i

l
620 15 Route selection and detailed line design

15.49 Fleckenstein, K.; Rbiem, W.: Waldüberspannung und Walddurchquerung. Okologische 16 Construc tion
und landschaftspflegerische Aspekte beim Freileitungsbau ( Crossing above forests or
aisles through forests. Ecological and landscape aspects in case of overhead lines). Reports
of ANL, 1991

15.50 Brackel, V. W.: Vegetationskundliche Untersuchung einer Stromleitungstrasse (Investiga- Symbols

tions of vegetation within the power line right-of-way). Natur und Landschaft, 64 (1989)
16.0
Vol. 11
Symbol Signification
15.51 Coch, T.; Uther, D.: Biotopmanagement in walddurchquerende n Trassen von Hochspan-
nungsleitungen (Biotope management in the right-of-way of overhead power Jines through a Span length
forests). Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung 26 (1994), Vol. 3 as Position of the sagging curve vertex
A Cross-sectional area
15.52 Hoss, H.: Digitales Hohenmodell in Waldgebieten. Erfahrungen aus Laserscanner- e Propagation speed
Befüegungen (Digital height elevation model in forestal areas. Experience from laser D Vertical distance between attachment point of the conductor and the theodolite
scanning füghts). Landesverrnessungsamt Baden-Württember g 1994 tilting axis
e Creeping strain
15.53 Mekhanoshin, B. L et al.: Use of an airborn laser locator to improve avaílability and e Creeping strain at everyday stress
quality of maíntenance of overhead lines. Cigré Report 22-204, 2000 e1h Parameter for creep strain
e30 Creeping strain after 30 years
15.54 EN 50341-1: Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 kV. Part 1: General requírements Creeping strain at everyday stress after 30 years
e30
- Cornmon specifications. Brussels, CENELEC 2001 Modulus of elasticity •
E
15.55 EN 50341-3-4: Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 kV. Part 3-4: National Norma- f Sag in general
tive Aspects (NNA) for Germany. Brussels, CENELEC 2001 J, Sag within span i
Íh Sag to horizontal viewing line
15.56 EN 50341-3: Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 kV. Part 3: National Norrnative F Virtual force
A,;pects. Brussels, CENELEC, 2001 9 Gravitational acceleration
GK Dead weight force of insulator set
15.57 VDE 0210: Planning and design of overhead power lines with rated voltages above 1 kV, h Difference in height of adjacent conductor attachrnent points
amendment A4. Frankfurt am Main, DKE Draft, 1999 h, Difierence in height of conductor attachment point in span i
hT Reference height above tower base
15.58 Dahlberg, F.; Palm, Y.: Optimum tower spotting on transmission lines by means of Difference of height of vertices in adjacent spans
hs,
electronic computer. Swedish State Power Board, Blue-white series No. 33 (1963) Horizontal conductor tensile force
H
15.59 KieBling, F.: Optimum tower spotting for an overhead line. Siemens Power Engineering HE,k Equivalent horizontal conductor tensile force in the iteration step k
5 (1983), pp. 34 to 38 Ho Horizontal conductor tensile force of clipped-in conductor
H, Horizontal conductor force in span i
15.60 PSLCADD: Computer program for the integrated analysis and design of a transmission l(x) Moment of inertia
line. Madison (Wi.) Power line systems, 1997 k" Factor for creeping straín
L, Inclined span Jength i
15.61 Riisio, P. J.; Kioivanta, V. M.: Computer aided design systems for Jine routes tower Lo Conductor length in span i
spotting and line structures in Finland. Cigré Report 22-104, 1990 LK Length of insulator set
M Centre of stringing blocks
15.62 Ranero, I.: Automatic mínimum cost support spotting by computer. Cigré Report 22-105, Conductor mass per unit length
me
1990 Bending moment due to external load
M(x)
15.63 Siemens program system Overhead Power Line. Establishment and administration of M(x) Bending moment due to virtual load
plans for overhead power lines using SICAD. Erlangen, Siemens AG 1987 Me Bending moment due to a virtual moment
n Exponent of creeping strain
n Number of tower sections or joints
N Axial force due to virtual load
N(x) Axial force due to externa] load
r Eccentricity of point of load attack
re Residual eccentricity
rei Elastic bending deformation
rm Horizontal displacement at tower top or considered crossarm height
S¡ Distance between joínt i and position, where deflection is considered
S,,Se Conductor tensile force at support
t Running time of a wave, time after first loading of a conductor, period of time
V¡ Offset of conductor at tower i
V Vertical load at insulator
v¡ Vertical load at insulator set i
622 16 Construct10n

300r 125 200 I

Symbol Sígníficatíon Number km Number
w Steel portíon of conductor weight 270 180
Ct"si Tílting of joint i
/3 Insulator set swing angle, inclination of towers 240 100 160
,5 Displacement of conductor attachment point from the vertical a.xis
ET Coefficient of thermal expansion f 210 140
1
l::,_h,;¡ Difference in height of conductor vertices in spans i and i + l o
5180 75 120 1~ ¡....:==~~------+-,
l::,_T;d Virtual conductor temperature change
/!el Elastic deformation angle at crossarm height
ti.,
m1so
.e
E,
e:
100,e
:g
et Relative everyday stress .!!1
¡¡;
"' :.§
Vertical angle for sagging ~ 1-6
!120 :::;50 80 1-¡:¡
IE'
.o
90 60
16.1 Construction planning 1
1
1
1 1 crossing o!
___)
1
1 1
60 25 signo! J 1 / highway /
16.1.1 Introduction foundalion for 1 1 I /
30 tower No. 95 : : / I E
/ I o
The construction of a transmission line requires the installation and operation of a high 1 1 1 u
number of individual construction sites to carry out the implementation of tower foun- o 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Month 16
2
dations, erection o/ supports and stringing o/ conductors along a line many kilometres Supply:
Towerstubs Towers Constructioo period -
long. Conductors, insulators, tittings
As well as the design of an overhead transmission line, the construction method needs to
be adjusted to the type of terrain encountered. For carrying out the individual construc- Figure 16.1: Construction time schedule
tion steps during installation of an overhead line, specific knowledge, craftsmanship and Ful! line: planning, broken line: actual progress of construction
physical fitness of the construction staff are necessary as well as suitable equipment.
A foresighted planning of the construction and an expedient site organisation are re- time schedule (Figure 16.1). Considering the achievable progress and the correlated
quired to achieve a perfect quality, construction to schedule with infringement of the expenditures, the construction methods can be determined for each individual step
environment only to an extent as low as possible and a satisfying economic result. and the required demand for manpower, vehicles and equipment be established for the
During the construction period, attempts should be made to avoid any pollution of construction gangs. From the construction time schedule, also the data for supply of
the surface or ground-water, e. g. by an appropriate selection and use of harmless tower stubs, support parts, conductors, insulators and fittings to the construction site
substa.nces. Pollution might be possible as a consequence of an accident. Therefore, can be realized. For more extended overhead line installations, the construction time
it is recommended to use biologically recyclíng oils for hydraulic purposes. Damage o/ schedule can be established as a network diagram. This facilitates to pursue the dead-
vegetation and disturbance of the soil surface, e. g. by compaction dueto heavy vehicles, lines for material supply and construction progress to a large extent. By inserting the
ca.nnot always be avoided, although the support sites have been selected close to access progress achieved into the construction time schedule, a comparison between planned
roads and thick planks or plates are used to drive along. After ending the construction and achieved milestones is possible at any time.
activities, such soil compactions have to be broken up again. Temporarily constructed
access roads need to be removed appropriately and residual excavation material should
be recycled whenever possible. A not complete removal of packing a.nd construction 16.1.3 Mobilisation and stockyard
material such as steel parts, conductor and wire ends, lost bolts, packing foils and wood The mobilisation of the construction site belongs to the construction pla.nning as well.
parts may infringe the agricultura! land use along the line route a.nd did sometimes Construction site offi.ce and stockyard should be chosen closely to the line route and
result in dama.ge of agricultura! machines or lead to loss of cattle. Damage or even need good road connections as well.
loss of trees caused by construction equipment form major infringements. Annoyance A sufliciently wide area with a solid suda.ce usable for heavy lorries is suited as a stock-
to neighbouring residence by noise generated at the construction site for example by yard for construction material, concrete formwork, shuttering and planking, parking
pile driving has to be expected only at a few line sections, however, should be reduced of vehicles and for a well-structured storage of the supplied material including driven
to a mínimum by using insulated low-noise equipment. piles, reinforcement steel, tower parts, fittings, earth wire and conductor reels. In cases
A thorough investigation of the local conditions should precede the construction plan- where the tower parts are supplied bundled item-wise, a suflicient large area should
ning. Type of terrain, soil conditions, existence of buildings, agricultura! use, infrastruc- be available for sorting and warehousing parts tower by tower. The stockyard should
ture, crossing roads and other lines as well as the accessibility are of special interest. include a hall or shelter where tools and fittings can be stored as well as cement if
required for site-mixed concrete. For maintenance and repair of vehicles and tools, an
16.1.2 Construction time schedule accordingly equipped workshop is installed in case of larger line projects.
Based on the number of supports and foundations as well as on the length of the line, Activities at the stockyard include unloading, inspecting, inventing and storing ali ma-
the qua.ntities to be installed are determined a.nd the activities to be carried out during terials. Material should be inspected to conform with the shipping manifest. Damaged
a given period of time will be calculated. The individual construction steps correlated material should be rejected and arrangements made to expedite replacements. A deter-
to each other can be clearly presented above the construction period in a construction mination of material requiring special protection should be made so that appropriate
 l
624 16 Construction 16.3 Construction of foundations 625

cases with hydraulically-operated cranes installed on the lorries. Conductor reels are
transported by means of self-loading transport trailers. The hydraulic pressure for the
lifting equipment is provided from a tractive engine to the trailer.

1 16.2.2 Access roads

Access roads should be built where necessary, taking into account the site topography
and line importance, considering the following conditions:
After the line construction, easy access to the supports is required, for mainte-
nance purposes.
Existing roads should be used, as far as possible.
Rain water drainage should be built.
Every road built should be conveniently recorded on design maps with the number
Figure 16.2: Ropeway of towers to be accessed, clear reference being made to highways and secondary
roads to reach them.
In special cases, preparation of existing roads (paved or unpaved) may be required
storage is provided. In order to reduce delays and cost overruns, all material should be
for construction activities. Thereby, the steepest ramp should be less than 20 %,
on hand and in good condition before installation begins. Material stored in open area
the minimmn curvature radius 10 m and the mínimum width 3 m.
should be protected from soil with wood blocking.
Traflic of vehicles under guy wires should be avoided and, therefore, access roads
Lay down areas at each site should be prearranged. A sketch showing material place-
are not allowed to cross such areas. In a.reas subjected to traffic of agricultura!
ment is helpful for the unloading crew. Tower material should be arranged to minimize
machines, guy wires should be protected against being hit and conveniently sig-
rehandling and should be checked for shortages or damaged members. The members or
nalized.
tower cornponents should be located within reach of the erection equipment. If special
Damage to roads, paths and fields caused by transport vehicles should be avoided
handling or erection procedures are to be followed, they should be outlined on the erec-
as far as possible; also it should be aimed at lirniting the land dama.ge caused by
tion drawing, or appropriate sketches provided to the crews. Tower members should
transportation of material to an unavoidable extent. For this purpose, the access roads
not be dragged across the ground. In particular, ali joints should be clean of mud or
and working areas at the individual tower sites need to be prepared for heavy loads. In
other undue substances before assembly.
soft terrain, reinforcing by temporary truck ways is advisable.

16.2 Transportation 16.2.3 Fences, gates and cattle-guards

16.2.1 Means of transport All existing fences that have to be opened for work needs or future maintenance should
be recomposed or protected with gates, gateposts or cattle-guards, under an agreement
Due to the extended length of a line, transportatíon gains high importance when con- with the owner. Fences for crossing railways or highways are to be made with the
structing transmission lines. Concrete aggregates or ready-mixed concrete, considerable relevant criteria of the crossed ways.
quantities of reinforcement steel, soil excavation, material for planking and shuttering In order to interrupt the electric continuity of conducting material, barbed-wire or
and concrete formwork, driven piles, setting templates, tower parts, reels with earth flat-wire fences running para.lle! or crossing a power line have to be sectionalized and
wires and conductors, insulators, fittings as well as the construction equipment need to earthed before conductor stringing.
be transported to or from the individual support sites, sometimes in an undeveloped
terrain without access roads. An optimum organisation of the transport, therefore, is
decisive for an economically successful implementation of a project. 16.3 Construction of foundations
For construction of transmission lines, vehicles with four-wheel drive, cross-country
16.3.1 Introduction
gear and differential blocking are used in most cases: Lorries, unimog and tractors.
On surface with peat or sand, the wheel diameter should be as large as possible and The construction of foundations should be considered already when selecting and plan-
low pressure pneus with a large surface area should be used; for special cases, vehicles ning the type of foundation taking care of the soil and terrain conditions as well as of
equipped with tracks are used. the access to the individual tower sites. The construction of foundation types typically
In steep terrain not accessible for lorries, e. g. in high mountains, the material is trans- for transmission lines will be discussed in the following clauses.
ported either with ropeways or by helícopters to the individual tower sites. For rope-
ways, designs are used which consist oflow-weight components easily to be transported, 16.3.2 Concrete foundations black and slab foundations
quickly installed and remaining reusable after being dismantled (Figure 16.2). The ex-
pensive but versatile usable helicopter is as well qualified for transportation of trans- To start the excavation oí pits for stepped concrete foundations, slab foundations or pad
mission line materia.Is. However, the relatively high costs, the limited load capacity and and chimney foundations (see clause 13.4.4.2), the foundation pits are surveyed at the
the sensitivity on weather ask for a detailed planning of helicopter disposition. individual tower site and pegged out. Concerning excavation, the following types of soil
Loading and unloading activities are predominantly carried •out by cranes; in most can be distinguished:
 Normal soíl, comprising clay, silt, sand and their combinations, including rocky
fragments which are easy to be removed.
- Decomposing rocks, presenting pebbles or grave! and requiring pick mattock or
even a big compressor for their removal.
Loose stones, comprising rocky terrain whose stones have such sizes and dimen-
sions that high gear force is required for excavation.
- Sound rocks which require very high gear force or explosives.
- Soíl 1.mder water and swamp terrain.
Hydraulic excavators are preferably utilized for the excavation in the first category.
In heavy soils of the second and third category, excavators with back-action shovels
having a high gear force are adopted. To loasen rock characterized by the fourth cate-
gory, pneurnatic hammers, heavy excavators with hydraulic hammers or explosives are
necessary. Here, anchor foundations are advantageous, requiring a minirnum of excava-
tion for the concrete muff only. In terrain of the fifth category, driven piles should be
preferred which do not require excavation.
The foundation pits should be secured against collapse and inadmissible entering ac-
cording to labour safety standards [16.1). The protection is carried out by a vertical
planking with horizontal shuttering using timber or steel. In case of steel reinforced
foundations, a 50 to 100 mm thick !ayer of lean concrete is placed to achieve a subface
keeping the reinforcement clean.
Figure 16.3: Earth drilling rig mounted Figure 16.4: Piling rig with a diesel-
After hardening of the lean concrete, the reinforcernent is installed so far as necessary on a crawler track chassis operated hammer
according to the design drawings, and the leg member stubs or tower bodies are installed
and adjusted. The concrete is placed !ayer by !ayer (see clause 16.3.7.5) and compacted.
The concrete Jormwork is installed in case of stepped or pad and chimney foundations diameter of 1,50 m mounted on crawlers excavate the soil at depths up to 8,00 m.
according to the progress of work. After ending the stipulated periods for concrete After the cylindrical borehole has reached the designed depth, an expansion in form
curing, the concrete forrnwork and pit shuttering can be removed and the open space of a truncated cone can be produced by means of an undercutting device. Augerbored
of the pit is filled in by excavated soil and other material. foundations are equipped with reinforcement steel to provide for tensile forces and
Before beginning the backfill, the water and mud eventually present in the pit should bending moments acting on the foundation when loaded by lattice towers or poles.
be removed. In general, the soil at sites where concrete foundations are installed in Prior to placing the concrete, the reinforcement is installed in the borehole.
excavated pits, can be used for backfill. However, the backfill should be free of roots, The borehole needs to be secured against collapsing. This can be achieved by a protec-
organic material and/or waste. The backfill should be carried out and compacted at tive casing or by installing the reinforcement and placing the concrete immediately after
layers approximately 0,20 rn thick, considering also the line owner criteria. If the exca- augering the hole. In this case, the borehole is filled up with concrete to such an extent
vated soil is not suitable for compaction, other material should be imported. The main that enough space is left for installing and adjusting the tower stubs. Since the foun-
target of backfill is to achieve soil characteristics close to those of the natural soil. dation pit is completely filled up with concrete, the excavated material is distributed
Compaction should preferably be made by motor-driven hammers. If they are not on the tower site or carried to a damp.
available, manual compaction equipment with a weight of about 20 kg is acceptable.
The backfill services, once begun, should be completed up to the surface leve! at the 16.3.4 Driven pile foundations
same day. If this is not feasible, it is necessary to scarify the superficial layer of the
existing backfill, before continuing to set new layers up to the completion of the work. 16.3.4.1 Common rules
Compaction of soil above concrete bases should begin not before 24 hours after placing Driven pile foundations (see clause 13.4.4.5) are often adopted in case of low bearing
the concrete. soils or a ground-water table close to the surface. The conditions of an overhead line
Compaction should be carried out thoroughly in arder to achieve characteristics of the project impose severa! special requirements on the pile dríving device (Figure 16.4).
backfill as close as possible to those of the undisturbed soil. The residual excavation Its weight should be as low as possible with respect to the mobility and cross-country
material is distributed on the tower site or carried to a damp. In case of an inclined suitability. On soft soil surfaces, the crawler tracks need to be equipped with wide and
terrain, special care needs to be taken that the required soil surcharge will be achieved. long tracks to attain a low soil pressure. To achieve a short period of time to move the
pile driving device from one site to the next, the piling rig with the hammer should
16.3.3 Augerbored foundations be easily erected and dismantled. The rig should permit rakes up to 250 mm/m. Its
height should be tall enough such that 14 to 20 m long piles can be driven. The action
Auger-bored foundations (see clause 13.4.4.3) require stable soils which can be augered. weight of the drop hammer should approximately be equal to the weight of the piles to
For the excavation of such foundations, earth-drilling rigs are used which are mounted be driven.
on cross-country vehicles with wheels or tracks (Figure 16.3). Earth-drilling rígs should During pile driving, the position of the pile, its deviation, distorsion and penetration
reach the tower sites without extreme effort. Augers or split buckets with a maximum as well as its rake have to be monitored and controlled. The driving process is recorded
628 16 Construction 16.3 Construction of foundations 629

