) Source Moving to Stationary Detector

 Source moving from position S1 to S7

 Detector stationary, source moving with vS
 W1 emitted when at S1
 Consider one period, T , later.
 By then source moves to S2 and emits W2.
 One more period later the source moves to S3
by which time it emits W3.
 What do you notice about distance between
wavefronts on right side (i.e. near to
detector)?

 But distance between wavefronts is the

 The motion of S is changing the wavelength of the sound waves heard by the detector
and therefore the frequency heard by the detector.
 W-25

 The new wavelength λ‟ = distance between wavefronts

= vT - vST

Hence new frequency f’ = v /λ’

Could do the same if source had been moving away from the detector (put detector on left
side of diagram). Therefore motion of S causes wavelengths to increase:
f’ = fv/(v+vS)

v
f ' f
Generalizing: v  vS -----(2)

Combining two scenarios we get the general equation for the Doppler Effect which we
noted before.
v  vD
f ' f
v  vS

Reading Assignment: Read on “beats” from your text or from any other text.
 W-26

OPTICS 1

We turn our attention to optics and will spend the rest of our time examining light. We will
look at a couple of phenomenon which show that light is a wave. We start with Refraction.

Refraction

 What is it? When light travels through an interface/surface that separates two media
(e.g. air and water) it is refracted. Unless the incident ray was perpendicular to the
surface, refraction is evident by the bending of the light ray. The bending occurs at the
surface and the light travels in a straight line after being bent.

 Refractive Index: We assign different media a number which we will refer to as its
index of refraction, n. It is the factor by which the phase velocity is slowed down in the
material.

n = c/v c

v

Some common values for n

Vacuum 1 Air 1.00029 ≈ 1
Water 1.33 Sodium chloride 1.54
Crown glass 1.52 Diamond 2.42

 Illustrating Refraction: Consider the three scenarios below. Note for each we can
identify an incident ray, a refracted ray, and the normal. What is the normal?

(a) If n1 = n2

(b) If n1 < n2

(c) If n1 > n2
 W-27

 Law of Refraction:
-----(1)

Can you see that it satisfies the three scenarios illustrated above?

 Effect of Refraction on Frequency and Wavelength

o Note that refraction does not change the frequency of the light wave. So the
frequency of light is the same in both media!
o HOWEVER, n1/n2 =

o Therefore, not only is the speed less when you go into a more optically dense
medium (i.e. n2 > n1) but the wavelength is also !!!
o If medium 1 is air (often the case):

Okay, so we know about Refraction. We need to be able to prove the Law of

Refraction. To do so however he need to know Huygens’ Principle.

Huygens’ Principle

 Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens (1678) suggested a principle which allows us to

account for refraction in terms of wave motion i.e. cements that light is also wavelike.
 Principle: All points on a wavefront serve as point sources of spherical secondary
wavelets. After a time, t, the new position of the wavefront will be that of a surface
tangent to the secondary wavelets.

 Line ab is a wavefront
 Points on line ab maybe considered
as secondary sources (labeled
1,2,3,4…).
1
 After time Δt, the wave from
2 secondary source 1 will spread out
(spherical wavefront  called a
3
wavelet).
4
 Same for secondary sources 2, 3,
4… (after same time Δt)
 After time Δt we can draw a line
tangential to each wavelet (line de)
 That line is the new position of the
wavefront after time Δt.
 W-28

Using Huygen’s Principle to Prove the Law of Refraction

Note: See diagram.

1. Let n2 > n1.
2. AB is a wavefront. From Huygen’s
Principle, A and B can be considered
secondary sources.
3. In time t, the secondary wavelet from
B will travel to D (a distance v1t).
4. In the same time t, the secondary
wavelet from A will travel to C (a
distance v2t).
5. v2t < v1t. Why?

6. But Huygen’s Principle says we can find the new position of the wavefront at a later
time by drawing the tangent to the wavelets. The new wavefront after time t is given by
CD. Can you see that the wavefront has to be bent?

7. Since rays are perpendicular to wavefronts, the refracted ray has also bent.

8. Proving Equation (1)

a. Consider triangle ABD:
Angle BAD = 1 Go and Prove!
Therefore sin1 = ----(i)

b. Consider triangle ACD: Go and Prove!

Angle ADC = 2
Therefore sin2 = ----(ii)

c. Eliminating AD from (i) and (ii)

 W-29

Revisiting Phase Difference

Knowledge of Refraction allows us to revisit phase difference. When did we meet before?

Consider two rays of monochromatic light entering two media as illustrated below. The
refractive indices are not the same, but the length L is the same for both media.

When the rays emerge from the media, the

n1 two waves may not be in phase. Why?

n2
Let‟s assume wavelength in air is λ and also
that n2 > n1 .

To find the phase difference between the two waves:

Determine the no. of wavelengths in medium 1, N1 =

Determine the no. of wavelengths in medium 2, N2 =

Subtract the smaller from the larger:

Phase difference =

Note:
a) In this case the phase difference will come out to a decimal e.g. 43.6. The decimal
represents the number of wavelengths one wave is ahead of the other. So phase
difference can be expressed in terms of wavelength.
b) We often speak of the effective phase difference (BUT only when phase difference
is being expressed in terms of wavelength). For the above example in a) the
effective phase difference is 0.6. Why?

c) We can convert a phase difference written in terms of wavelength to radians to

degrees. How?
 W-30

CLASS QUESTION 7
In the same figure above, let the light rays have wavelength 550.0 nm before entering the media. If
medium 1 is now air and medium 2 is a transparent plastic layer of index of refraction 1.600 and
thickness 2.600 μm, determine (a) the wavelength of the wave in the plastic (b) the phase difference of
the emerging waves in wavelengths and in radians. Also suggest what type of interference the waves
would produce at a point on the screen if they were slightly angled so that they met.

Diffraction

If a wave encounters a barrier that has an opening of dimensions similar to the wavelength,
the part of the wave that passes through the opening will flare (spread) out into regions
beyond the barrier. The flaring out of the wave is referred to as diffraction.

(Note then that we cannot form a ray of light by passing it through a very small hole, as the
smaller the hole the greater the diffraction). We will meet again later. But we need to
appreciate for principle we are examining next.
 W-31

YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

In 1801, Tomas Young experimentally proved that light is a wave. He did this by proving
that light waves can interfere. We will examine his experiment and note 7 important things
about the experiment. Let‟s go!

1. Important Thing One – The Experiment

Below is an experimental set up (similar to but not exactly like Young‟s experiment) to
study interference. Let us identify the parts numbered 1 through 5.

P
2 P
1 S1
4
3
L
S2 D

5
Screen

1 S is a monochromatic source of light i.e.

2 Planar wavefronts.

3 Two narrow slits (S1 and S2).

What do you know about the light waves reaching S1 and S2?

What do you know about the light waves leaving S1 and S2?

4 Two light rays, one from each slit, heading to a distant point P.
Do the two light rays above travel the same distance?

5 Screen located a distance L away from the slits.

 W-32

The pattern seen on the screen is shown in the diagram to the right. Describe it:

2. Important Thing Two – Explaining what we see on the Screen

The bands are referred to as fringes. The pattern of alternating bright and dark fringes on the
screen is called the interference pattern. How do we get these fringes?

a) Consider first the central bright fringe.

 The waves from the two slits interfere at the centre of the
screen.
 Were they initially in phase?
 Do they travel the same distance?
 Are they in phase at the center of the screen?
 Hence what do you expect to see?

L
D

b) Now consider another bright fringe i.e. not located at the center of the screen.

 The waves from the two slits interfere on the screen.

 Were they initially in phase?
 Do they travel the same distance?
 Are they in phase at the point of their interference on the
screen?
 What can you say about the extra distance (or path
difference) traveled by the wave from S2?

LD
D
Dark
(destructive
interference)

c) Now consider a dark fringe on the screen.

 The waves from the two slits interfere on the screen.
 Were they initially in phase?
 Do they travel the same distance?
 Are they in phase at the point of their interference on the
screen?
 What can you say about the extra distance (or path L
(c) D
difference) traveled by the wave from S2?
 W-33

3. Important Thing Three – An Equation (Physics Making Life Easy!)

Consider again the experimental set up shown below.

P Note:
 d is the distance
1 between the slits.
 b is the path
difference.
S1
 L is the slit to
2 screed distance.

 L >> d (Under this
d O condition, ray 1,
X ray 2, and the line
OP are taken as
S2 b = path difference Central axis parallel).
 Line S1X is
perpendicular to
ray 2.
L

 For constructive interference (i.e. bright fringes): b =

But from triangle S1XS2 : path difference, b =

Therefore for constructive interference:

 For destructive interference (i.e. dark fringes): b =

But from triangle S1XS2 : path difference, b =

Therefore for destructive interference:

A Note on the Order of the Fringes: The index m above is known as the order of the
fringes. It describes the order/sequence of fringes on the screen. The central fringe or central
maximum (where the central axis meets the screen) corresponds to m= 0 (zero order). The
next bright fringe on either side of the central one corresponds to m =1. They are also
known as the first order bright fringes/maxima. The next pair (m = 2) are the second order
fringes and so on. In a similar manner we can identify 1st order minima, 2nd order etc.
 W-34

A Note on Phase Difference:

Remember we said we could define phase difference in terms of wavelengths or radians (or
degrees). In the above diagram, for rays 1 and 2:
Phase difference in wavelengths =

Therefore, phase difference in radians, φ =

For maxima: φ = =

For minima: φ = =

4. Important Thing Four – Another Equation but for the Fringe Separation

The distance between adjacent bright (or dark) fringes is constant. Can we come up with an
equation for the distance between the fringes? Of course we can! Look again on the
diagram.

P
1
Note also:
Ym  Let P be the mth
S1 bright fringe.
2  Let Ym be the
 distance from the
d O Q central axis to P.
X  From geometry,
angle POQ is also
S2 b = path difference Central axis equal to 

For the mth bright fringe:

From triangle POQ: tan =

Recall we also knew from Important Thing Three that:

d sin =
 W-35

If we assume that the angle  is small (reasonable if L >> d), then

tan ≈ sin

-----(1)

 By the same logic, we can write for the m+1 bright fringe:

 Therefore the separation of the fringes, ∆Y, is given by:

-----(2)

Note:
1. We would have gotten the same answer by considering the mth and (m+1)th dark
fringes.
2. Equation 3 is an important equation. It tells us the position of the mth bright fringe
on the screen. However we can only use it if the small angle approximation is true
i.e. L >> d!!
If the question does not suggest this or explicitly say so (i.e. you can’t assume the
small angle approximation), could you still find Ym?

3. The equivalent equation to (1) for the mth dark fringe is:
4. Note the difference between Ym in equation (1) and ∆Y in equation (2).

CLASS QUESTION 8
A screen containing two slits 0.100 mm apart is 1.20 m from the viewing screen. Light of wavelength
500 nm falls on the slits from a distance source. Approximately how far apart will the bright
interference be on the screen? Use the small angle approximation.
 W-36

CLASS QUESTION 9

Red light of wavelength 664 nm (in vacuum/air) is used in Young’s double slit experiment. The slits
separation is 0.120 mm. The screen is located at a distance of 2.75 m from the slits. Find the distance Y
on the screen between the central maxima and the 3rd order bright fringe.

5. Important Thing Five – This thing called Coherence

Suppose the phase difference of the 2 light waves reaching the screen at a point P was
constantly changing with time (i.e. from in phase to out of phase back to in phase, etc.).
What would you expect to see on the screen?