Table 16.1: Example for a driving report

Line: 110 kV line T-off Haffeld HT35; tower no. 17H; tower
type WA2+0, type of pile: steel tube 609 x 10; length 12,5 m;
diese! hammer D30-32; Date: June 25, 2000
Depth N umber of blows for tower leg
ID 1 2 3 4
O to 1 10 9 8 11
1 to 2 15 12 9 13
2 to 3 19 14 12 16
3 to 4 22 18 15 19 Figure 16.5: Test loading
4 to 5 38 22 19 24
bridge
5 to 6 51 33 24 31
6 to 7 72 48 37 38
7 to 8 81 57 49 44
8 to 9 90 83 55 55 16.3.4.4 Testing
9 to 10 95 91 73 76
11 108 96 88 83
Testing of installed foundations, in particular of piles and anchors, is part of the con-
10 to
11 to 12 118 105 100 97 struction. According to IEC 61 773 [16.2], uplíft proof testing of transmission line piles
12 to 12,5 91 83 74 61 in heterogeneous soils and varying soil densities is recommended. Adopting this proce-
In total 810 671 563 568 dure, the reliability of the foundation can be increased and the necessary investment
Volume of grout (m 3) 1,75 1,80 1,65 2,00 lowered. At least 5 % of ali installed piles should be proof-tested. However, tests at a
Grouting factor 0,81 0,83 0,76 0,93
group of piles or at piles with very high capacity cannot be carried out at overhead
line tower sites because of the necessary equipment and reaction abutment. According
in a driving report. The number of blows for one meter of penetration depth of the pile to [16.2], the proof test load should be 60 to 75 % of the expected limit load or 125 %
into the soil permits conclusions on driving resistance and on uplift load capability of of the working load [16.3]. The test loads are applied by hydraulic jacks. In case of
the piles. A pile driving report is shown in Table 16.1. Reference [16.2] gives guidance tensile testing up to loads of 1000 kN, a tesl loading bridge (Figure 16.5) is arranged
on preparation of driving reports. above the pile to be tested such that the loading axis coincides with the pile axis. For
the individual loading steps, the pile displacements are measured and recorded in a
load-displacement diagmm. Examples for test recordings are contained in [16.2]. A low
16.3.4.2 Steel piles
displacement under load indicates a higher bearing capacity of the pile. Bare steel piles
Box-type, tubes or H-beam sections are suited for transmission line foundations. All of should be tested not earlier than three weeks after driving since the skin friction and
them are open at their pile point (see clause 13.4.4.5, bare steel piles), i. e. they are the tensile capacity increase considerably after pile driving. Grouted steel piles can be
driven into the soil without a specially prepared point. A pile helmet adjusted to the tested after hardening of the mortar (see clause 13.5.3).
pile profile avoids damage of the pile heads by pile driving. Extensions of piles can be In Figure 16.6, load-dísplacement diagmms are shown for two routine proof tests carried
carried out by welding or fish-plating a butt joint with the additional pile length on out at piles which were loaded to 1,2 times the working- load. The load displacement
site. The welded butt joint is reinforced by welded fishplates which can be arranged lines have been extrapolated to 1,5 times the working load. For pile 1, an extrapolated
inside or outside the pile. In case of a driving resistance too high or soil layers not displacement of 5,2 mm is expected while pile 2 will reach a displacement of only 1,5 mm
anymore suited for pile driving, the surplus pile length can be shortened by cutting at this load. Displacements of both piles are below the limit of 6,0 mm.
with a blow-torch. The uplift resistance of the shortened pile should be verified by a
load test. 16.3.5 Grillage foundations
The equipment mentioned hereafter should be available for constructing gril/age f oun-
16.3.4.3 Steel piles grouted by mortar datíons (see clause 13.4.4.4):
The steel parts having a box-type, tube or H-beam cross section are provided with a - Inclination and torsion templates;
laterally protruding point for dadding the pile by grout (see clause 13.4.3.4). During - Face templates or measures determining inclinations of each face of the stubs;
pile driving, the space formed by the protruding pile point will be filled from the point - Measuring equipment or devices such as transits, optical levels, measuring tapes,
up to the ground surface with concrete mortar by means of a pressuring hose guided plumbs, sqnares, bubble levels.
to the pile point. A pressure of 10 bar is aimed at for the filling process. Ready-mixed Before starting grillage assembly, soil regeneration should be carried out if existing
grout supplied by a concrete plant should be preferred in general and pressed in by a soil is very weak and more resistant soil needs to be taken from another a.rea. The
concrete pump. However, site-mixed grout is used as well. construction activities comprise:
The ratio of the filled in mortar volume to the theoretically determined space for grout- - Levelling of excavation bottom which should be covered by an approximately
ing is named grouting factor. It is a characteristic data expressing the extent to which 0,10 m thick !ayer of sand.
the space formed by the pile point is filled up with grout. This factor is included in the - Positioning and levelling of grillage base profiles.
driving report and can be used to assess the load carrying capacity of the grouted steel - Assembling and levelling of grillage support members or tower stubs (see clause
pile (see Table 16.1). 16.5}.
uau 1-U VUlli:>l,1-U\...LlUU.

limit value 16.3. 7 Concrete for foundations

6
mm 16.3.7.1 Ready-mixed and site-mixed concrete
5
pile 1
,I Ready-mixed concrete supplied by a concrete plant should be preferred for foundations
I"' . )
of overhead lines. In Europe and other industrialized coun.tries, an area-covéring supply
with only short transport distances is guaranteed; in this case, the use of ready-mixed
!g 3
, I
I
concrete is economic and provides a guaranteed quality by supervision and quality
testing at the concrete plant and during transport.
a.
"'
i5
2
working lo':':_ //
,,
In less industrialized countries and in case of non-acceptably long transport distances,
the concrete needs to be mixed on site. This is the reason why the basic principies of
/
'
extrapolalíon

,... ~
o
0,0 0,2
~

0,4 0,6
----
0,8 1,0 1,2
k
'> ,,,. ...

pile2

1,4 Figure 16.6: Uplift load-displace-

concrete technology are presented here. The concrete strength class C 20/25 or at most
C 30/37 according to (16.4] is sufficient for foundations of overhead lines. Experienced
workmanship is necessary to prepare high-quality concrete on site.

Ratio load to workíng load - - - ment diagram

16.3. 7.2 Constituent materials

Cement
- Filling of ali voids in between grillage members with friable material, e. g. sand.
Cement is a hydra.ulic bínder for mortar and concrete. When mixed with water, cement
Alternatively, the grillage base profiles are cast in concrete, if specified.
hardens at the a.ir and is capable doing so under water. The hardened cement paste
- Then, backfillin.g needs to be carried out carefully without damaging the steel
formed such is water resistant. The standards ENV 197 [16.5] and DIN 1164 [16.6]
parts. Therefore, mechanical backfilling is not advisable. In.stead, the backfill is
apply for cement. ENV 197 distinguishes between three ma.in types:
placed in ma.nually.
Compaction of ba.ckfill is carried out with a pneumatic hammer or by a cornpa.ctor - CEM I: Ordinary Portland cement,
having a weight of a.t least 10 kg. lt is preferable to use the same soil for backfilling - CEM 11: Portland iron pulverízed fuel-cement, Portland ash cement, Portland
as removed during excavation, if suita.ble. The layer thickn.ess for ba.ckfill should limestone cement,
be aroun.d 0,20 rn. - CEM III: Blast furnace cement.
- It is recornmen.ded to carry out the ba.ckfill until a height of about 0,30 rn above Cement is offered with special features such as "LHPC" for low-heat Portland cement,
the ground leve], in arder to avoid water accumulation around the foundation. "SR" for high-sulphur-resisting cement and "LA" for low a.lcali cement a.nd wíth dif-
Grillage foundations ha.ve been successfully used for lines in less corrosive soil conditions fering strength classes.
and for towers with relatively low foundation loads. Ordinary Porlland cement with the strength classes 32,5 or 42,5 is used predomina.ntly
for overhead line foundations, whereby the nominal strength after 28 days will be at
least 32,5 N /mm2 or 42,5 N /mm 2 , respectively. The letter "R" (rapid) added to the
16.3.6 Anchor foundations strength cla.ss refers to an early strength. For ordinary Portland cement, the initial
setting time may not be less than 60 minutes (a.t 20ºC) according to [16.6] after adding
Tra.nsmission line towers at sites with rock subsoil can be erected on foundations using the water. The concrete has to be placed within this period of time. In case of cernen.t
tensile anchors, if the rock complies with the classifications WO and Wl accordin.g to a.ccordin.g to (16.5], the setting may start already after 45 minutes. The start of setting
Ta.ble 13.8 characterized as not to be loosened manually. Special anchors are a.dopted can be delayed by admíxtures, e. g. calcium sulpha.te.
for the stay wires of guyed towers.
Cement takes up humidity and carbon.ic acid from the air resulting in a strength re-
The drillings into the rock are carried out by rock drilling rigs which adopt rota.tional duction. Therefore, the cement needs to be protected aga.inst these impacts during
drillin.g, beat drilling or beat-rotational drilling methods. For transmission. !in.es, the transport a.nd storing (see [16. 7], da.use 2.1.3). Cement used for overhead line construc-
beat drillin.g rigs usin.g compressed a.ir for rinsing out the material are used. Drilling tion should not be older tha.n three months.
diameters up to 120 mm can be achieved.
To transfer the loa.ds from the anchor to the subsoil, the borehole together with the
installed anchor bar is cast with mortar. Mortar premixed by the producer or site-mixed Aggregates
mortar with admixtures can be used. The borehole diameter should be 40 mm larger For concrete aggregates, ENV 206 [16.4] refers to national standards or project spec-
than the nominal diameter of the anchor bar to achieve complete covering of the anchor ifications. Aggregates accordin.g to standard requirements as specified in DIN 4226-1
bars by mortar as well as the required resistan.ce and suflicient corrosion protection. [16.8] are sufficient for overhead lines. The compressive stren.gth is an essential property
Spacers are required to guarantee the necessary concrete coverin.g. of the concrete. It will be achieved if the compressive strength of hardened cement paste
The tensile strength can be tested after suflicient hardening of the mortar. When using and aggregates is higher than the concrete compressive strength envisaged. In practice,
premixed cast-in rnortar or site-mixed mortar with admixtures for an early strength, the compressive strength of the aggregates is higher tha.n that of the ha.rdened cement
testing can be carried out already a.fter a few days. According to common practice, one paste and, therefore, n.ot decisive for the concrete strength. The compressive strength
anchor is tested for each individual foundation. The anchors are connected to the tower of concrete is not much affected by the strength of the aggregates unless they were very
stubs by means of a steel-reinforced concrete muff. weak.
 16.3 Construction of foundations 633
632 16 Construction

100~----------------------0 Any components of organic origin, sugar, sulphates and chlorides affect the concrete
quality negatively in different manners and should be avoided. Reliable limits and
Mass-%
verification methods are stipulated in [16.8] and [16.10], respectively.