Therefore, a condition required to obtain fringes (interference pattern) is the existence of a

phase difference that does not vary with time. When the phase difference does not vary with
time, the light from the slits S1 and S2 are said to be completely coherent.

Note then that we ensured coherency by making the light from S1 and S2 come from the
same wavefront. Light from an incandescent light bulb is not coherent. So we couldn‟t
achieve fringes by replacing the slits with two light bulbs.

6. Important Thing Six – White Light as the Source

Suppose S is a source of white light. Interference is still possible because white light from a
suitable source satisfies the requirement of coherence. However white light contains all the
various colours of the spectrum (ROYGBIV), and each colour corresponds to a different
wavelength.

What does each colour produce individually on the screen?

Is the fringe separation the same for each colour (λred ≈ 660 nm, λviolet ≈ 410 nm)?

What would you expect to see at the center of the screen?

 W-37

What would you expect to see on the screen?

On either side of the central maximum, there is one

group of coloured fringes for m =1, and another for m
= 2 so on. Inside any group of coloured fringes, red is
farthest from the central maximum, and violet is closest
to the central maximum. Why?

7. Important Thing Seven –Intensity

Though we say alternating bright and dark fringes, it is really bright fading into dark, back
to bright, etc. How bright will the central bright be in comparison to the light from one
source? Can we write an equation for intensity? Of course we can!!
First however we must digress and examine briefly light as an electromagnetic (EM) wave.

Light waves are electromagnetic waves (EM waves).

 They do not require a medium to propagate. They can travel in vacuum.
 All EM waves have the speed c = 299 792 458 m/s (≈ 3.0 x 108 m/s) in vacuum.
 EM waves consist of an electric component (E field) and a magnetic component (B
field). The two components are mutually perpendicular. They co-exist.

 E field is in the y
direction. The B
field is in the z
x direction. The
wave propagates
y
in the x direction.

 E = Em sin(kx –
wt)

 B = Bm sin(kx –
wt)

z  Em and Bm are
the amplitudes of
the fields.
 From EM theory. Intensity is the measure of energy per unit time per unit area. For an
EM wave it is proportional to the E field‟s amplitude squared.
 W-38

Back to Intensity in double slit interference.

We assume that the slits are very narrow in comparison to the wavelength. When this is the
case the intensity of light from a single source is essentially uniform over the region of the
screen in which we wish to examine the pattern. That is, especially, around the central
region.

 Consider for point P on the screen where the two light rays meet.

Let the E-field for light ray 1 be given by: E1 = Eo sin (kx - wt)
Let the E-field for light ray 2 be given by: E2 = Eo sin (kx - wt + φ)

Why the same amplitude Eo?

Why φ for light ray 2?

Then at P, the resultant E wave is given by:

Suppose the E waves didn’t have the same amplitude, how would you determine ER?

Hence, the amplitude of the E wave at P is given by:

-----(1)

 Now we know that Intensity is proportional to the E-wave amplitude squared.

So: Intensity due to one source, Io  Eo2

And: Intensity due to the resultant, I  ERm2

 I / Io = ERm2/ Eo2

-----(2)
Note: This is an idealized result and true really for the interference of any 2 light rays of
same amplitude i.e. irrespective of how they meet.
 W-39

For Maxima: φ = m2

φ /2 =

 I = Imax =

 Note: We could therefore have written our intensity equation in terms of Imax, i.e.

For Minima: φ = (m+½)2

φ /2 =

 I = Imin =

 Also don‟t forget that for Young‟s Double Slit Experiment φ = 2πd(sinθ) / λ

φ /2 =

 General intensity pattern:

 W-40

CLASS QUESTION 10
In a Young’s double slit experiment the slits-to-screen distance is 2.2 m and the slit separation is 0.3
mm. The bright lines on the screen are found to be 4.4 mm apart.
(a) Determine the colour of the lines
(b) What is the relative intensity (in terms of Imax) on the screen at a point 1.1 mm from the central
maximum?
 W-41

Thin-Film Interference

In optics so far, we have been examining interference. As we have seen, interference results
from two light waves meeting that have a path (or phase) difference between them.

So far we have seen that we can get a path difference between two light rays by:
1) Having one ray travel through a different medium. The wavelength of the ray
changes due to the medium. When the two rays meet they have traveled through a
different no. of wavelengths.
2) Having one travel a greater distance than the other in the same medium (e.g.
Young‟s Double Slit).

It turns out that we can also cause a phase change by reflecting light (but some conditions
apply). We need to know this to examine thin film interference. So let‟s examine first!!!!

The Effect of Reflection on Light Rays

 Light is reflected at the interface between two media.

 If the light is moving from n1 to n2 and n1 < n2 then the
reflected light ray undergoes a phase shift of π radians
or half a wavelength.
o If it were a wave on string meeting a hard
surface (e.g. wall), the reflected wave would
be inverted at the point of reflection.
 If the light is moving from n1 to n2 and n1 > n2 then the
reflected light ray does not undergo a phase shift.

Quick Question

1
Case Phase Shift n1
Ray1 Ray 2
n1<n2 & n2 < n3 n2 2

n1<n2 & n2 > n3 n3

n1>n2 & n2 > n3

 W-42

Thin Films

Now we are ready to examine thin film interference.

 Referring to a thin transparent film of uniform thickness, L, and refractive index n2.
 Film usually exists in between two other media n1 and n3 e.g. oil film on water (air is the
third medium).
 Film is illuminated by bright light of wavelength λ from a distant point source.

A) Case One: n1 < n2 & n2 > n3

 In the diagram which is the thin film?