Mixing water and surface water of aggregates

Mixing water is added to the concrete during the mixing procedure. Drinking water
and water from any other source not adversely affecting the essential properties of the
concrete can be used. Water containing oil, grease, sugar, dust, humus or peat is not
suited as is water from mineral sources, too. In case of doubts, the suitability of the
water should be examined.
Salty seawater could be used for plain concrete and for reinforced concrete, if the
chloride contents within the concrete remained below generally accepted lirnits. How-
20
ever, numerous corrosion damage was experienced on the Arabian península, where
aggregates and mixing water from the ocean were used. The damage was caused by
o'----'----'---'----'----'-------'----'----'
carbonizing and attack by chlorides and other salts present in the mixing water. There-
0,25 0,5 1 2 4 8 16 mm31,5
fore, salty seawater or aggregates taken from the sea are no longer accepted in this area
Mesh wídt~Aperture Figqre 16.7: Standard grad- at al!.
ing curves for 32 mm max-
Mesh sieves Square-hole perforated A certain amount of water resulting from the sum of free mixing water and surface
plate sieves imum particle size according
(DIN 4188 Part 1)
(DIN 4187 Part 2) t-0 DIN 1045 water of the aggregates is necessary to achieve the desired consistence of the fresh
concrete. The water content of the aggregates from which it is concluded on the surface
water can be determined by a relatively cost-effective drying test. For overhead lines,
The particle size distribution of aggregates is characterized by groding curves. The pro- values from experience or a visual assessment of the aggregates on the construction site
portion in mass of the individual particle sizes can be determined as a percentage of are sufficient.
the total mass with sieves of varying mash or hole widths. The distribution of the ag- In Central Europe, an aggregate mixture with a maximum particle size of 32 mm with a
gregates should show a grading curve within the lines A and C (Figure 16.7) [16.7]. The grading in the range A/B contains 2,5 % of mass of water on average as surface moisture.
In case of 1980 kg aggregates for 1 m concrete, this will be 1980 kg • 0,025 "" 50 kg
3
shape of aggregates is usually described by items such as rounded, angular or irregular
whereby longitudinally stretched and flat particles of the particle size 4/32 should be water, i. e. approximately 30 % of the required water will be supplied by the surface
lirnited to below 50 % of mass proportion. The grading of aggregates determines the moisture.
water demand and, as a consequence, the cement demand. The more fine particles the
aggregate mixture contains the higher the water demand will be and, therefore, the Concrete admixtures
cement dernand will rise. Concrete admixtures rnay be added to the concrete to control the properties of the
When designing a concrete mixture, the requirements concerning concrete properties fresh or hardened concrete. A certificate issued by a civil engineering supervising or-
and workability have to be complied with and the economics and possibilities of aggre- ganisation or, at least by the supplier, is a precondition for their application. Concrete
gate procurement to be considered as well. For severa! overhead power line construction plasticizers improve consistence and workability without modifying the water-cement
sites, it rnight be difficult to procure grave! or crushed grave! with particle sizes above ratio. Retarding or accelerating admíxtures control the setting time. For overhead lines,
4 mm. A high aggregate content of sand requires an increased amount of mixing water retarding admixtures are frequently necessary to place the concrete before initial setting
and a higher amount of cement. in case of long transport distances or warm weather.
The ultm-fines content consists of cement and the aggregates with particle size Admixtures for water and damp proofing should avoid the ingress of water into the
0/0,125 mm. Ultra-fines contents are necessary for a superior adhesive performance concrete. However, expedient concrete composition and compaction achieve the same
3
and avoiding demixing. An ultra-fines (0/0,125) content of 350 kg/m and an ultra- density in the most cases. The application of concrete admixtures assumes the verifica-
3 is envisaged for overhead
fines plus very fine sand (0,125/0,250) content of 420 kg/m tion of the suitability of a concrete mixture. Therefore, suitability tests or experience
line foundations. A too high content of ultra-fines particles increases the water demand with comparable mixtures over many years are required.
and affects the frost resistance and the resistance to chemical attacks of the hardened
concrete. The content of ultra-fines particles should be limited to an extent necessary 16.3.7.3 Requiremen ts on concrete and concrete properties
for a smooth placing of the concrete (see [16.7, 16.9]).
Settleable solids with particle sizes below 0,063 mm reduce the bonding between the Concrete strength
cement paste and the aggregates especially ifthese settleable solids are clayey; therefore, The concrete strength classes C20/25 and CS0/37 according to ENV 206 [16.4] are
their content needs to be limited. Permissible limits are given in [16.8]. Settleable so/id used for overhead line foundations. The first value refers to the compressive strength
partícles are predominantly combined with fine grain aggregates. For the particle size obtained by testing a cylinder with 150 mm diameter and 300 mm height and the
0/4, the limit of settleable solids is 4,0 % by mass. By means of the settlement test second value to the compressive strength of a cube with 150 mm length of edge, both
according to DIN 4226-3 [16.10], the content can be approxirnately determined on the given in N / mm2 _ Preparation and storage of test specímens are standardized in ISO
construction site together with non-soluble particles of organic origin, e_ g. humus. 2736 (16.11]. Dueto the uncertainties of site-mixed concrete, overhead line foundations
 70 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
Table 16.2: Consistence ranges and indices for concrete
Consistence Spreading Compaction Slump Vebe N/mm
range index
(mm)
factor
(mm)
time
(sec)
t 60 220~-------~-----~
"'
~
Stiff Fl Cl S1 Vl u l/nt'l-+-------1---~-----,,.:¡....j
up to 340 1,45-1,26 10--40 30-21 re so
200
Plastic F2
340 to 410
C2
1,25-1,11
S2 V2 !
.e t 190
50-90 20-11 O> 40 u
e ~1801-+----"--'---'c:,>"""'---t-----:,;L---7"'1--j
Soft F3 C3 S3 V3
420 to 480 1,10-1,04 100-150 10-5
i E
{¡1701=1-a-=-
Flowing F4 S4 V4 oe"
el 30 2160 1-t--..C...::=:7 '"""'--t?"'-:.___--;;,.L-f-,
490 to 600 > 160 <4 8 ~150.+--===--=',~~C""'=--t-----:,,.,-C--j--j
-¡"' 20
E
should be designed for the strength class C20/25 so far as possible. The strength class a.
E
C32
C30/37 can be used in case of ready-mixed concrete. 1 1
8 16,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 :>g,6 5,4 5,2 5,0 4,8 4,6 4,4 4,2 4,0 3,8 3,6 3,4 3,2
A correlation of the concrete strength data according to [16.4] to those specified in Water/cernen! ratio - - - - Finess index
national standards cannot be established directly and is only possible to a Iimited
Figure 16.8: Compressive concrete strength Figure 16.9: Determination of the consist-
extent. The data according to DIN 1045 refer to a cube with 200 mm length of edges
depending on the water-cement ratio, ce- ence-depending water demand of aggregate
and storing conditions for the specimens different from those according to [16.11]. ment classes CE 42,5 and CE 32,5, cu bes with mixtures by means of finess index
The properties of the hardened cement paste are prevalent for the concrete compressíve 150 mm length of edges and storage of the
strength,. These properties depend on the strength class of the cement and on the water- cubes according to ISO 2736
cement ratio. Guideline data to determine the concrete compressive strength depending
on the cement class and water-cement ratio can be obtained from Figure 16.8.
From Figure 16.9, the water demand of an aggregate mixture necessary for the envisaged
When carrying out a suitability test, a higher strength needs to be verified than the
consistence can be determined based on the finess index. E. g., 168 1/m3 water will be
nominal strength of the concrete. E. g., the compressive strength of a 150 mm test cube
necessary for aggregates having a grading curve B32 to achieve a plastic concrete close
should be 35 N/mm 2 in case of concrete class C20/25.
to the limit of soft consistence. For concrete strength class C20/25, a mínimum cernent
Consistence content of 280 kg/m3 is required according to Table 16.3. In case of a water-cement
Four consistence ranges are distinguished for fresh concrete: Stiff, plastic, soft and flow- ratio of 0,6, a total of 168 1/rn3 water will be necessary, a result which is also obtained
ing (ISO 4103, [16.12]). The consistence is a summarizing property for the workability from Figure 16.9.
of the concrete, whereby the consistence data are used as measuring and assessment In sorne project specifications, a mínimum cement content is stipulated, lying well
quantities. Four methods can be used to determine the consistence indices: The spread- above the content necessary due to concrete technology. Such stipulations take ca.re of
ing index test [16.13], the compaction test [16.14], the Slump test (16.15] and the Vebe frequently adverse conditions and uncertainties for mixing and handling of concrete on
test [16.16]. For overhead line foundations, predominantly plastic concrete is used which site.
can be well compacted by vibrators. Table 16.2 contains the consistence ranges and the
related consistence indices according to standardized test methods. Concrete temperature
According to [16.4] and [16.9], the temperature of the fresh concrete should neither
Water and cement demand exceed 30ºC nor fall below 5ºC during the period between mixing and placing of the
Cement and water demand of concrete are closely correlated. The correlation is de- concrete. The temperature of the fresh concrete can be controlled by heating up the
scribed by the water-cement ratio defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the aggregates and the added water during cold weather. It needs to be ensured that the
weight of cement. In Figure 16.8, the concrete strength is shown as a function of the temperature of the concrete does not fall below 5ºC before the strength has achieved
water-cement ratio. However, enough water is necessary to provide for good workability at leaEt 6 N/mm2 . In hot weather, attention should be paid to avoid heating up of
and compaction with the available compaction tools, e. g. vibrators. A water-cement aggregates and water. The water needs to be cooled in extreme climate.
ratio between 0,5 and 0,6 should be used when preparing plastic concrete for tower
foundations. If a water-cement ratio of 0,5 is envisaged, the water demand corresponds Durability of concrete
to half of the cement weight. Concrete should durably protect the reinforcement against corrosion and resist given
There are severa! possibilities to determine the water and cement demand of an ag- environmental conditions. Standard ENV 206 [16.4), therefore, requires measures r~
gregate mixture. One of these methods is based on the finess index, characterizing the lated to the following five exposure conditions:
particle distribution of the aggregates. The finess index is a scale for the total surface ( 1) Dry environment;
of ali particles and, therefore, for the water demand which depends directly on this (2 a/b) Humid environment without and with frost, respectively;
surface. The finess index is obtained by summing up the individual test sieve residuals (3) Humid environment with frost and effects of d~icing salts;
of a test sieve set in percent by mass and dividing this sum by 100. Details can be (4) Attack by seawater environment;
found in (16.7]. (5a/b/c) Attack by chemically aggressive environment (low, medium, high).
636 16 Construction 16.3 Construction of foundations 637

According to ENV 206, Table 4, requirements on the composition of the concrete con- Table 16.3: Requirements on standard-mixed concrete C20/25 depending on exposure
ceming mínimum cement content and maximum water-cement ratio, on the type of conditions according to ENV 206 [16.4] and on concrete without suitability test according
cement, e. g. cement with sulphate resistance, and for coatings to protect the concrete to DIN 1045 [16.9]. Maximum particle size 32 mm, cement according to strength class 32,5
in direct contact with aggressive media (exposure condition 5 c) result for the individual E1'N 206 DIN 1045
exposure conditions. National standards may be used until ENV 206 will be mandatory Condition Water/ Cement Gradíng Water/ Cement content for consisten.ce class
of cement content curve cement Fl/Cl/Sl F2/C2/S2 F3/C3/S3
approved. According to [16.9], concrete complying with the requirements for exposure
exposure ratio kg/m3 ratio kg/m 3
condition 2 b (concrete for externa! application) should be used for overhead lines.
2a 0,60 280 No ínformation
2b 0,55 280 A/B 0,6 300 2 ) 3202 ) 3502 )
16.3.7.4 Ready-mixed concrete B/C 0,6 320 21 350 2 ) 380 2 )
5a 0,55 2803 ) n. p.'l n. p.'l n. p.'l
Ready-mixed concrete is prepared in a concrete plant, mixed in the plant or on a truck 5b 0,50 300 3 ) ll. p_1) n. p.'l n. p.'l
mixer and delivered to site in a condition ready for placing. Ready-mixed concrete 5c 0,45 300 3 ) n. p.') n. p.'l n. p.'l
presents the most economic solution for many overhead lines, complying reliably with ,¡ Not permissible without suitabilíty test
the quality and testing requirements. In [16.4], the responsibility between the construc- 2) Concrete for externa! applícations accordíng to DIN 1045, 6.5.5.1 - Table 4
tion company (user of concrete) and the producer of the concrete is controlled with 3)In case of a sulphate content above 500 mg per kg water or above 3000 mg per kg soil, sulphate
reference to the following types of order: resistance cement needs to be used
Prescribed mixture: The concrete composition and the aggregates are specified
by the construction company. However, it is a prerequisite that the specifications valid for a project permits the use
Design mixture: The concrete producer selects the aggregates and determines of standard mixtures.
the concrete composition. A mix desígn offers the most economic solution in case of larger concrete quantities
For overhead line purposes, mostly design mixtures are selected from the concrete type as required far overhead line construction sites. The mixture of the concrete should be
list of the producer, considering the following criteria: specified based on suítability tests or on experience with comparable conditions. The
Strength classes: C20/25 or C30/37 or others; special conditions concerning thc aggregates available on the construction site need to
- Maximum particle size of aggregates: 32 mm or others; be considered to ensure that the required characteristics of the concrete will be met.
- Purpose of use: Reinforced concrete, environmental conditions, exposure condi- For many over head lines, the exposure condition 2 b (humid environment with frost)
tions: see clause 16.3. 7.3; according to [16.4] is relevant. The concrete strength class C20/25 and a maximum
- Workability: Consistence, admixtures in case of long transport distance or placing particle size of 32 mm for the aggregates are provided far this application. For a superior
periods, ability for pumping, fresh concrete temperature; workability, plastic consistence, e. g. a consistence with a spreading index of 370 to
- Type of cement: Special climatic conditions, special requirements concerning pro- 390 mm, should be aimed at.
tection against chemical attack. According to Table 16.3, a cement content of 280 kg/m3 is necessary according to ENV
The construction company should check the delivering notes in view of conformity with 206 [16.4] without any special requirements on the strength class and type of cement.
the order and the transport period befare unloading on the construction site. During The water-cement ratio may reach 0,55 at maximum according to a water demand of
unloading, the consistence should be checked visually or by tests in case of doubts. 280·0,55 = 154 l. The grading curve may be between the lines A32 and C32 according to
Figure 16.7. According to Figure 16.8, a cube strength of 37 N/mm 2 can be expected
under these preconditions, using a cement with the strength class 32,5. However, to
16.3.7.5 Site-mixed concrete
achieve a consistence range F2 with a water demand of 154 l/m3, a finess index of
Mixing of concrete on site requires a mixing instruction which can be obtained from: approximately 5,0 is required according to Figure 16.9. Therefare, the grading curve
- Specifications stipulated by the line owner or by project specification. These stip- needs to be within the range A/B. This can be achieved with 600 kg/m3 aggregate of
ulations should be checked on compliance with the mínimum requirements of the the particle size 0/4, 800 kg/m3 of the particle size 4/16 and 600 kg/m3 of the particle
relevant standards. size 16/32.
Use of standard-mixed concrete, e. g. according to DIN 1045 (Table 16.3), if this The example demonstrates that with standard mixtures according to ENV 206 the re-
is permitted for the individual application. quired properties cannot be securely achieved. Therefore, a verification of the stipulated
Selection of aggregates and composition of concrete according to the mix design properties should be carried out.
and verification of the required properties of fresh and hardened concrete. According to DIN 1045 [16.9], a standard mixture without suitability tests for the
Mixtures stipulated by a line owner aim at achieving the desired quality without much consistence range F2 and far the exposure condition 2b is required as follows (Table
care on economics. They take into consideration any uncertainties possibly occurring 16.3): Mínimum cement content 320 kg/m3 with a cement strength class 32,5; water-
at overhead line construction sites and assume grading curves with high water demand cement ratio at maximum 0,6, that is 320 • 0,6 = 192 l water; grading curve within the
which may not care enough on the particle size distribution of actually used aggregates. range A/B.
Concrete may be produced followíng prescribed mixtures without suitability tests ac- Under these conditions, a strength of 35 N/mm2 tested at cube results from Figure 16.8.
cording to [16.9]. Standard-mixed concrete should comply with the mínimum require- In case of 192 1/m3 water, a finess index of 3,4 is required for the consistence range F2
ments accordíng to Table 16.3. The application of standard-míxed concrete is advan- according to Figure 16.9. For this water and cement content, ali types of aggregates
tageous if low concrete quantities are necessary or a tight schedule requires its use. having grading curves within the range A/C can be used. The specified properties can
be safely achieved with the standard mixtures according to [16.9]. Backfilling of the excavation with slightly humid material immediately after re-
If no other stipulated properties require the use of cement according to the strength moving of the formwork and planking;
class 32,5, cement according to the strength class 42,5 should be selected. The concrete Spraying of curing agents which form a protecting film.
strength will be increased and the mínimum cement demand can be reduced by 10 %. The required period for concrete curing amounts between two and ten days according to
Cement with both strength classes is offered at the same price on the market. (16.4] and depends on the development of concrete strength and on the environmental
conditions such as sun radiation, action of wind and air humidity. Curing the concrete
16.3.7.6 Handling and placing the concrete may also be necessary to protect the concrete against heavy rainfall, flowing water, a
too rapid cooling or freezing at low air temperatures. At temperatures of 10 to 20ºC,
Placing the concrete requires a clean and so far as possible dry excavation pit. Water the concrete reaches 80 % of its final strength after a period of 14 days; then the tower
should be pumped out or the concrete has to be placed as under-water concrete. erection can start.
The reinforcement may not be polluted by soft soil subfuces. Therefore, a subgrade
layer of lean concrete should be provided before installing the reinforcement. Mixing 16.3. 7.8 Methods for verification of concrete properties
of soft soil and concrete would affect the concrete quality and needs to be avoided.
The concrete formwork should withstand the expected load. It should be clean and Compressive strength
coated with release agents not contaminating the reinforcement. The position of the Standard [16.4] requires a test series of the concrete compressive strength according to
reinforcement may not be dislocated when placing the concrete. To avoid such a dislci- (16.17] and [16.11] to be carried out after 28 days at 300 mm tall cylinders with 150 mm
cation of reinforcement, thick timber planks should be used to walk on. diameter or at cubes with 150 mm length of edges. The test specimens are stored under
Ready-mixe,d concrete should be placed without interruption after delivery. In case of water at 18 to 22ºC before testing. Standard [16.9] requires a test series according to
concrete without retarding admixtures, the transport and placing period at 20ºC may [16.18]. The test specimens are stored seven days under water and 21 days at air with
not exceed 60 minutes in case of cement types according to German standards or 45 a humidity of 50 to 70 % and 15 to 22ºC temperature.
minutes in case of cement types according to EN standards. The differing dimensions of the test specimens affect the testing results. For compar-
The workability of concrete depends on its consistence. Plastic concrete, e. g. according isons, the compressive strengths obtained from differing test specimens can be con-
to consistence range F2, can be compacted by vibrators. During transportation and verted using factors gained from experience. Assuming the storing conditions accord-
placing, the concrete may not demix, especially honey combs may not be generated. ing to [16.9], the following relations for the strengths apply: /3cube200 = 0,95 /Jcubel50i
Elephant trunks, craning skips or chutes need to be used in case of falling heights above /3cube200 = 1,18 /3cyl and /3cubel50 = 1,24.Bcyl, where .Bcube200 is the compressive strength
2,0 m, column-type structural components with a cross section of 0,5 m times 0,5 m gained at a test cube with 200 mm length of edges, /3cubel50 that at a test cube with
excepted. 150 mm length of edges and /3cyl that gained at a standard cylinder.
The concrete should be placed such that after compaction no hollow spaces will be With increasing penetration of humidity, the friction forces within the texture decreases
left below anchoring sections or cleats. The concrete is placed in 0,5 m thick layers Therefore, it can be concluded that also the storing conditions affect the test results.
and compacted by intemal vibrators. The interna! vibrator should be dipped rapidly Test results gained from the procedures according to EN or DIN standards cannot be
into the concrete at distances of 0,4 to 0,8 m and pulled out slowly depending on compared directly. Test results gained from testing a cube with 200 mm length of edges
the working principie of the vibrator. The vibrator should penetrate approximately and processed according to specifications given in DIN 1048 have to be reduced by a
0,15 m into the bottom layer which was previously compacted, to achieve a sufficient factor of 0,92 according to [16.19], page 5.6 to gain data which can be compared with
bonding between the individual layers and avoid unscheduled construction joints. When compressive strengths obtained from tests on cylinders.
pulling out the vibrator, the hole within the concrete should close itself. The vibration
procedure should be stopped when no more air bubbles escape at the surface. A too Consistence
long vibration process should be avoided since otherwise a watery concrete mud would To assess the consistence, the spreading index test according to ISO 9812, the com-
be formed at the surface. paction test according to ISO 4110 or the Slump test according to ISO 4109 are fre-
Rain as experienced in Central Europe <loes not affect the concrete quality to a notice- quently used. Table 16.2 represents informationrelevant for overhead lines. The assess-
able extent. However, very heavy and enduring rainfalls may result in washing off the ment of consistence according to the specified approaches does not completely coincide.
cement at horizontal and inclined surfaces and in demixing of concrete layers close to That means, that the consistence range F2 is not completely equivalent to the class
the surface, thus increasing the water-cement ratio. Therefore, the concrete should be S2. In Central Europe, the spreading index or compaction test is given priority, while
adequately protected in this cases. outside of Europe the Slump test is most frequently adopted.

16.3.7. 7 Curing the concrete 16.3.7.9 Quality supervision and quality management
The concrete needs the water content for hardening, therefore a curing of freshly placed According to [16.4],quality supervision comprises all measures, decisions and tests which
concrete is always necessary, e. g. to avoid drying out. are carried out corresponding to stipulations for concrete with the aim of guaranteeing
Methods of curing the concrete are: the specified requirements.
- Continuous spraying with water; The quality supervision can be divided into:
- Application of humid covers; - Contractor su.pervisíon (production supervision): Contractor supervision com-
- Keeping the formwork up to the end of the curing period; prises checks and tests including the evaluation of the test results. The contractor
 640 16 Construction 16.5 Setting of tower stubs or bases 641

supervisíon needs to be carríed out by the construction manager, the subcontrac- adjustment of leg member indination point of reterence p!anview A • A

1 tors and supplíers, whereby each of these entities is responsible for its range of
tasks. T
Quality verification: Quality verification comprises measures and decísíons A
based on stipulated criteria to assess conformity with stípulated requirements.
1 Vv'ithin this group are the quality verification by independent quality control
organisations and/or acceptance tests taking test specimens. For overhead lines connection
using concrete according to the strength class C20/25, the qualíty verification can ot struts.
iower centre
be carried out by the construction company, since in case of site-mixed concrete
only negligible reliability related risks are given.
leg member stub
A documentation according to the rules is an essential part of quality superv1S10n.
Retraceable records need to be made for which the construction manager is responsible.
The tests need to be recorded and approved with respect to the necessary number of
tests and the compliance of the results wíth the stipulations. The chronologícal progress adjustable struts
1/,
of the individual activitíes like installation of the reinforcement, placing the concrete to ground
and curing have to be documented. For this purpose, the weather conditions, unusual
events and special mea.sures, if any, to reach the stipulated concrete characteristics are
recorded, e. g. protection against frost.
Suitability tests belong to the responsibility of the contra.ctor's supervision. Prior to Figure 16.10: Example of an equipment for installation of individual stubs
usíng the concrete, the concrete composition is verified which is needed to reach reli-
ably the requirements on the concrete with the aggregates and the conditions at the on both sides. Low earthing resistance are achieved in cohesive soil. Stones or coarse
construction si te. gravel directly at the earth electrode increase the earthing resistanceto a large extent.
In case of ready-mixed concrete, the manufacturing plant verifies the suitability if con- Earthing rods are driven manuaily or by tools as deeply as possible into the soil. In
crete is delivered according to a design mixture. Delivery notes and consistence need case of shallow foundations, they can be driven into the soil from the excavation pit
to be checked visually when the ready-rnixed concrete is delivered to site. subface before starting of concrete placing.
For site-mixed concrete, a series of tests concerning the constituent materials of con- The earthing resistance are measured by means of an earth tes ter (see clause 5.11). If the
crete, tools and production of the concrete have to be carried out according to (16.4]. required earthing resistance is exceeded, the earthing properties need to be improved
Also for production, transportation, placing, compacting, curing and quality supervi- by additional earth electrodes. To achieve low transition resistance, metallic bright
sion of concrete quality management programs are increasingly established or required. connections between earth connectors and towers should be envisaged and supervised.
These contain requirements, mea.sures to comply with the requirements, tests and spec-
ifications for documentation. Within these categories are:
Requirements on constituent materials (cement and aggregates);
16.5 Setting of tower stubs or bases
Requirements on composition and properties of the concrete;
16.5.1 Methods and tools
Type, extent and documentation of tests for verification that the requirements
are complied with; The stubs or bases of lattice steel towers need to be set in place before establishing the
Description of methods for production, transportation, placing, compaction and connection with the foundation. There are two procedures adopted:
curing of the concrete; - The stubs are set by means of a setting template or with the tower base.
Methods for documentation. - The stubs are set individually and independently of each other.
Quality management programs have proven their adequacy for a qualitatively convinc- In case of shallow foundations, the stubs are arranged on concrete blocks in the ex-
ing and economic execution of concrete works (16.20]. cavation or on a layer of lean concrete. Differences in heights are balanced by placing
steel plates underneath the stubs or by adjustment of bolts arranged at the lowermost
cleats at the stubs.
16.4 Installation of earthing In case of augered foundations or piles, the setting templates are supported and adjusted
by jack stands. The stubs are connected to the setting templates hanging into the
Where necessary, transmission line supports are equipped with earthing installations borehole or a.hove the pile head. The tower axis should intersect the line axis at the
to conduct failure and induction currents as well as currents from lightning strokes into tower witness pillar. The tower base or setting template can be adjusted by means of
the earth (see Chapter 5). For this purpose, horizontally arranged electrodes, named a theodolite. Reference marks at the template or tower base can ease this activity.
counterpoises or earthing rods can be installed in the soil. Settíng of stubs individually has proved its qualification especially in case of wide-spread
Horizontal/y armnged electrodes can be installed radial oras rings in manually or tool- towers and towers with grea.t differences in the leve! of the individual leg member foun-
assisted excavated trenches in depths between 0,6 and 1,0 m. The earthing conductor datíons. Each índividua.l leg member stub is separately adjusted to the required position
or strap is conductive connected to the tower leg members. Earthing straps should be and fixed there. Thereby, the efforts for manufacturing, transport and expensive instal-
installed endup in the trench such that the back-filled soil touches the earthing strap lation and removing of wide and heavy setting templates can be waived. An equipment
a) where
rm is the horizontal displacernent at the top of the structure (Figure 16.11 a) and
hT the reference height above the base of the structure.

The horizontal displacement follows frorn

n
rm =re!+ L°'si. s; (16.2)
envisaged inciined tower
without loading i=l
tower positíon
under everyday where
conditions ¡ rm is the elastic deforrnation of the structure at the reference heíght,
/3 O:si the tilting angle of the joint,
í and s; the distance between this joint and the position of the structure where
the deforrnation is considered and
n the nurnber of joints.
Figure 16.11: Position of The elastic deformation re1 can be calculated according to the principle of the virtual
towers without and with energy assurning a virtual horizontal force F = 1 at the position where the deforrnation
conductor everyday loads
is considered:
a) tower top vertically
above the tower centre; _ [hT N(x)N(x) [hT M(x)M(x) dx
(16.3)
b) crossarrn horizontally rei - lo EA(x) dx + lo EI(x)
In this equation, there are
is schematically shown for setting stubs individually in Figure 16.10. The stubs should N(x) axial mernber force dueto externa! load at everyday condition;
be carefully levelled complying with a maxirnum tolerance of leve! between the highest N axial rnember force due to virtual load;
and lowest Ieg not more than approximately 6 mm. A(x) cross-sectional member area;
Both rnethods are suited to reach the accuracy needed in view of the tower alignrnent. M(x) bending rnornent dueto externa! load at everyday condition;
Only two days after placing the concrete, the setting template or the equipment for M(x) bending rnornent dueto virtual load;
setting the stubs rnay be removed. The concrete strength achieved is decisive for this J(x) rnoment of inertia;
period. Since during the short period, the concrete strength <loes not reach its final E rnodulus of elasticity.
value, any vibrations of the leg mernbers should be avoided when rernoving the setting When airning at a horizontal position of the considered crossarm after stringing, the
templates or equipment. inclination angle (3 of the unloaded structure should be (Figure 16.11 b):
n
16.5.2 Inclination of angle and dead-end towers f3 = /?el + L •asi (16.4)
i=l
In order to achieve a vertical position of angle, angle-section and dead-end supports,
where /!el is the elastic deformation angle at the height of the considered crossarm.
perrnanently loaded by conductor tensile forces after stringing, the structures need to
The deforrnatíon angle /?el can be obtained according to the principie of the virtual en-
be erected with an inclination against the direction of loading. The objective of the
ergy assurning a virtual externa! mornent M º = 1 at the position w here the deformation
inclination can be either
- A position of the tower top vertically above the tower centre at the tower base is considered
(Figure 16.11 a) or [hT Mx(x)Mº
(16.5)
- A horizontal position of the longest crossarm since an inclined crossarm would fiel= lo EI(x) d.x '
provide a negative visual impression.
where M º is the virtual bending mornent and hT the height of the considered crossarrn
In the latter case, a vertical tangent line to the deformation curve of the tower body
above ground. Alternative approaches for calculation of deformatíons are described in
at the height of the crossarrn connection is aimed at (Figure 16.11 b). Before stringing
clause 12.5.14.
the conductors, the inclination of the tower is higher in this case than with respect to
When aiming at a horizontal crossarrn position, an eccentricity of
a vertical position of the tower top.
n
The loads under everyday conditions forrn the basis for the determination of the neces-
sary inclination; in EN 50341-3-4 the everyday condition is specified as lOºC without re = hT tan (3 - re¡ - L °'sis; (16.6)
i=l
wind, to mention an exarnple. In addition to the elastic deformation, the bolt slippage
and the tilting of slip joints of solid wall steel poles contribute to the deforrnation. results after installation of conductors (Figure 16.11 b). The necessary inclination is
When aiming at a vertical position of the reference point above the pole centre at determined for the actual load at the specific tower or pole site.
ground, the inclination during erection is expressed by the angle f3 Using the rnethod descríbed in clause 12.5.14, the elastic deformation of lattice steel
towers can be deterrnined. Due to the great nurnber of members, this rnight be tirne-
f3 = arctan (rm/hT) '°" rm/hT , (16.l) consurning. In addítion to the elastic deformation of bolted lattice steel towers, also the
644 16 Construction 16.6 Erection of supports 645

1,8
%
1,6
"' ~i

"'
1,4
i
1
1,2
1 ¡'\_
g 1,0 1
i
"' - -
.S --1--- -- -- ~
~ 0,8 ¡ 1\
i í [\
0,6 '
1 ¡~··
1 !!
0,4 1 !