 Trace the light rays through the top layer and
the thin film only!! n1
 Rays 1 and 2 on trace will interfere.
 Assume that the angle of incidence is very n2 L
small ≈ 0. Therefore, Path difference between
rays 1 and 2 due to travel in thin film (i.e. not
considering reflection) = 2L n3
 Will observer see constructive (bright) or
destructive (dark) when looking down into the
thin film (i.e. between rays 1 and 2)?

Answer depends on the path difference between rays 1 and 2 + the phase shift in
light rays on reflection!!!

 If due to reflection alone, rays 1 and 2 would be out of phase by 0.5 wavelength.
Agree?

Therefore, for Constructive interference:

Path difference due to travel in thin film =
OR =
OR =

And for Destructive interference:

Path difference due to travel in thin film =
OR =
OR =
 W-43

 These are not what we are used to seeing for constructive and destructive interference.
 These are not universal equation to be applied to all thin film questions!!!

B) Case Two: n1 < n2 & n2 < n3

 Diagram would be identical above.

 Will observer see constructive (bright) or destructive (dark) when looking down into the
thin film (i.e. between rays 1 and 2)?

Again the answer depends on the path difference between rays 1 and 2 + the
phase shift in light rays on reflection!!!

 If due to reflection: rays 1 and 2 will be in phase.

Agree?

Therefore, for Constructive interference:

Path difference due to travel in thin film =
OR =
OR =

Therefore, for Destructive interference:

Path difference due to travel in thin film =
OR =
OR =

 With thin films, you must first examine what reflection does, then formulate the
appropriate equations for constructive and destructive interference!!!

Interference from a thin wedge of air (wedge film):

We can use the concepts of thin films to explain the interference pattern seen when you
have a thin wedge of air. (You should remember this from the lab).

Setup:
 There are two glass plates touching at one end and separated by a sheet of paper (or a
wire) at the other end.
 The air between the glass plates is the thin film. It is between two glass layers.
 Same arguments apply as above e.g. incidence again is nearly perpendicular.
 W-44

What do we expect to see?

Explaining the pattern

 If we trace the rays they look like below. This is very similar to Case A.

 So if we examine rays 1 and 2

due to reflection alone, do we
expect them to be in or put of
phase?

Therefore, for constructive interference:

And for destructive interference:

 BUT the thickness, t, of the film changes as we move from the left edge where the two
glass plates meet. Therefore as we move from left edge out, the condition for destructive
and constructive interference will be alternately satisfied, hence the pattern seen.
 Note that the mth order bright fringe is actually the (m+1)th bright fringe. Why?

 Note we could write the above equations in terms of l and θ, where l is the distance from
the point of meeting of the two glass slides to the bright or dark fringe, and θ is the
angle made by the glass slide with the horizontal.
Equations:
 W-45

CLASS QUESTION 11
A broad beam of light of wavelength 683 nm is sent
directly downward through the top plate of a pair of
glass plates as shown. The refractive index of glass =
1.5. The plates are 120 mm long, touch at the left end,
and are separated by a wire of diameter 0.048 mm at
the right end. The air between the plates acts as a thin
film. (i) Calculate the maximum order possible for the
bright fringes. (ii) How many bright fringes occur between the wire and the place where the two plates
touch? (iii) What is the nature of the fringe (bright or dark) at the place of contact of the plates? Give
reasons.

Newton’s Rings

This is another example of thin film interference (you also have met this in the lab).

Setup:
 As shown in the diagram. Curved glass surface (lens) on a glass block.
 This is very similar to the wedge of air example just done. Again air acts like a thin
film, between two glass surfaces.
 R is the radius of curvature of the lens.
 The thickness d of the air film changes as you move away from center.
 We assume d <<< R
 Expect to see interference pattern, but as concentric circles (due to curvature).

1 2
1
 W-46

Explanation

 Due to reflection alone, do we expect rays 1 and 2 to be in or out of phase?

 Therefore, conditions for interference are as follows:

Constructive interference:
Destructive interference: m = 0, 1, 2, 3……….

 We can determine the radius for the mth bright fringe (ring).

Let its radius be rm

From the geometry: (R-d)2 + rm2 = R2

 For Bright Rings: rm = [(m + ½)λR] ½

 For Dark rings: we would have used 2d = mλ

Therefore: rm = [m λR] ½

 Separation of the fringes:

Bright rings: Δr = rm+1 - rm

Dark rings: Δr = rm+1 - rm

For large m i.e. m >> 1

Δr = ½{λR/m}½
 W-47

CLASS QUESTION 12

For a Newton’s rings setup, R = 10 m and the diameter of the lens is 4 cm.
(a) How many bright fringes would you see if the apparatus was illuminated by yellow sodium light
(λ = 590 nm)?
(b) What would be the diameter of the 6th bright fringe?
(c) If glass has an index of refraction, n = 1.5 and water (n = 1.33) is placed between the two
pieces of glass, what change will take place in the bright fringe pattern?
 W-48

DIFFRACTION

 We met diffraction before! We said it was the spreading, flaring or bending of

light waves when they meet a narrow aperture. What condition?
 It turns out that the light that is getting diffracted can undergo interference and
produce a pattern called the diffraction pattern on a screen suitably placed at
some distance from the obstacle.
 The diffraction pattern is not unlike the interference pattern (see below).
Consists of bright and dark fringes.

 Phenomenon can be explained using Huygens’ Principle .

 Light can also be diffracted by edges (i.e. does not have to go through a slit).

Diffraction patterns due to a (a) solid disc (b) razor blade (c) narrow slit.

(a) (b) (c)

Single Slit diffraction:

 Consider monochromatic light

P passing through a narrow slit of
width a. (Just like example c
above)
a θ
L  The viewing screen is far away
from the slit; L >> a
 W-49

 Diffraction pattern is shown in the previous figure (i.e. figure „c‟). How would you
describe it?