0,2
1
' 1\
1 Figure 16.12: Inclination of an angle strain
1 \
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160degreel80 tower given as a percentage of the tower width
Une angle - - - ( example)
Figure 16.13: Tower erection by elevation
tilting due to the bolt slippage within the joints should be considered. An assumption
of 4 mm slip per joint has been proved as correct. An additional inclination of 0,1 to 16.6 Erection of supports
0,2 % of the tower height takes care of visual amplification of tower inclination dueto
tension insulator sets and the deformatíon of the foundation. In Figure 16.12, the data 16.6.1 Introduction
for determination of inclination depending on the line angle are shown for a 110 kV line.
The inclination is expressed as the increase in level of the compr-ession loaded stubs The method used for erection of supports depends on design, weight and dimensions of
relatively to the tower width at the joint above ground surface. towers or poles, accessibility of tower sites, available tools and machines and qualifica-
The diagram in Figure i6.i2 appiies for a tower instaiied in the bisectrix of the angle. tion of the erection staff. The method has to be selected with respect to economics as
From this diagram, also the necessary inclination of towers can b,e determined which well. Assessing these aspects, lattice steel towers are erected piece by piece with pre-
are not arranged in the bisectrix or are loaded by differing conductor tensile forces. For assemhled walls, with preassembled sections or completely assembled on ground and
this purpose, the acting forces are divided into components in parallel to both tower
axes. For these components, the equivalent line angles can be determined which would lifted or tilted then.
lead to the same horizontal forces. For these fictitious line angles, the inclination as
a percentage of the tower width can be taken from the diagram in Figure 16.12. By
multiplication with the tower widths, the portions in increase of stubs of the individual 16.6.2 Assembly and erection by elevation
tower legs can be obtained.
Low-weight and short self-supporting lattice steel towers are frequently assembled by
elevation. The activities are started by erection of the legs, continuing with the first hor-
Example: For a line angle of 145º anda tmver wídth of 6,30 m, the increase of stub elevation
should be determined from Figure 16.12. izontal diaphragm as base for the erection of the supports. The erection then proceeds
For 145º an inclination of 0,86 % results from Figure 16.12, yielding a difference in height of by installing sets of preassembled or individual members. Hoisting of parts is carried
6,30 • 0,86 · 1000/100 = 54 mm. out manually assisted by winches and trucks. The hoisted members are rendered to the
In case of solid wall steel poles with slip joints, the publication [16.21] proposes to linemen at the mounting position to insert them in due place and tighten the bolts.
consider a tilting of 0,4° per joint at the maximum load. In [16.2 2], the deformation After completing a tower section, the assembly of the following section can start. In this
of solid wall steel poles equipped with slip joints is reported. The poles were erected phase, bolts are only partially tightened just enough to keep the structure in position.
with the predetermíned inclinations and then checked with respect to the position of The final bolt tightening is carried out when revising the assembling. In Figure 16.13,
the crossarms after finalizing conductor stringing. From this study, it can be concluded tower assembly by elevation method is shown. Guyed towers as well can be erected by
that independently of the loading and the pole type a tilting of 0,3 to 0,4° should be elevation making use of provisional guys. Here, winches are generally adopted.
considered for ea.ch joint. From these measurements, no conclusion on the inclination of
the foundations could be drawn. Since an inclination against the tower loading seems
16.6.3 Tower erection using a crane
always to be more expedient, the inclination of the foundation should be considered
by an angle of at least 0,1° unless locally more unfavourable subsoil conditions would Tower or pole erection by means of a mobile crane suitable for going cross-country is
advice to adopt higher values. advantageous if the support sites can be accessed without dif:!iculties at all weather
conditions. Single poles made of wood, concrete or steel tubes can be lifted by a crane
onto the foundation or into an excavation. By the help of a crane, lattice steel towers
having heights up to 30 m and widths up to 2,5 m can be erected in one piece. A suf-
ficiently wide space is necessary for a complete three-dimensional assembly on ground.
Taller and wider towers nave to be erected section by section after preassembling on
ground.
646 lo Uonstruct1on

16.6.4 Tower erection by means of a gin pole

16.6.4.1 Procedur es
in
Where erection by mobile crane is not possible or uneconomic, several methods are
A
use where the crane is replaced by a gin pole in combinati on with a hoisting winch.
lattice steel structure made of tubes or angle sections is used as a gin pole, whereby
the dimension s correspond to the required rating and the hoisting height. A gin pole
made of aluminium alloy is lighter in weight, however, is more susceptibl e to damage and
the
cannot be repaired by tools available on the constructi on site. To ease its transport,
gin pole is divided into individual parts with lengths of approxima tely 5 m. Therefore,
the
the total length can be adjusted by removing or inserting individual sections. At
ends of the gin pole, foot and head componen ts, respectively, are arranged depending
on the application .
ly
For hoisting the tower componen ts, slowly running drum winches with continuous
varible revolution control are used which can also be adopted for sagging during con-
be
ductor stringing operation. The required length of rope of approxima tely 300 m can
perfectly winded up !ayer by layer on a sufficiently wide reel. Its core diameter should
at least reach 20 times the rope diameter. Crane ropes available on the market are used
foot - - - ! l ' c - - - - ' f i f
as hoisting rapes, the theoretica l failing load of which should be at least three times componen!
the
the expected tensile force. The hoisting winches are hydraulica lly driven. When
pressure within the hydraulic system decreases, the reel brake is automatic ally closed.
the
In addition, a deadman's circuit leads to an immediate stand-still of the winch ií
winch rope without any load, the
control stick is !et go off. To be able to unwind the
reel is decoupled from the hydraulic drive. A protecting device against slacking rope
prevents an unintentio nal decoupling under load.
the
The differing erectíon procedures for piecemeal tower erection are distinguish ed by
arrangeme nt of the gin pole at the tower.

16.6.4.2 Erection with a gin pole outside the tower

is
When erecting a tower with a gin pole arranged outsíde the tower body, a bracket
fixed at the upper part of a leg member by which the gin pole is supported (Figure
to
16.14). The foot componen t of the gin pole is articulated on the bracket and fixed Figure 16.14: Erection with a gin pole outside Figure 16.15: Erection with a gin pole
ar-
the leg member. The head of the gin pole is equipped with four anchors to ground in the centre of the tower
the tower ranged
staggered at approxima tely 90º, the length oí which can be varied from the ground
a
surface by means of come-alongs. Therefore, it is possible to incline the gin pole into
position required for hoisting of a tower componen t. The hoisting rope runs from the roads in dose proximity to the tower to be erected aggravate the anchoring, as do fruit-
anchored hoisting winch to the leg member, is deviated by approxima tely 90º upwards trees, vineyards or forests. Also the soil conditions may not be in favour of installing
be
by means of a pulley and runs then in parallel to leg member and gin pole over pulleys anchors, e. g. mud or rock. Under such conditions, an erection procedure should
a of anchors to ground.
at the head componen t to the load. The part to be hoisted being a tower section, preferred without the necessity
by an anchor rope to avoid clashing to
tower face or an individual member is guided
the gin pole or to the tower body already assembled. 16.6.4.3 Erection with gin pole in the tower centre
When a tower section is completely assembled, the gin pole is lifted. For this purpose,
an additional bracket is arranged at the upper end of the leg member of the tower Erection using a gin pole arranged in the tower centre is especially suited for towers
to
section just assembled. The hoisting rape runs then from the winch to the pulley
at with large widths and at tower sites with more difficult conditions since no anchors
the leg member stub, further to the pulley at the upper bracket and then downward s ground are necessary.
to be fixed to the foot componen t of the gin pole. When the winch starts pulling, the The gin pole has in principie the same designas used for working outside the tower body
by
foot componen t can be released from the lower bracket and the gin pole is hoisted
by and is arranged in the centre of the tower body. The foot componen t is supported
brackets arranged in the upper section oí
simultaneo usly releasing the head anchors until the foot componen t can be fixed to the four equally long anchors which are carried by
the leg members. Approxim ately two thirds of the total gin pole length protrude above
upper bracket. the
Tower erection by means oí a gin pole arranged outside the tower body requires a wide the brackets. The head of the gin pole is anchored by means of four anchors to
or same brackets as the foot anchors (Figure 16.15). The lengths of the head anchors can
working area because of the anchors to ground. Other transmissi on lines, railways
648 16 Construction 16.6 Erection of supports 649

be varied by means of come-alongs similarly as ín case of gin pole arranged outside the
tower. The hoisting rope is guided from the hoisting winch over a pulley installed close
to the ground surface in the centre of the tower and through the gin pole and a revolving anchor to ground
for keeping off
pulley at the gin pole head to the load. By this procedure, the tower components can
be assembled piece by piece or face by face.
With the work progress, the gin pole must be lifted to a higher section. For this purpose,
the head anchors equipped with the come-alongs are first fixed to brackets installed at
the tower section just assembled. Then, the lifting of the gin pole is carried out by
means of a hoisting rope fixed at the foot component of the gin pole. This hoistíng rope
is guided over a pulley arranged at a rope between two opposite leg members of the just strop with chain hoisl
assembled section. During lifting of the gin pole, the head anchors are released such to I
keep the gin pole in a vertical position as far as possible. When the foot anchors can
be arranged to the same brackets as the head anchors, the new position of the gin pole
is reached.
By means of a gin pole arranged in the centre, towers with large widths and tall
heights can be erected "ithout any anchors to the ground. Therefore, this method has
gained priority during the last years, especially for erection of self-supporting towers
consisting of a tower body and severa! crossarms. As an example the suspension towers
of the 380 kV crossing over the river Elbe with a height of 227 m and approximately
1000 t weight should be mentioned [16.23]. The 40 m long gin pole hada load capacity
of 100 kN.
Using the same procedure, the suspension towers of the 500 kV crossing over the Suez
canal [16.24] with a weight of 710 t cach aI1d a height of 220 mas ,ve!l as the suspension
towers of the 380 kV crossing III over the Bosphorus [16.25] (weight 450 t, height 160 m)
were erected. In Figure 16.16, the erection of a suspension tower of the crossing over
the Suez canal is shown .

16.6.4.4 Erection with a gin pole in the tower at a leg memher

Figure 16.16: Gin pole arranged in the centre Figure 16.17: Tower erection by means of
For light-weight lattice towers with srnall width, the assembly using a gin pole arranged of a tower, 550 kV line across the Suez canal a gin pole arranged inside the tower at a leg
in the tower centre seems not to be expedient because of the costly handling of foot member
and head anchors. In such a case, erection using agín pole arrnnged inside the tower at
a leg member is more suited because neither anchors to the ground nor anchors withín
and bolted to the tower body. Other crossarms arranged below can be lifted using the
the tower are necessary. The gin pole is arranged articulately on a bracket fixed to the
already installed upper crossarm. For this purpose, the hoisting rope is guided from
leg member inside the tower. At a height of one third of the gin pole length, a strop
the gin pole head to the crossarm assembled at ground, then deviated by a pulley and
equipped with a chain hoist and fixed to the same leg rnember is adopted to move the
guided back to the crossarm already installed. According to this arrangernent, the gin
gin pole into the desired position. An anchoring of the gin pole head to the ground
pole and the already installed crossarm each carry half of the loads to be hoisted .
surface in opposite direction of the load relieves the gin pole when heavy components
A gin pole arranged in the centre of the tower body can be inclined to a low extent
are hoisted. The hoisting rope is guided through the gin pole and over a pulley at the
only. Therefore, the upper crossarm must be hoisted with its top directed upwards,
gin pole head (Figure 16.17).
then jointed to the tower body by means of the upper crossarm chords and tilted into
It is possible to hoist tower faces or single members. Since the gin pole is loaded on
the final position and bolted (Figure 16.18). The crossarms arranged underneath the
bending, special care has to be taken on avoiding any overloads. Due to their limited
first one are lifted utílizing the crossarms above.
hoisting capacity, the gin pole and the winch can be designed relatively light and
transported simply also in terrain difficult to access.
16.6.6 Tower erection using helicopters
16.6.5 Erection of guyed towers The use of helicopters may be advantageous when towers have to be erected within very
short periods of time, línes are converted or the access is diffi.cult, e. g. in mountainous
16.6.5.1 Hoisting of a crossarm using a gin pole
terrain. The use of helicopters, however, is expensive, connected with stress for the erec-
After the tower body has been erected completely, the crossarrns are installed. For this tion staff and to a great extent weather-depen dent. To achieve an economic advantage,
purpose, the gin pole arranged outside the tower body is inclined to arrange its head the components of the towers are preassembled on the ground surface corresponding to
directly above the position where the crossarm will be finally fixed to the tower body. the capacity of the helicopter used. A suffi.ciently high number of linemen is distributed
The crossarm assembled at the ground surface is then lifted in a horizontal position simultaneously on severa! towers such that the helicopter can transport tower parts
Ot>U 10 vOilSUUC<IOll ..LU.U Dl.t;.L,l,lUU Ul ~uppurt:í UU.l

\ I
\ I balance
\ I I \
I \
\ 1 / \
\ pre-assembred lower masts/ \
\ I \

I \ aUXmary mast
I \
I \
-{- I \
I \
I ting \ I \
I \ I \
I \ I \
I \ I \
I \ I \
I \ I \
I \ I \
I \ I \
I I \
I 'INinch \ I \
I truck , I \
I \ I

.I =
I \\
I.
-J,~~~;---winch
7, 777,
A 1, A
guyanchor auxiliary base

Figure 16.20: Arrangement of tower site with Figure 16.21: Lifting of preassembled guyed
preassembled guyed tower tower with auxiliary mast

~
~
guy-wires

Figure 16.18: Hoistíng of a crossarm Figure 16.19: Tower erection usíng a heli-
copter
la
from the storage area to the tower sites where they are installed continuously without Figure 16.22: Erection of guyed tower with Figure 16.23: Erection of guyed tower by
any interruption. Therefore, the linemen on the towers will be active for short periods an auxiliary crossbeam by cranes cranes without auxiliary crossarm
of time only. When adopting high-performance helicopters for heavier weights neces-
sary to erect taller towers, the wake of the rotor will become so strong that working laid down for supporting the mast a.nd tra.nsferring the compression loads to the soiL
of linemen on the towers would be risky. For this case, auxiliary erection remedies are Figures 16.20 and 16.21 outline this erection method.
required which provide guidance and temporarily fastening of the tower components
flown in until the linemen can bolt this parts after the departure of the helicopter and
the auxiliary erection remedies can be dismantled again. In Figure 16.19, tower erection 16.6.6.3 Erection by cranes
by means of a helicopter is shown.
The quicker and usually cheaper method of erecting guyed towers is by means of cra.nes
of adequa.te capa.city, which picks up the assembled tower on the ground either directly
16.6.6.1 Manual method at the crossarm or a.t an auxiliary crossbeam. In Figures 16.22 and 16.23, it is outlined
For manual erectíon o/ guyed towers, the tower is assembled by elevation simílarly how the crane method is applied for erecting towers up to 40 m high (crossarm to
to erection of self-supporting towers described in clause 16.6.2. Provisional guys are ground). The cra.nes adopted should have a ca.pacity of approximately 500 kN and a
adopted for stability of the assembled sections. lifting height of 45 m. Due to the reduction of lifting capacity with height, towers higher
than 32 m require the use of a.uxilia.ry crossbeams. The pick-up point of the crane, as
well the detailed design of the auxiliary crossbea.m are made by the tower ma.nufa.cturer.
16.6.6.2 Use of an auxiliary mast
After erection, while the crane still holds the tower, the guy wires are provisionally tied
A tubular mast composed of about 5 m long modules, sufficiently high according to the to the guy anchors. The guy wires are then cut to appropriate lengths as a function of
tower to be erected is used. On its upper part, an articulated support piece is fastened the terrain slopes, and with the help of two theodolites laid down at longitudinal a.nd
which lays horizontally during the erection. At the lower edge of the mast, a base is transverse directions, the tower is positioned at the plumb, as shown in Figure 16.24.
652 16 Construction 7 16.7 Installation of insulator sets and hardware 653

line axis
control equipment of
guy wire tension
totower
l Table 16.4: Torques for bolt tightening
Bolt type Ml2 Ml6 M20 M22 M24 M27
Bolt diameter (mm) 12 16 20 22 254 27
Torque (N-m) 40 to 60 80 to 120 130 to 180 190 to 230 300 to 340 475 to 610

tower axis Alternatively, bolts should be punched on three points spaced at 120°, and protected
with anti-corrosive dyes. Alternatively, other blocking systerns can be used, as the
employment of spring washers or special glues.

counterpoise 16. 7 Installation of insulator sets and hardware

otheodoli!e connection

16.7.1 Insulator sets

Figure 16.24: Plumbing a guyed tower Figure 16.25: Detail of guy wire tensioning
and connection The insulators are transported in standardized boxes or in crates to the installation si tes
and should be stored there on wood supports and adequately protected. For assemblíng
the insulator strings, special care should be taken, such as:
The insulator sets should be assembled in accordance with the design drawings.
Pins of shackles and clamps, when installed vertically, should be inserted frorn
top to bottom such that they cannot get lost.
The heads of the counterkeys should be positioned such that an easy access during
live-line works is possible.
The suspension insulator sets a.re lifted and installcd before conductor stringing. Pro-
tective cradles should be used for multiple insulator sets to avoid clashing of individual
strings. The stringing blocks are fixed to the insulator sets to prepare the conductor
stringing. The insulator sets should be in a vertical position after the conductor sagging
and the maximum tolerance towards the plumb is limited to 2 % of the string length
for both transverse and longitudinal directions (see clause 16.8.5).

16. 7.2 Joints

Figure 16.26: Lifting of a 500 kV guyed-V tower by means of a crane picking up the tower at
an auxiliary crossbeam Ali cares recommended for the insulators are applicable to the installatíon of hardware
as well. In particular, damage to the finish should be prevented, in order to minimize
A dynamometer controls the tension at one of the guy wires prescribed to be between replacements.
7 to 10 % of the rope RTS. The preformed grips are then installed and the guy wire Compression clamps and splices, after being made, should be accurately checked with
ends are connected to the counterpoise wires, as shown in Figure 16.25. The acceptable regard to correct workmanship. In case of doubts, X-ray tests can be carried out.
tolerances for the tower being out of the perpendicular and torsion are 3 mm/rn of Conductor splices should be at least 10 m far from the nearest structure. Depending
tower height. In Figure 16.26, the erection of a 500 kV guyed-V tower using a crane on the project, conductor joints may not be permitted at spans crossing over highways,
is shown. The crane picks up the structure at an auxiliary crossbeam, since the crane railways or other transmission lines. It is recommended to limit the number of joints to
height is too low for reaching the crossarm. The auxiliary crossbeam is removed after one per span for every conductor or subconductor. Ali the conductors can be jointed
tightening of guy wires. at the same span, but the subconductors of the same phase should be jointed only at
Erection by crane is more appropriate for flat terrain, where the environment is not mínimum spacing of 1,5 m from one another.
disturbed essentially. For hilly terrain, the manual erection and the use of an auxiliary
mast are usually preferable, because they require neither special access roads nor large 16.8 Conductor stringing
terrain cuts near the assembled structure.
16.8.1 General requirements
16.6. 7 Bolts and torques
Conductor stringing should be handled by an experienced crew, not only to prevent
Bolts should be tightened in accordance with prescribed torques or values, as given in damage to the conductors and earth wires but also to maintain the sags and tensions
Table 16.4. specified in the design. Correct sags are essential to give the required rnechanical safety,
In sorne cases, the use of special torques can be required by the design. All nuts should but it is just as important that the actual sags in the line correspond to those used in
be secured against getting loose. Frequently springer washers are used for this purpose. the design, to ensure proper clearances to ground and to obstacles.
 strain tower reel
suspension pulling winder
tower rope puller
pulling ropes "-

/ - -
- = - = _- ~~ - ~
---
-~~~--=---:~~~
- =-:e--""'-- .......,__
'-- pullíng rope
stringing block reel stand
for twin bundle
~ PULLER SITE
" stringing of a
pilo! rope by
means of a tractor

Figure 16.28: Braided pullíng ropes Figure 16.29: Jointing of conductor and pull-
ing rope
pilot rope
puller
stringing the conductors even over strain towers. For this stringing procedure, the same
TENSIONER SITE
lengths are chosen for the pulling ropes as for the phase conductors. However, it is
Figure 16.27: Stringing of a twin bundle conductor necessary to establish tensioner and puller sites regardless the terrain and the sites of
the strain towers. The ends of the conductors are anchored to ground after stringing at
the tensioner site as well as at the puller site. A line crew operating independently of the
To prevent dangerous overvoltages that rnay result from electrostatic induction by stringing procedure adjusts the conductors and terminates them at the strain towers.
parallel energized lines, safety measures should be adequately defined during conductor In densely populated areas like Central Europe, the terrain and the land use do rarely
stringing. permit to plan and constmct lines with long straight tensioning sections. There, it
Before stringing, dynamometers, earth meggers and other equipment should be checked is more appropriate to string the conductors tensioning section by tensioning section
and adjusted. from one strain tower to the next. Behind each strain tower at the end of a tensioning
Before conductor stringing, the contractor should present to the client, for approval, a section a tensioner or puller site is installed. The stringing operation is carried out
complete plan of distribution and unwinding of the conductor and earth wire reels along independently of the lengths of the conductors and the available pulling ropes. If the
the line, containing control spans, layout of stringing equipment, position of the joints, tensioning section Jengths are shorter than the conductor manufacturing lengths, the
provisional anchors to ground. Attention should be given to the reel lengths, aiming conductors are cut; if they are longer, they need to be extended by tension- and current-
at losing the least possible amount of cables. The ma.ximurn length of conductor to be resistant joints (see clause 10.2.4).
strung under tension should not exceed 8 to 10 km.
16.8.3 Conductor stringing equipment
16.8.2 Stringing methods 16.8.3.1 Requirements
There is no international or European standard on conductor stringing. IEC 61328 TS Conductor stringing requires special pulling rapes, stringing blocks, pullers, tensioners
[16.26) deals with installation of conductors in the vicinity of live circuits. The German and accessories. The conductor type and cross section to be installed are decisive for the
standard DIN 48 207-1 (16.27) is applicable for the stringing of overhead line conductors. design of conductor stringing equipment. The required stringing equipment depends
Phase conductors and earth wires should be installed under tension without touching on the conductor stríngíng force for which the everyday stress may be assumed as
the ground or any obstacles. Touching ground or obstacles could cause damage of the maximum. For standard conductors, the everyday stress is approximately 50 N/mm 2 .
conductors, that would infringe their mechanical and electric characteristics. Further-
more, the conductors could corrode because of chernical products potentially available 16.8.3.2 Pulling ropes
on the soil. Therefore, the conductors should run over stringing blocks suspended at
the supports, with sufficient tension to keep them clear of ground surface or obstacles. Pullíng rapes should be as far as possible twist-free. Their mínimum failing load should
For this purpose, the conductor to be unwinded is connected to a pulling rope at the be at least three times the expected stringing force. Ropes may not be used further if a
tensioner site and strung by a puller to the puller site, which can be installed sorne given number of visible strand failures has been reached. Two pulling rope types have
kilometres apart from the tensioner site (Figure 16.27). To guarantee enough clearance proved worthwhile and are mainly used:
to the ground during conductor stringing, an adequate tensile force has to be applied Bmíded rapes made of eight or twelve plaited steel strands have low twist and are,
by means of a controlled tensioner. therefore, well-suited (Figure 16.28). Loops formed during the stringing process open
In case of long line mutes with only a few angle points, it is expedient to utilize the again automatically under tension without forming a typical sharp bend within the
capacity of conductor reels to their ful! extent with respect to the production length, rope. This type of pulling rope has a relatively low filling coefficient compared with
656 16 Construction

Table 16.5: Specification of pulling ropes

7 16.8 Conductor stringing 657

Subconductor Pulling rope

swivel joint
cross section Díameter Lltirnate tensile Standard length
mm
2
mm strength kN m pullingrope
run-up chain run-up runners . .
Single up to 300
Single 300 to 500
Twin bundle up to 500
11
13
16
73
115
165
3000
1600
1200
...
• balance weight chain

conductor

Triple bundle up to 500 20 280 000 • swivel joint

Quadruple bundle up to 600 24 380 800

stranded conductors. Therefore, braided pulling ropes are thicker than stranded ropes
of the same tensile strength and need a larger winding volume on reels or winch drums.
Due to their costlier production, braided ropes are more expensive than stranded ropes. conductor grip
balancing pul!ey steel wire
Compacted, mostly three-plaited-strand steel rapes are less twist-free and, therefore,
should be kept continuously under tension during the stringing procedure. The com- Figure 16.30: Running board for stringing of bundle conductors
paction of the ropes after stranding of the litzes increases their strength and the filling
coefficient, thus reducing the twisting strain. Pulling ropes compacted in this manner
need an essentially lower winding volume compared with braided pulling ropes, how- Inductive or capacitivé interference may occur on the conductors to be strung due to live
ever, are more susceptible against forming of loops and cannot be spliced because of parallel circuits which cannot be disconnected. The current to be expected, therefore,
the design made of three plaited strands. Therefore, joints and thimbles have to be should be known in advance to select suited swivels and woven wire grips. According
compressed in this cases. In Table 16.5 specífications for pulling ropes are shown. to DIN 48 207, Part 2 [16.28), woven wire grips made of steel can be used for currents
up to 160 A. In case of a higher current, damage cannot be excluded. For this case,
tempora.ry compressionjoints or speciaJ cla.mp::; for an increased current capacity should
16.8.3.3 Rope connections
be used. Application of swivels and pulling woven wire grips is standardized in [16.28]
During conductor stringing, rigid connectíons and swívelling joints are used. The first and [16.29), respectively.
type is used for jointing conductors of the same type due to the absence of any twist,
while the latter is used for jointing different conductor types to compensate the expected 16.8.3.4 Stringing blocks
twist. Rigid connectors may run over the bullwheel puller, however, swivels may not be
used such. The size of sheaves for stringing of overhead line conductors depends on the diameter
AH conductor connections applied during stringing operations should withstand three of the conductor to be strung; the diarneter of the pulleys at the groove basis should
times the maximum stringing force to be expected. They should be as slim as possible amount to at Jeast 20 times the conductor diameter. A sufficient width of the grooves
and designed with a diameter as low as possible to enable running over sheaves without should enable an unhindered passage of temporary joints Iike swivels and woven wire
being blocked there. Sharp edges must be avoided. grips. When selecting the stringing blocks, the maximum load expected due to the
Severa! types of connections can be distinguished in view of conductor stringing: conductor rollover angle should be considered as well. Therefore, it is recommended to
- Connection of two identical pulling ropes by a rigid joint; use reinforced stringing blocks at strain towers close to the tensioner and puller site.
- Connection of two pulling ropes with differing diameter by means of a swivelling Neoprene- or perlon-lined sheaves should be used to protect the aluminium layers of the
joint; conductors. The sheaves can be combined to stringing blocks for stringing of bundle
Connection of a conductor and a pulling rope by means of woven wíre grips with conductors, whereby the grooves of the central sheaves accommodating the pulling
a swivel (Figure 16.29); ropes need not to be lined.
Connection of two conductors by two woven wire grips with a rigid connector;
Connection of the subconductors of a bundle with one pulling rope by means of a 16.8.3.5 Puller for conductor stringing
running board, which equalizes the tensile forces in the strung subconductors and
stabilizes them in a horizontal position to guide the connection between pulling The pullers used nowadays for conductor stringing haul either pilot ropes or pulling
ropes and the subconductor over the multiple stringing block without a jerk. The ropes, whereby reel-type or twín bullwheel pullers are used. Reel-type pullers equipped
pulling rope and the conductors are connected to the running board by means of with a permanently integrated drum are used to string pilot or pulling ropes for con-
swivels for this purpose. Easy mobility of the hinges and pulleys of the running ductors with cross sections up to 300 mm 2 •
board and the swivels is of particular importance (see Figure 16.30). For pulling conductors with higher cross sections with adequate conductor tensile forces,
For ease, compression joints at the conductors can be installed on the ground surface predominantly hydraulically driven twin bullwheel pullers are preferred which haul pilot
directly behind the tensioner before continuing conductor stringing. The connector and pulling rope by means of two bullwheels (Figure 16.31), designed with six to ten
should be provided with a protector against bending when running over stringing blocks. grooves each for running of the ropes. The wheels having a diameter of at least 30 times
Passing of the protector, however, requires sheaves with accordingly designed groove the rope diameter are staggered by half of the groove width to each other.
dirnensions. The shape of the groove is designed such that rigid connectors to be hauled will be able
 16;8.3.6 Tensioner
The conductors to be strung run over conductor tensioners which are used to hold
tension against the pulling rope and are designed preferably as twin bullwheel units.
Alternative designs adopt one wheel only which is equipped with an endlei;s shoe chain.
The conductor is guided over two bullwheels equipped with three to six grooves and
hold to tension. The diameter of the wheels should correspond at least to 30 times the
conductor diameter. The dímensions of the grooves lined with neoprene are selected
such that the thickest conductor for which the tensioner is provided can run with a
woven wire grip or a connector over the wheel.
The tensioner should hold the conductor from standstill to the maximum stringing
speed at different tensile forces continuously variable and without jerks and dissipate
Figure 16.31: Twin bullwheel puller Figure 16.32: Conductor tensíoner driven the braking heat generated thereby. This requirernents have lead to differing designs of
by an engine
tensioners which will be described hereafter.

to pass over the grooves. A brake working at the bullwheel anda clamping device, which Mechanical tensioners
doses automatically in case of a standstill or a pressure decrease within the hydraulic
system, exclude gliding of the ropes. The bullwheels of mechanical tensioners are equípped with mechanical braking units.
Behind the puller the rope is winded on a reel winder equipped with changeable reels. While in the past flexible band brakes or block brakes have been used, nowadays pre-
The hydraulic drive of the reel winder keeps the rope continuously under a tensile force dominantly disc brakes with sufficiently large discs are adopted which dissipate the
to exclude sliding of the rope over the bullwheels. The size of the reels is the same for braking energy without artificial cooling. The required braking pressure is applied
all diameters of pilot and pulling ropes. The reels, therefore, can store different rope pneumatically or hydraulically by means of a pump operated by feet or hand simi-
lengths depending on the rope diameter. E. g., in case of a rope with 24 mm diameter, lar to operation of disc brakes in automobiles.
800 m can be wound on one reel, while in case of a rope diameter of 11 mm 3 000 rn A sufficiently large rotating mass of the bull wheels equalizes the running of the me-
can be wound (see Table 16.5). chanical tensioners during starting due to overcome the higher friction coefficient at
The lineman operating the puller controls the machine by means of a portable remote standstill (adhesive friction) than during operation (gliding friction) and ensures steady
control unit. He can, therefore, chose a position where he is able to follow closely the stringing of the conductor. Mechanical tensioners are characterized by noiseless run-
running of the ropes over the bullwheels and onto the reel winder. He is located at ning, a relatively simple design and economic advantages resulting therefrom.
sufficient distance frorn the puller, such that the noise generated by the drive will not
impair too rnuch the corn.munication. Hydraulic tensioners
The running velocity depends on the load and may achieve up to 100 m/min in case of The bullwheels of hydraulic tensioners are coupled with a hydraulic pump which is
low loads and up to 50 m/mm in case of heavy bundle conductors. driven by the wheels during braking operations. The braking effect is achieved by
Bullwheel pullers offer the following considerable advantages compared with reel-type restraining the oil strearn generated by the pump, whereby the braking force can be
pullers: controlled continuously variable by means of a throttle valve. The oíl will be heated
- Due to the separation of the winder for the ropes the weight of the bullwheel by the dissipated braking energy. The heat is extracted from the oíl in a radiator unit
puller is lower. before being sent back to the hydraulic pump.
- A change of the rope type is possible just by changing the. rope reel without time-
and cost-consuming rewinding activities.
Engine-driven brakes
- The total length of the rope can be expanded as necessary just by coupling the
ropes stored on reels. The bullwheels of engine-driven tensioners as shown in Figure 16.32 are driven hy-
- When running over the bullwheels, constant stringing speed and stringing forces draulically as in case of a twín bullwheel pullers. A diesel engine drives a hydraulic
are achieved at the same driving intensity dueto the constant wheel diarneter. pump, by which the oil flow within the hydraulíc system is controlled. When pulling or
- Winding off the ropes frorn separate reels treats them with care since the ropes holding conductors, the hauling or holding force, respectively, as well as the conductor
are under a low pretension only and cannot cut into the rope layers on the reels stringing speed can be adjusted by means of the running speed of the oíl. To avoid
with the full tensile force. overspeeding during braking, the oil flow is guided through a throttle valve and decel-
Modern bullwheel pullers are equipped with an adjustable overload control, meter coun- erated, whereby the braking energy is dissipated within the oíl circuit. The oíl heated
ters, tachometers and instruments for recording the tensile force. Tensioners equipped up flows back to the hydraulic pump via a radiator unit.
with a dríving unit, also called puller tensioner, are used to hold tension against the Engíne-driven tensioners can be universally used for stringing and replacing of con-
pulling rope and are as well suited to string pilot or pulling ropes (see 16.8.3.6). ductors under everyday tensile stress. They are designated, therefore, as combined
puller/tensioner and are suited for conductor sagging as well. When combined with a
reel stand connected to the hydraulic system, the tensioner can also be used for dis-
mantling conductors, whereby the conductor is permanently kept under tensile stress
by the driven reel stand and wound up.
 16.8 Conductor stringing 661
660 16 Constructio n

crossarm. Hoisting can be carried out by hand or by means of a winch or a wheeled