Pattern consists of a fairly broad maximum, and after that alternate dark, and bright
fringes of intensity less than the central maximum. The maxima of low intensity are
known as secondary/side maxima. Secondary maxima are located approximately
half way between the minima.

How does this differ from the Young’s Double Slit pattern?

 The typical intensity variation (as described above) is given by the figure below:

We can write an equation to first describe

the phenomena. Can you see that if we
write an equation for the location of the
minima we have essentially described the
phenomena?
y

It turns out (and we will prove below) that

for minima:

a sinθ = mλ ; m = 1, 2, 3…
----(1)
L a 

θ 

If we assume the small angle approximation, then: a sinθ ≈ tanθ

----(2)

 We can also write an equation (will not prove) for the intensity of the light at any point
on the screen:

 sin  
2
 a sin Im 
I  Im   ; where   
   2 
 W-50

Let us try to explain how the single slit diffraction pattern arises.

The figure below illustrates the different possible scenarios that we can hypothesize.

a a

(a) Central broad (b) 1st Dark (c) 1st bright (d) 2nd Dark
maximum, θ = 0 sinθ = λ/a sinθ = 3λ/2a sinθ = 2λ/a

(a)   Represents the scenario corresponding to the central broad maximum.

 All waves/rays passing are in phase. Rays are nearly parallel. Thus they
interfere constructively and produce a bright fringe at the center.
 However not all the waves are exactly in phase, in fact some have path
difference of 0.000λ as opposed to exactly zero (near the edges). In this case,
interference is very nearly constructive but not full, but we can‟t tell the
difference). These tend to produce less bright fringes around the center of the
screen and cause the decrease in the intensity as one move away from the
center.
 Thus a somewhat broad central maximum is seen.

(b)   Represents the scenario corresponding to the first minimum.

 The deviation angle (deviation of rays from the dotted central line) θ is such
that the path difference for the ray from the top and the bottom is exactly one
wavelength (λ) when they reach the screen. So how dark?
 Mentally divide the slit into two. The path difference between the ray passing
through the center of the slit and the one at the bottom is ½λ . They interfere
destructively.
 Similarly, the next ray above the bottom one will interfere destructively with
the next ray above the central ray. This pairing continues and the result is a
dark fringe on the screen for this scenario.
 Similar arguments hold for the first dark fringe on the right hand side.
 The geometry suggests: a sinθ = λ
(c)   Represents the scenario corresponding to the first secondary maximum on
the left hand side.
 Mentally divide the slit into 3-half wavelength zones. So, the angle θ is such
that the top ray travels (3/2)λ farther than the bottom ray.
 Consider the middle third and the bottom third. Their waves are out of phase
by half a wavelength. They interfere destructively for each pair.
 W-51

 However, the rays from the top third (top zone) will not find partners to
interfere destructively. They reach the screen interfere to some extent and
produce a fringe of much less intensity than the central maximum, which is
the first secondary maximum
 The geometry suggests: a sinθ = 3λ/2

(d)   Represents the scenario corresponding to the 2nd dark fringe.

 The angle θ is such that the top ray travels 2λ farther than the bottom ray.
 Mentally divide the slit into 4 zones.
 Careful examination will show that the rays in one zone is exactly out of
phase (path difference = ½λ) with rays in the neighbouring zone. So
destructive interference occurs again.
 The geometry suggests: a sinθ = 2λ

DFFRACTION GRATING:

 A grating consists of a large number of equally spaced parallel slits. A grating of 10,000
lines per cm are common.
 The pattern consists of bright and dark fringes and
the analysis is similar to the double slit analysis.
There is however an important difference between
the patterns. The bright maxima of the grating are
sharper (b) and narrower than those of the double slit
pattern (a). They in essence look like a line (relate to
the lab).
 This property of the grating has made gratings very
useful in precise wavelength measurements, as
maxima can be referenced more precisely.
 Principal maxima are given by:
d sinθ = mλ; m = 0, 1, 2, 3,…

d  slit separation.

 Diffraction patterns can be obtained using more than one wavelength, and also white
light.
 W-52

Class Question
In a single slit diffraction experiment a laser beam of wavelength 700 nm passes through a vertical slit
0.2 mm wide and hits a screen 6 m away. Find the width of the central maximum (a) in cm (b) in
radians.

Class Question
Sodium light is incident on a diffraction grating with 12,000 lines per cm. At what angles in degrees will
the 2 yellow lines (called sodium D lines) of wavelength 589.00 nm and 589.59 nm be seen in the first
order.
 HEAT
&
THERMODYNAMICS
 H-1

Heat, Thermodynamics and (a little) Kinetic Theory

Some preliminaries:

Temperature
It goes without saying that the topic is very related to temperature. We will spend some time first
examining temperature.

 For thermodynamics we use the scale. It is the way we define

thermodynamic temperature.
 The scale: To set up any temperature scale we need a standard fixed point which we assign a
value.
E.g. for the Celsius scale our fixed point(s) are:
For the Kelvin scale we use:

 For the Kelvin scale, the standard thermometer against which all other thermometers are
calibrated is a constant volume thermometer.

Mercury Gas filled bulb –

reservoir
Mercury
manometer

Gas filled
bulb Mercury manometer –
gas h

cv
gas

Temperature to
be measured Reservoir -
 H-2

Using the above, the equation for temperature T is given by:

T =

Note that m  0. Why? P =

If we change the gas in the bulb, the temperature recorded is
slightly different. However it turns out that as we use smaller P3 =
and smaller amounts of gas (i.e. m  0) the readings converge
to a single T, irrespective of the gas used. M  0 therefore
implies a mass of negligible mass and density otherwise called an:

** Importantly, what we are doing is ensuring that the temperature scale is independent of the
property of the thermometer or the substance in the thermometer!!!