tractor. The use of a lifting yoke or cradle is recommende d for double or multiple insu-
lator sets to avoid clashing of insulators. The finger ropes ease leading the puliing rope
over stringing blocks at the suspension supports which need not to be climbed again.
The crossarms of towers next to the tensioner or puller site are anchored during stringing
operation to balance one-sided loads. The anchor rapes are arranged as lowly inclined
as possible under the given local conditions. The crossarm ends are anchored to the
tower top or tower body. The tensioner site should be installed far enough from the
tower to achieve only a small downstrain angle of the conductor from the tower to the
1 tensioner. The tensioner is adjusted in direction of the stringing block and anchored to
Figure 16.33: Reel stands the ground taking account of the holding force to be expected. The reel stand is placed
in a distance of at least six times the reel width behind the tensioner and aligned to
In addition, the puller tensioner can be used also to haul pulling or pilot ropes in the tensioner intake. After placing the conductor reels in the reel stands, the reel cover
connection with a hydraulícall y driven reel stand. By this procedure, the pilot or pulling is removed and a pulling grip is fitted to the conductor. Then, the conductor is guided
ropes are handled with care due to the large diameter of the bullwheels and the groove through the grooves of the bullwheels by means of a plastic finger rope.
lining made of plastic material. The puller is installed sufficientiy far from the tower site, aligned to the stringing block
and anchored taking account of the conductor stringing force.
AH conductor stringing devíces should be earthed precautional ly to take care for possi-
16.8.3. 7 Reel stands
ble short-círcui t currents, inductíve currents and atmospheric flashovers. The standing
The conductor reels are installed in reel stands behind the tensioner for unwínding the sites of the operation staff at the machines, such as steel grades, are connected with the
conductors (Figure 16.33). Depending on the design of the reel stand, the drums are earthing of the stringing machine for equipotentia l bonding. In addition, conducting
ínstalled by tilting or lifting using winches. The conductor reels are clamped on a shaft connections should be installed between these earth electrodes and the closest tower as
between adjustable eones to ensure a smooth running without jerking. The reel stands well as between stringing blocks and towers.
need to be equipped with brakes for the reels to pretensíon the conductor in front of Befare starting the conductor stringing, communicat ion channels should be installed
the bullwheel tensioner to exclude slipping of the conductor over the tensioner and to between all linemen active in the stringing operation.
avoid continuation of unwinding the drum aftcr a sudden stop of the tensioner. For this
purpose, disc brakes are used the saddle of which is operated by hand, air or hydraulic Stringing procedure
16.8.4.2
pressure from the control unit of the tensioner.
Reel stands equipped with hydraulicall y operated brakes are used in combination with Before stringing the conductors, a steel or plastic pilot rope is installed passing over the
motor-drive n tensioners. In this case, the hydraulic system of the tensioner supplies the stringing blocks at the towers between puller and tensioner site. If the pulling rope for
reel stand as well. conductor stringing is too heavy to be strung directly, at first a pilot rope is installed
having a lower cross section. This rope is used afterwards to string the pulling rope from
16.8.4 Conducto r stringing the puller site to the tensioner site. The rope to prepare an initial connection across
the running blocks at towers is installed either by hand, horses, tractors, caterpillars or
16.8.4.1 Preparatio ns helicopters depending on the terrain and the tower design. In any case, the rope needs
to be held at tension to achieve a controlled unwinding from the storage reel or the
Befare starting conductor stringíng, the line section between tensioner site and puller
dru'm of a puller. This can be achieved by reverse running of the bullwheel puller or
site needs to be prepared accordingly. Scaffolds are installed to protect crossed objects
by using a reel stand equipped with a mechanical brake. If the rope stored on a reel is
duríng conductor stringing. Low-duty scaffolds made of wood are suited to protect
not long enough, it can be connected with the rope of another reel by means of rigid
fences, orchards, vineyards etc. They need not to withstand the stresses due to conduc-
connectors. At the tensioner site, the pulling rope is coupled with the conductor or
tor failure because the damage to objects would be limited in such an event. Scaffolds
conductor bundle.
for protecting roads, railway lines, low- and medium-vol tage lines, telephone lines etc.
At the beginning of conductor stringing process, the pullíng rope puller is moderately
should withstand the loads that might occur after failure of a conductor or of a con-
accelerated up to the running speed envisaged. The tensioner has to hold the conductor
nector during stringing activities, thus excluding any contact with objects under the
well tuned, such that it does not touch the ground surface or any obstacles. The con-
line. In special cases, e. g. if motorways cannot be blocked for a longer period, plastic
ductors on the reel stand are braked accordingly to achieve a sufficiently pretensione d
or metallic nets are installed over the crossed object.
intake of the conductors to the tensioner. After arriving of the conductor at the puller
To prepare for conductor stringing, the fittings preassemble d in the store are trans-
site it is connected by means of a dead-end clamp with the dead-end insulator set at
ported to the tower sites and assembled there with the insulators to form suspension
the strain tower.
insulator sets. The stringing blocks for the stringing of single or bundle conductors
When the conductor on one reel is not long enough to fit between two adjacent strain
are fitted instead of the suspension clamps. The pulley for the pulling rope is pro-
supports, permanent joínts need to be installed. Compressio n joints are used at most
vided with a light-weight , flexible finger rope for leading the pulling rope through the
for this purpose. The joints are installed on ground following the manufacture r's in-
stringing block.
structions.
Eventually, the suspension set can be hoisted in one piece and suspended from the
UUú .l.V VVll.'.')l,l_ U\....l>l_V..U

16.8.4.3 Sagging the conductors

The conductor can be sagged after installation of the dead-end clamps at the insulator
set of the strain tower at the puller site. For this purpose, the conductor at the tensioner
site is connected with a sagging winch (see 16.6.4.1) and strung to such an extent that
the required initial sag is achieved. The determination of initial sags is described in
clause 16.8.5. If the tensioner is equipped with a drive which can be used to haul the
conductor into the reverse direction, an additional sagging winch is not necessary.
Severa! procedures can be used to supervisíng the sags during conductor sagging. If pos-
sible, horizontal sag battens are arranged at adjacent towers at heights corresponding
f~1
lview1ng
bne
j a
1-,~---------~-i-

Figure 16.34: Conductor sagging by means

of an inclined viewing line
Figure 16.35: Conductor sagging by rneans
of a horizontal viewing line
to the initial sag. Then, the conductor tensile force is modified until the viewing line
between the sag battens coincides with the lowest point of the conductor within the
span. It is recommended to use field glasses with spider lines, a telescopic sight or a and T 2 (span length), / the initial sag according to the temperature during sagging, D
theodolite for sighting. To avoid sagging mistakes, it is necessary to carry out additional the vertical distance between the conductor attachment and the inclination axis of the
checking measurements in a second span especially in case of long tensioning sections. theodolite placed at the tower centre of tower T1 and h the vertical distance between
Measurement of the wave running periods forms another possibility for checking the the conductor attachments at the towers T1 and T2.
sag. The propagation speed of a transversal wave on a conductor is During sagging, the conductor should touch the horizontal spider lines within the view-
ing range of the theodolite. For this purpose, the theodolite is aligned in the line direc-
(16. 7) tion, however, not turned laterally to the conductor. This adjustment procedure may
be used only if the conductor touches the viewing line within the central third of the
The running period of an impact wave in a span will be, therefore,
sagging control span.
In long spans having high differences between the attachment levels of the conductors
t =a/e= a/JH/mc , (16.8)
at the towers, the sag is checked using a horizontal viewing line through the lowermost
where a is the span length, H the conductor tensile force and me the conductor mass point of the conductor (Figure 16.35). The sag at this point is obtained from
per unit length.
As a first approximation, it applies for the sag: A = /[l + h/(4 • !)]2 - h , (16.13)

f = a 2 • mcg/(8H) , (16.9) where /h is the sag at a horizontal viewing line, f the target initial sag corresponding
to the temperature during sagging and h tbe vertical distance between the attachments
from which it is obtained using (16.8} oí the conductors. When checking the sag with a horizontal viewing line, the sag fh is
measured at a tower between the conductor attachment and the viewing line. At this
f = g/8 • t 2 (16.10) point, the theodolite for the horizontal sight is arranged. A check of the viewing line is
According to these formulae, the running periods of waves allow to check the sags. The possible by installing a sag batten at the opposite tower of the span (see Figure 16.35).
wave is initiated by an impact exerted by means of a rope guided across the conductor in
the vicinity of the attachment. The wave is reflected at the adjacent tower. To improve 16.8.4.4 Terminating the conductors
the accuracy, the wave is led to run three times between adjacent towers before the
After sagging, the conductor can be terminated to the strain tower close to the tensioner
running period t is measured in seconds. The subconductors of a bundle conductor
site. For this purpose, the position of the dead-end clamp has to be marked on the
have to be checked separately. Duríng this checking stage, no additional fittings, such
conductor taking account of the length of the dead-end insulator set. The dead-end
as spacers or vibration dampers, should be installed. From the period t5 measured in
clamps can be installed on a working platform arranged at the tower or on ground,
seconds for running six times the span length, the corresponding sag can be determined
whereby ~he conductor has to be lowered again.
by:

f = 0,0003405 • t~ in m (16.11) 16.8.4.5 Clipping-in of conductors

This method for conductor sag determination applies to span lengths and conductor After preparation of the dead-ends, the suspension clamps can be installed. Then the
tensile stresses as far as the approximation (16.9) is applicable. The method is inde- stringing blocks are removed. With respect of a vertical position of the insulator sets
pendent oí the conductor material. after clípping-in, the conductors are clipped-in with an offset compared to their position
In hilly terrain, checking the conductor sag by means of a viewing line inclined by the on the stringing blocks especia.lly in rough terrain. The procedure to determine the offset
angle is well suited (Figure 16.34). The angle <f; can be obtained from is described in clause 16.8.5.2. For clipping-in at the appropriate position, it is necessary
to mark the conductors at the position where they rest on the stringing blocks and
<f; = arctan ( h- 4/ + 4J(f • D)/a) (16.12) measure from that position the offset of suspension points as calcula.ted before (Figure
16.36). Clipping-in to suspension clamps can only be started when offsets have been
There, <f, is the inclination angle of the tangent at the initial sagging line (+</; above marked at all suspension sets of the tensioning section or at least the positions of the
the horizon, -</; below the horizon), a the horizontal distance between the towers T1 conductors on the stringing blocks.
664 16 Construction 16.8 Conductor stringing 665

anchoring ropes

Figure 16.38: Running earthing system

reels, inserted to a reel winder equipped with brake, wind on the replaced conductors.
Afterwards, the winded conductor coils can be removed from the separable reels and
recycled. If the replaced conductors need to be dismantled in a reusable condition, a
Figure 16.36: Offset of the in- Figure 16.37: Line car driven stand for standardized conductor reels is used.
stallation position of a suspension
clamp
16.8.4.9 Stringing conductors with optical fibres

16.8.4.6 Installation of jumper loops Conductors with optical fibres or ali dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cables are fre-
quently installed in overhead power lines. Stranded conductors with integrated fibres
At each strain tower, the corresponding ends of the conductors terminated at the in- are adopted as earth wires {OPGW ~ optical ground wire) and less frequently as phase
sulator sets need to be connected such that they can conduct the current. In case of conductors~ In general, the same tools and procedures are used for stringing conductors
wedge-type tension clamps, the conductor ends extend through the clamps such that with optical fibres as in case of conventional conductors. For sorne conductors with opti-
the jumper loop can be produced by overlapping the ends to be connected. The con- cal fibres, the manufacturers stipulate specific lirnits for the stringing tensile stress. To
ductor ends overlapping on approximately one third of the jumper loop length are verify the compliance with these limits, the tensile force of puller or tensioner needs to
connected by two or three parallel groove clamps. In case of conductor terminations be recorded continuously, for example by means of monitoring the hydraulic pressure.
using compression dead-end clamps, preassembled jumper loops made of conductors of In addition, the bending radii stipulated by the manufacturer and the mininmm dia-
the same type are connected to the lugs at the compression clamps. meters of stringing blocks as given for example in DIN 48 207, Part 1 (16.27] may not
Ali clamping positions at the jumper loop connections should be metallically clean to be disregarded.
ensure low electric transition resistance. For any type of jumper loops, the designed During the stringing procedures, the conductors with optical libres may not be handled
distances between adjacent loops and to the tower structure need to be obeyed also in with conventional working grips but only with adjusted tension-proof armor rods (see
swung conditions. clause 10.2.2).

16.8.4. 7 Installation of dampers and bundle spacers

16.8.4.10 Installation of conductors adjacent to or crossing energized lines
The installation of dampers and spacers for bundle conductors completes the conductor •
The publication IEC 61 328 [16.26] deals with precaution measures for installation of
stringing activities together with the installation of aircraft warning markers on the
conductors in parallel to or crossing of energized lines. Their electrical and magnetic
earth wires, if any. Light line cars driven manually or heavy line cars driven by engines
field i~duce voltages and currents on parallel conductors. If the conductors would not
are used (Figure 16.37) for these activities. The designed positions of dampers and
be earthed, the electrical field may induce a voltage as much as 30 % of that of the
distances between the bundle spacers or between markers are measured using a meter
energized line voltage. Adequate earthing reduces the voltage to acceptable values. A
counter arranged at the line car.
current of severa! amperes will flow through the earth. If the earthing is removed, the
capacitive potential is immediately re-established and linemen could be exposed to a
16.8.4.8 Conductor replacement
dangerous voltage.
Conductor replacements may be necessary for refurbishment or upgrading of existing The energized, current-carrying conductor and the conductor being installed may be
overhead lines. A procedure has proven its qualification for this purpose, where the looked upon as primary and secondary windings of an air-core transformer. If the new
tensioner site is, as in case of stringing new conductors, equipped with a reel stand conductor is earthed say at both ends, a circulating current will flow along and back
and a tensioner and the conductor to be replaced is used directly as pulling rope for through the earth. This current depends on the geometry and impedance of the system
stringing the new conductors [16.30]. and on the load of the energized líne. It can become large and affect the selection of
Instead of a conventional puller, a motor driven tensioner (puller tensioner) is installed equipment, such as pulling grips, swivels and earthing assemblies. At the moment of
at the puller site hauling the conductor to be replaced. Joints possibly available on the removing the Jast but one earth, the circulating current is being broken and a voltage
conductor can run without difficulties over the grooves of the puller tensioner. Separable appears across the gap, which can becorne dangerously high. The earthing sections,
therefore, should be short enough to limit the open circuit voltage.
IEC publication 61328 contains a series of procedures on earthing of work sites. The
most important ones should be summarized here:
- The automatic reclosers should be disabled on all energized lines where physical
contact may occur as a result of an accident.
- The conductor stringing equipment and temporary anchors should be earthed
with an earth rod having an earthing resistance less than 25 n and located in an
area lined by an earthing mat.
- While stringing, the conductors should have runníng earthing systerns located in
front of the puller and tensioner, respectively. In Figure 16.38, a running earthing
system is shown.
- The first structures in front of the puller and tensioner as well as every third
support should be equipped with a stringing block earthing system.
At the tower, where clipping-in takes place, ali conductors should be earthed to
a tower member or earthing point. The same applies to attaching conductors to
strain structures and installation of jumper loops.
The earthing equipment should withstand a test current of 20 kA for 0,4 s. V V

Figure 16.39: Condition of a Figure 16.40: Condition of a

16.8.5 Determination of initial sags conductor suspended by a string- conductor fixed by a suspension
ing block before clamping clamp
16.8.5.1 Requirements
i+2
After stringing the conductors they are sagged so that after clipping-in they are in i+1
the position determined by the survey, planning and calculation, the suspension sets
as¡
suspended vertically. When adjusting the conductors, provisions need to be taken for
the permanent extension of the conductors during operation, called wnductor creep. í+1
The conductors are sagged when they are suspended in stringing blocks. The initial
sags should take care of the creep expected during operation and the cmrent conductor
temperature.