 We relate the Kelvin and Celsius scale by the formula:

Ideal Gases
As suggested above, an ideal gas is one of negligible mass and density i.e. The molecules are so
far apart they exert no forces on each other.
Experimentation shows that the following relationship of variables is true for an ideal gas:
IDEAL GAS LAW:

P= V=

R= T=

n=
Question: Determine the volume of 1.00 mol of
any gas at STP (i.e. T = 273 K and P = 1.0 atm =
1.013 x 105 N/m2).

Note: (i) No such thing as an ideal gas, but all

real gases approach ideal gases at low enough
densities. The above equation however gives us
insights into the limiting behaviour of real gases.
(ii) If P and/or V change, then T must change ,
and vice versa. Also if given P. V, and n, then we
really know T.
 H-3

Heat, Q
A form of energy which can be transferred to or from a body.
The energy is called:
Relating Heat and Temperature
 Heat Capacity, C: For any substance (i.e. solid liquid or gas) which changes its temperature by
the addition or removal of heat, we can write the general equation:
C =
Units of C =
In differential form:

 Specific Heat Capacity, c: If we know the mass of the substance we can rewrite the formula as:
m=
c =
Definition of c:
Units of c:

 Molar Heat Capacity: We will deal with mostly gases. Very often we don‟t know the mass of
the gas, but we know how many moles of the gas there are. In that case we rewrite our Heat
formula in terms of the molar heat capacity. Define molar heat capacity:
There are 2 forms of the heat formula with molar heat capacities:
For heat transfer at constant pressure:
For heat transfer at constant volume:
Therefore, Cv =
And, Cp =
Units of Cv and Cp are:

Heat and Change of State

It is important to realize that a body‟s temperature does not have to change when Heat is added to it.
How so?
In that case the formula for heat becomes: m=
L=
Units of L =
There are 3 types of L: Lv =
Lf =
Ls =

Won’t use these much, but we must remember that addition or

removal of Heat does not have to change the temperature of a body!!!
 H-4

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the study of interactions between Heat and other forms of energy. It is
applicable to any object or collection of objects (called a system) whether solid, liquid or gas.
We will concentrate on gaseous systems. Why? It turns out that that with a gas we can use Heat to
do work. How?

We will examine the relationship between, heat, work, energy, and the various variables found in the
ideal gas equation, using the laws of thermodynamics!!

First law of Thermodynamics

Stated by the formula:

Note that the law is really just an expression of the conservation of Energy!!!
In differential form:

Let us examine each term.

Heat, Q
 We already defined. Since we are looking at gaseous systems we will mostly use the equations:

 By convention: Q is positive when:

Q is negative when:

Work, W
 A gas can do work by
OR when work is done on a gas it causes the gas to
Therefore, work is related to change in
 H-5

 We write a general formula for work: W=

V=

 If the gas changes volume while the pressure is constant:

 The above simple formula helps us see the sign conventions easily.
W is positive => =>
W is negative => =>

 What if the pressure not constant but the temperature is constant:

Internal energy, ∆U
The internal energy has to do with the kinetic and potential energies associated with the random
motion of the atoms and molecules of the gas. As we will later see, the internal energy is dependent
only on the state of the gas (i.e. its T, P and V) and is independent of the path a system takes.
 We can write a formula for internal energy:

Note: (i) True even if volume is not constant!!!!!

(ii) If the temperature of a boy changes then ∆U must change and vice versa.
 Sign convention: ∆U is positive when
∆U is negative when
Summary
 H-6

Q ∆U W
Formula

Sign Convention

Question:
(a) An amount of heat equal to 2500 J is added to a system, and 1800 J of work is done on the
system. What is the change in internal energy of the system? (b) What would be the internal energy
change if 2500 J of heat is added to the system and 1800 J of work is done by the system?

Indicator Diagrams
An indicator diagram is a P versus V diagram. It is extremely useful for illustrating thermodynamic
processes.
 E.g. Allows us to trace what happens to a gas if heat added to a system i.e. If have a gas with
initial conditions, Pi, Vi and heat added such that it now expands and changes pressure to Pf, Vf,
then we can plot this on a P-V diagram.

* Note the arrow indicates the

thermodynamic process that changed the
gases state.
* Could you find Ti and Tf?
 Area under a P-V graph equals the Work done by that process!!!
 H-7

Some Common Thermodynamic Processes

1. Isochoric =>

P-V Diagram Implication for Ideal gas Law

Work done 1st Law of Thermodynamics

2. Isobaric =>

P-V Diagram Implication for Ideal gas Law

Work done 1st Law of Thermodynamics

3. Isothermal =>
 H-8

P-V Diagram Implication for Ideal gas Law

Work done 1st Law of Thermodynamics

4. Adiabatic =>

P-V Diagram

Ideal Gas Law 1st Law of Thermodynamics

5. Cyclical Process =>

Examples of P-V Diagrams:

Now, though we can apply the first law of thermodynamics to each stage of the cyclical process.
We can also apply it to the process as a whole.
 H-9

* Implications of 1st Law for the process as a whole:

* Remember also that the work done for the cycle =

6. Free Expansion =>

Relating, Cp, Cv and R

We can deduce a relationship between Cp, Cv and R, by considering a constant pressure process.
1st Law of Thermodynamics:

Question:
 H-10

Three moles of an ideal gas , initially at P = 5 x 104 N/m2 and V = 0.2 m3 is expanded isothermally
to twice its initial volume. The gas is then compressed at constant pressure and, after that heated at
constant volume so as to restore it to its initial state.
a. Sketch the above three processes on a P-V diagram.
b. Calculate the heat input and the work done by the gas during each process, if Cp for the
gas is 29.1 J K-1 mol-1
c. What is the net heat input, the net work, and the net change in internal for the cycle?

KINETIC THEORY
 H-11

Kinetic theory is based on the concept that matter is made up of atoms which are in continual
random motion. Therefore the atoms of a gas have kinetic energy. The kinetic energy can be
translational kinetic energy or rotational kinetic energy or vibrational kinetic energy.

Translational Kinetic Energy

Can we derive an equation for translational KE?

Root Mean Square Speed

For an ideal gas, there exists a large no. of molecules, N, each of mass, m, moving in random
directions with a variety of speeds.
1. We define the root mean square speed of the molecules:

2. Note: that it is the square root of the average of the speeds squared!!
3. We can also relate vrms to the state of the gas by:

Kinetic Energy
With knowledge of vrms, we can define the average translational KE per molecule of a gas.
i.e. average K of 1 molecule of a gas:

Therefore, average K for the gas:

Note: This is the average KE of translational motion, where translational motion of

a body is such that all parts move in parallel directions through equal distances
 H-12

Monatomic Gases
If the gas is monatomic (What does that mean? ) then the gas has
only translational kinetic energy i.e. its internal energyat any instant, U, is entirely due to
translational KE.
Therefore for a monatomoic gas, U =

***Recall what we said about the relationship between U and temperature!!!

This also implies that the change in internal energy of the gas, ∆U =
***True only for monatomic gas!!!!

Relating Cv and R for a Monatomic Gas

Recall that we had a general formula for ∆U, i.e. ∆U =
From above we just learnt that; ∆U =
Equating the two equations we get for a monatomic gas: =

Relating Cp and R for a Monatomic Gas

Recall that we had a relationship between Cp , Cv and R:
Use above relationship:

Polyatomic Gases
What if the gas is not monatomic? Diatomic and polyatomic gases have translational KE as well as
rotational and vibrational KE. This means that the internal energy of a polyatomic gas, ∆U, is equal
to the translational KE + rotational KE + Vibrational KE. Can use to find the KE of rotation and
vibration. How?

Finding a Relationship for Cv for a Polyatomic Gas

This is important as if we know Cv we know ∆U.
We use the idea that molecules store energy in independent ways, and the no. of independent ways
that the energy can be stored is called the no. of degrees of freedom.
The Energy of each degree of freedom for one molecule = ½kT
If the molecule has f degrees of freedom, then energy of the molecule =
Therefore the internal energy, U, for the gas =
 H-13

As before, we know the general formula for ∆U:

Therefore for a polyatomic gas:

Note:
1. For a monatomic gas molecule there are 3 translational degrees of freedom:

2. For a diatomic gas molecule, there are 3 translational and 2 rotational degrees of freedom:

Question
Suppose 4.00 mol of an ideal diatomic gas, with molecular rotation but not oscillation, experiences a
temperature increase of 60.0 K under constant pressure conditions. (a) How much heat is added to
the gas? (b) By how much did the internal energy of the gas increase? (c) How much work was done
by the gas? (d) By how much did the internal translational kinetic energy of the gas increase? (e) By
how much did the rotational internal energy of the gas increase? (Use k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
 H-14

ADIABATIC EXPANSION OF AN IDEAL GAS

A) Recall for an adiabatic expansion, Q=

Therefore from 1st Law of Thermodynamics (in differential form):
If we assume the expansion is so rapid that pressure is constant, then W=
Hence from above, dU =
=
=
= -----(1)

B) Now for an ideal gas: =

=
=
=

= ----(2)

Equating (1) and (2)

 H-15

HEAT ENGINES and EFFICIENCIES

Heat Engine: A device which changes heat into work while operating in a cycle. E.g. petrol engine,
nuclear plant, etc. We know that for a cycle ∆Ucycle = 0
Therefore, Qcycle =
QNET =

How does a Heat Engine do Work?

Schematically

1. Gas is in contact with a hot surface. TH is the heat

source or Heat reservoir at temperature TH.
2. Gas extracts heat, QH from reservoir.
3. Gas expands and does work.
4. Gas delivers remaining heat QC to cold reservoir and
returns to original state via compression (work done on
gas).
5. TC is a heat sink or heat reservoir at temperature TC.
6. The following relationship is true:

Note: we are neglecting friction and other heat losses!!!

Representing a Typical Heat Engine On a P-V Diagram

Diagram

1. The engine is a cycle of processes.

Implication?

2. Usually 4 arms/processes with arrows indicating cycle.

3. In one arm, QH given to system.
4. In one arm, QC taken from system.
5. Work done is area under the graph.
6. We can write:
 H-16

2nd Law of Thermodynamics (First form)

It is not possible to change heat completely to work with no other change taking place.
Implications:

Efficiency
We define thermal efficiency as:

Note:
1. Theoretical range for efficiency, e is from:
2. For e = 1, |W| = |QH| Is this possible?
Implication?

Maximum Efficiency of an Engine

We compare the efficiency of all engines to the efficiency of a Carnot Engine. A Carnot Engine
undergoes four specific processes (which we will describe). We use it as the reference due to its
historical significance (it was the first engine used to analyze efficiency). Properties of the Carnot
Engine include:
1. It is an ideal engine
2. No unwanted heat losses e.g. by frictional parts, or loss due to conduction from sides of
cylinders.
3. The working substance is an ideal gas (e.g. not a mixture of air and gas vapor).
4. Processes are carried out in infinitesimal steps to maintain equilibrium.
 H-17

5. Each process/arm is reversible (can be retraced exactly).

Cycles P-V Diagram

B
D
C

Efficiency Equation for a Carnot Engine

Recall that efficiency is given by:

For a Carnot Engine we can write:

Note:
1. Temperatures are in Kelvin
2. Only need to know hottest (TH) and coldest (TC) temperatures to deduce efficiency.
3. Given TH and TC for any engine (not necessarily Carnot), the formula above gives the
maximum possible value for its efficiency. In reality the efficiency will be les than that
calculated using formula above.
4. There can never be a perfect engine, as to get e = 1:

Proof of Efficiency Equation for a Carnot Engine

H-18
 H-19

REFRIGERATOR

Reverse of an Engine. This means that we use work to transfer energy from a low temperature
reservoir (TC) to a high temperature reservoir (TH) in a cycle. E.g. the compressor of the refrigerator
extracts heat from the inside of the fridge and releases it outside.

Schematic First Law Implications

compressor

Freezing Compartment

Coefficient of Performance
We can define a coefficient of performance:

Since refrigerator is like a Carnot engine in reverse:

2nd Law of Thermodynamics (Second form)

The Coefficient of performance is limited by the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics, which states: It si not
possible for heat to be transferred from one body to another that is at a higher temperature without
any other changes taking place.

Implication: No perfect refrigerators!!!!

 H-20

Question
The boiler of a steam engine has a temperature of 520 oC while its condenser has a temperature of
100 oC. What is the maximum possible efficiency of the engine?

Question
An ideal refrigerator of coefficient of performance K = 4.7 extracts heat from the cold chamber at
the rate of 250 J/cycle. (a) How much work per cycle is required to operate the refrigerator? (b) How
much heat is discharged to the room?

ENTROPY
 H-21

Irreversible Processes

 One way processes that cannot be reversed by small changes in their environment
are called irreversible.
 Irreversible processes are so common that if they were to occur spontaneously (on
their own) we would be surprized.

 For example if you placed your hands around a cup of tea, you would be surprized if
your hands got cooler and the cup got warmer.
 That would clearly be the wrong way for the energy transfer.
 However the total energy of the closed system (hands + cup of tea) would be the
same as the total energy if the processes had run the right way.

 Thus, changes in energy within closed system do not set the direction of an
irreversible process. This is defined by what we will call the “change in entropy”
(ΔS) of the system.

 If an irreversible process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the system

always increases; it never decreases.

 Entropy differs from energy in that entropy does not obey

a conservation law.
 The energy in a closed system is conserved; it always remains
the same.

 For irreversible processes, the entropy of a closed

system always increases.
 H-22

Change in Entropy

 Consider the free expansion shown in Figure 21.1.

The initial and final states (Pi,Vi) and (Pf,Vf) are
shown in the PV diagram
 During the free expansion the temperature does not
change.

 We define the change in entropy Sf - Si of a

system during a process that takes the system from
an initial state i to a final state f as

f dQ
S  Si  S f  
i T

Figure 21.1  S.I. Units for S: J/K

Like P, V and T, S is a state property – i.e. a property

that depends only on the state of the gas and not on how
it reached that state.

Remember: We cannot plot a free expansion!

Figure 21.2

 In the free expansion in the example Ti =Tf.

 We can therefore replace the free expansion
with an isothermal expansion that connect
states (Pi,Vi) and (Pf,Vf).
 See Figures 21.3 and 21.4

Figure 21.3 Figure 21.4

 For an isothermal expansion:
1 f
T i
S  S f  S i  dQ
 H-23

 Because  dQ  Q , where Q is the total energy transferred as heat during the process we
have:
Q
S  S f  S i  (change in entropy, isothermal process)
T

Entropy as a State Function

 We have assumed that entropy, like pressure, energy and temperature, is a property of the
state of the system and is independent of how that state is reached.
 However we can prove it is a state function for the case in which an ideal gas is taken
through a reversible process.
 To make the process reversible it is done in very small steps.

 Therefore from the 1st Law of Thermodynamics we have:

dQ  dU  dW  nCV dT  PdV

Substituting for P using the ideal gas law we have

nRT
dQ  dV  nCV dT
V
dQ dV dT
 nR  nCV
T V T
Integrating each term between some initial state i and final state f:

f dQ f dV f dT
i T
  nR
i V
  nCV
i T

Vf Tf
S  nR ln  nCV ln
Vi Ti

 Therefore the change in entropy depends only on the properties of the initial state (V i and
Ti) and final states (Vf and Tf)
 It does not depend on how the system changes between the two states.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

 H-24

 Consider now the reverse of the isothermal process shown on the previous page.
 In this case the gas will give back heat Q to the reservoir at temperature T.

The change in entropy of

f the gas:
Q
S  
T gas
i
The change in entropy of
the reservoir:
Q
S rev 
T

In a process that occurs in a The net change in entropy

closed system, the entropy of the gas-reservoir system:
of the system increases for S  S gas  S rev  0
irreversible processes and
remains constant for
reversible processes. It
never decreases.

 The second law of thermodynamics can be written as:

S  0

Entropy in the Real World: Engines

Carnot Engine

A → B: Isothermal expansion
Gas in contact with reservoir at temperature, TH
QH given to gas to keep at constant temperature
B → C: Adiabatic expansion to temperature, TC
No heat lost in this step.
Gas cools i.e. temperature falls
C → D: Isothermal compression
Gas in contact with reservoir at temperature, TC
QC removed from gas to keep at constant temperature
D → A: Adiabatic compression to temperature, TH
No heat lost again
Gas warms i.e. temperature rises
 H-25

 In the T-S diagram, the temperature is plotted as a

function of the entropy S during one cycle of the
Carnot engine.
 The change in entropy
QH QL
S   0
TH TL
QH QL QL TL
  or 
TH TL QH TH

Question
A Carnot engine operates between temperature TH = 850 K and TL = 300K. Then engine performs
1200 J of work each cycle, which takes 0.25s.
(a) What is the efficiency of this engine?
(b) What is the average power of this engine?
(c) How much energy is extracted as heat from the high temperature reservoir every cycle?
(d) How much energy is delivered as heat to the low temperature reservoir every cycle?
(e) By how much does the entropy of the working substance change as a result of the energy
transferred to it from the high temperature reservoir? From it to the low temperature reservoir?