16.8.5.2 Position of the conductor on stringing blocks and in clamps Figure 16.41: Data to
-..._..,_=-~H,-_- - + - - - - - - - - - - + - - ~
determine the conductor
The mechanical behaviour of conductors suspended on stringing blocks (Figure 16.39) state in spans between sus-
within a tensioning section differs essentially from the behaviour when the conductors a; pension towers
are fixed to suspension clamps (Figure 16.40), if either large differences in the attach-
ment heights of the conductors at the towers exist or if the span lengths differ to a of conductor tensile forces result thereof. The differences affect a displacement of the
larger extent within a tensioning section. These aspects have to be considered when
ínsulator set in direction of the span with the lower conductor downstrain angle. The
determining the conductor sagging data.
difference of horizontal tensile forces of two adjacent spans results from Figure 16.41
It is the goal of the procedure described in [16.31] to determine the sags of conductors
and [16.31] to be
and the installation positions of the suspension clamps at the conductors resting on
stringing blocks such that the sags of the conductors and the position of the insulator (16.14)
sets after clipping-in comply with the data established during line planning.
where hsi is the difference of the height of the sagging line vertices of two adjacent spans.
Since the conductors are fixed in line direction at the suspension supports, the insulator
This relation describes the state of equilibrium of the conductor, when the conductors
sets will assume a vertical position only if the horizontal components of the conduc-
tor tensile forces in the adjacent spans are equal. However, if the conductors rest on rest on stringing blocks at ali suspension sets of the tensioning section. If the horizontal
stringing blocks, a condition of equilibrium exists if the conductor tensile forces on tensile force in the first span is given, then the value in the span i results from
both sides of the stringing blocks are equal. Then, no resulting moment acts around i-1
the block axle (Figure 16.39). The horizontal components of the tensile forces of the H; = H 1 + mcg ¿ hsj (16.15)
conductors in the adjacent spans will be equal, if there are neither differences in height j=l

between the conductor attachments nor in the span lengths. Only under this condition, If the conductors are fixed to a suspension clamp, the equilibrium of moments is com-
the downstrain angles of the conductors on both sides of the stringing block are equaL plied with around the suspension pivot of the insulator set (Figure 16.40). The be-
In case of differing attachment heights of conductors or differing span lengths, differing haviour of conductors suspended by clamps within a tensioning section of an overhead
conductor downstrain angles a exist (Figure 16.39) and differing horizontal components line is dealt with in clause 14.8 in detail.
668 16 Construction 16.8 Conductor stringing 669

i-1 i+1
For an exact installation of the conductors, the position of the suspension clamps at
each suspension tower of the tensioning section needs to be determined. The exact
initial sags have to be calculated as well for the conductors suspended by stringing
blocks such that the insulator strings assume a plumb position after clipping-in the
suspension clamps.
The swing angle /3i+1 at the insulator set i + 1 can be determined from

(16.16) Figure 16.42: Sagging of

a tensioning sectionl con-
where ½+1 is the vertical conductor load at the set i +_ 1 according to ductor resting on stringing
blocks
• (ªSi· mcg)
= Hismh H • (ªSiH • mcg)
+Hi+1smh (16.17}
V;+1
2• ; 2 • H;+1 í-1 i+1

The signification of the variables as; and así+1 can be taken from Figure 16.41. The
offset of the conductor suspension point is obtained from

(16.18)

Due to the offset of the insulator set, the theoretical lengths of the individual spans are
modified according to Figure 16.43: Sags and
conductor tensile forces in
(16.19) a tensioning section after
clipping-in of conductors
The conductor length can be obtained from (14.14) for conductors on stringing blocks

section. However, in this case the conductor needs to be readjusted at the strain tower
(16.20) at the end of the tensioning section with n spans by the value
n n
The length of the clipped-in conductor in the span i is obtained from Vn+l = L !:,.Lj = ¿(Lj - Lj) (16.24)
j=l j=l

L;= (16.21) An optimum could be achieved if the conductor tensile stringing forces for the conductor
resting in stringing blocks (Figure 16.42) were determined such that the offsets within
the tensioning section are mutually compensated after the clipping-in. Then, the offset
assurning a constant horizontal tensile force H 0 in ali spans. The variation of the con- Vn+I at the strain tower will be zero and any readjustment would not be necessary
ductor length in the span i between a suspension of conductors in stringing blocks or anymore (Figure 16.43). This requirement is complied with, if the sum of conductor
clipped-in results from catenary lengths is equal for the conductors on stringing blocks and for conductors
(16.22) clipped-in at the suspension clamps.
With the abbreviation
From (16.22), the offsets can be determined by which the suspension clamps at each
insulator set need to be displaced such that the insulator sets will be suspended verti-
Lo;= Jh¡ + ar (16.25)

cally after installation of the suspension clamps and the horizontal forces and sags in an approximation for the conductor catenary length can be obtained from
all spans correspond to the required data. The offset measured approximately along a¡. (mcg)2
the conductor at the insulator set of the tower i of a tensioning section with n spans is (16.26)
L; ~Lo;+ 24Lo; · H¡
obtained from
The sum of the conductor catenary lengths in the tensioning section is obtained from
i-1 i~l
the horizontal tensile forces H; for conductors suspended on stringing blocks from
Vi = I: /:,.Lj = I:=(Lj - L5) (16.23)
j=l j=l
L' =~ (L'. + a~4.(mcg)2) (16.27)
D o, 24L' --H?
The offsets in a tensioning section are shown in Figure 16.42. In case of a positive sign i=l Oi 1

of the offset v;, the suspension clamp at tower i has to be installed in a distance v; After clipping-in of conductors with the horizontal tensile forces Ho in all spans from
measured in direction to tower i + l. the sum of the catenary lengths will be
The relations (16.20) to (16.23) enable to determine the offset v; for any given horizontal
tensile forces H; such that the insulator sets will be suspended vertically after clipping-in
and the horizontal tensile force is constant and equal to Ho within the whole tensioning
L = t
i=l
(LOi +a¡. (mcg):)
24 Lo; • H 0
(16.28)
 L'--'•V' .__,.....,..._ ... ....._...._.._,.,s..;.1. uv.1..1.LL5.1..1.-<-5 ...;, .L

As assumed, the lengths L and L' should be equal. The horizontal tensile forces H; to There, e is the creep strain, measured in thousandth; e1h and n are parameters de-
be selected in the stringing condition can be obtained from (16.27) and (16.28): pending on the conductor design, conductor material and conductor cross section, the
n 4 1 n 4
operation history, the tensile stress and the temperatures; t is the period of time elapsed
¿~=-2 -¿~ ' (16.29) after the first loading of the conductors in hours. The parameter e 1h represents the creep
i=l LOi H; H 0 i=l Lo; strain one hour after loading the conductor.
where Ló; ~ Lo; and a~ ~ a; was assumed. To determine the parameters n and e1h, tests need to be carried out for each conductor
Equation (16.29} cannot be solved directly to one of the n horizontal tensile forces H;. under sagging conditions and an expected mean temperature. Such tests, however,
An iteration procedure is recommended where at first a value H1 o for the horizontal need a long period of time and are costly because of the long duration and the required
tensile force in the first span of a tensioning section is assumed and then the data H· 0 accuracy of the measurements. A procedure for testíng the creep behaviour of conductors
within the other spans are calculated by equation (16.15). The equivalent horizonW is standardized in IEC 61395 [16.35]. In [16.34], a method and data are given which
tensile force HE,k can be computed from (16.29): can be used to forecast the creep strain for practica! application. The creep strain to
be expected after an operation period of 30 years can be obtained from

tªt¡t-1
Lo;
i=l
(-55._)2
Lo; H;,k
i=l
(16.30) (16.33)

There, the index k refers to the iteration step. Using the value HE,k, the tensile forces The parameter e30 is the non-elastic strain at everyday stress according to 20 % of
Hi,k+l used in the following step can be determined according to the rated tensile strength (RTS) of the conductor. As an approximation, the creep
elongation can be assumed as depending linearly on the steel content of the conductor
(16.31) weight
The iteration process is continued until HE,k corresponds with sufficient accuracy to
the target value Ho. A few steps are sufficient to achieve this goal.
e30 = 1,12 - 0,97 • w/100 , (16.34)
The practica! calculation needs sorne effort because of the necessary iterations and the where w is the steel content of the conductor weight, expressed in percent. As an
large number of possible adjustment conditions which should take care of the ambi- appropriate approximation, the parameter ku is assumed to depend linearly on the
ent temperature during adjustment and the time schedule of conductor installation
re!ative everyday stress a'.
activities. Therefore, the calculation is carried out using computer programs.
ku = a'/20 (16.35)
16.8.5.3 Impact of conductor creep

Conductors for overhead lines, being single-material conductors made of aluminium or The relative everyday stress is expressed as a percentage of the rated tensile stress.
aluminium alloy or composite conductors ~ e of aluminium and steel or aluminium The relations (16.34) and (16.35) apply for ACSR conductors with a' :S 30 %, however,
alloy and steel, expand non-elastically under a permanent tensile load. This creep pro- they can be used for AACSR conductors as an approximation, too.
cess results in a non-reversible elongation of the conductors and steadily increasing sags The creep process of the conductors starts immediately after stringing. Since the creep
during overhead line operation. Planning and installation should provide for conductor strain is relatively high immediately after stringing, the period between the stringing
creep. and the sagging of the conductor reaching up to severa! weeks should be considered
A non-reversible elongation of a conductor is caused by consolidation of the conductor when determining the sagging data. For this purpose, equation (16.32) can be used. The
structure after the first loading of the stranded conductor. This phenomenon occurs exponent nis gained from tests [16.35]; for sorne conductor types, information is given in
already during stringing of the conductor and continues during operation especially [16.34]. Where other data are not available, n = 0,25 can be used asan approximation.
under increased mechanical loads. Then, additional irreversible elongations are caused The parameter e 1 h can be obtained from (16.32) with t = 24 • 365 • 30 = 2,628 • 105 h
by metallurgical procedures within the conductor material, which is called conductor and e30 according to (16.34). From (16.32), the creep strain at a given time can be
creep. The conductor tensíle stress and the conductor temperature affect essentially calculated then using the mentioned data for e1h and n.
the conductor creep. With rising tensile stress and temperature, the speed of creep is The elongation of conductors due to creep produces the same change of the conductor
increased as well. To provide for the additional sag due to creep, it is necessary to state as an equivalent temperature variation ll.T¡d, which can be obtained from
estímate the non-elastic elongation to be expected during the life-cycle of the conduc-
tors. A forecast is difficult also in case where measured data for the creep behaviour (16.36)
of a certain conductor are available, since such a forecast would need the variations of
tensile forces and temperatures durin·g operation. However, these data are not known where e is the creep strain according to (16.32) and ET the coefficient of thermal expan-
in advance. sion given in l/K. To provide for creep, the conductor may not be adjusted with data
for the ambient temperature during sagging, but with data for a conductor tempera-
Numerous measurements were carried out at overhead line conductors to determine
ture which is lower by the equivalent tempemture difference llT¡ct, Taking into account
their creep behaviour [16.32, 16.33]. An evaluation of these tests with proposals for
a constant creep strain and an equivalent temperature difference for all span lengths
considering the creep is given in [16.34]. The expected irreversible creep strain can be
described by means, that the reduction of sag is relatively higher, the lower the span length is. The
initial stress is, therefore, increased to a higher extent than in long spans, and the
(16.32) resistance of the structures may limit the reduction of sags.
672 16 Construction
7! 16.9 References 673

Tower No. 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
Ta,ver type A+ 18 T+20 T+20 T+20 T+20 A+18 Table 16,7: Sagging table: Sags in m and conductor tensile stresses in N/mm for
Span length m 412,0 293,0 239,0 250,0 438,0 sagging, conductors in strínging blocks, 14 days after stringíng
Dítference in 15,06 96,00 96,65 73,56 1,09
Altítude m Temperature during sagging ºC
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Span l Sag 16,36 16,64 16,92 17,19 17,47 17,74 18,01 18,27
412,0 rn Tensile stress 50,3 49,5 48,6 47,9 47,1 46,4 45}7 45,0
Span 2 Sag 8,74 8,88 9,02 9,16 9,29 9,43 9,56 9,70
293,0 m Tensile stress 50,0 49,2 48,4 47,7 47,1 46,4 45,7 45,1
Span 3 Sag 5,70 5,79 5,87 5,96 6,04 6,12 6,20 6,28
Figure 16.44: Longitudi- 239,0 m Tensile stress 52,3 51,4 50,7 50,0 49,3 48,7 48,l 47,4
nal profile of a tensioning Span 4 Sag 5,49 5,57 5,64 5,72 5,79 5,86 5,94 6,01
section in a ínountainous 250,0 m Tensile stress 57,4 56,6 55,8 55,1 54,4 53,7 53,1 52,4
o 705,0 944,0 1194,0 m 1632,0 a.rea Span 5 Sag 15,23 15,44 15,65 15,86 16,07 16,27 16,47 16,66
438,0 m Tensile stress 61,0 60,1 59,4 58,6 57,8 57,l 56,4 55,7

Table 16.6: 110 kV line: Creep elongation, equivalent temperature differ-

ence and conductor offset 2
Table 16.8: Sags in m and conductor tensile stresses in N /mm for conductors
Time 12 h 24 h 7d 14 d 30 d clipped-in, adjustment 14 days after stríngíng
Creep elongation in thousands 0,441 0,431 0,393 0,376 0,353 Temperature during adjustment ºC
Temperature difference in K 23,3 22,8 20,8 19,9 18,7 o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Offset in cm at Tensile stress 54,6 53,7 52,9 52,2 ,51,4 50,7 50,0 49,3
Tower No. 2 o o o o o at N/mm 2
Tower No. 3 -6 -7 -10 -12 -13 Sag in m
Tower No. 4 Span 1 15,07 15,31 15,5'4 15,77 16,00 16,22 16,45 16,67
-86 -87 -87 -88 -88
Tower No. 5 -96 -96 -97 -98 -98 412,0 m
Tower No. 6 Span 2 8,01 8,13 8,25 8~38 8!50 8,62 8,74 8,85
-56 -57 -57 -58 -58
Tower No. 7 2 2 2 2 2 293,0 m
Span 3 5,46 5,54 5,63 5,71 5,79 5,87 5,95 6,03
239,0 ID
Span 4 5,77 5,86 5,95 6,04 6,12 6,21 6,30 6,38
250,0 m
Example: For the conductor 564-ALI/72-STlA (ACSR 564/72), which is used as a twín Span 5 17,03 17,29 17,55 17,81 18,07 18,33 18,58 18,83
bundle for 400 kV lines (see [16.36]), an equivalent temperature difference of 30 K is assumed 438,0 m
corresponding to a creep strain of approxímately 0,06 % for 30 years. The final everyday stress
2
at lOºC should be 57 N/mm • For aspan length of 600 m, the reduction of the sag is 1,45 m
equal to 5,5 % of the sag, and for 400 m span length it will be 1,30 mor 11,4 % of the sag and, e30 applicable for an operation period of 30 years. For the conductor 128-ALl/30-STlA, the
finally, for 200 m span length 0,80 mor 27,5 %, respectívely. coefficient of thermal expansion is 18,9 • 10-5 1 /K.
The results of the calculatíon explaíned above are shown in Tables 16.6, 16. 7 and 16.8 together
16.8.5.4 Example: Sagging data for an overhead line in a mountainous area with the data necessary for sagging. Table 16. 7 is designated also as sagging table. The offset at
the tower No. 5 rea.ches approximately one meter in thís case. For other examples, especially in
The longitudinal profile of an overhead line in a mountainous area is shown in Figure case of long tensioning sections, offsets reaching severa! meters are possible. As verified by many
16.44. Phase conductors 128-ALl/30-STlA are used and installed with an everyday stress of practical exarnples, conductor sagging using the described procedure leads to the designed final
2
50 N/mm , reaching 13,7 % ofthe rated tensile stress of 365 N/mm 2 . The conductor mass per sags also in extreme cases. Comparison of Tables 16.7 and 16.8 allows to recognize the essentíal
unit length is 0,59 kg/m, having a steel content of 0,23 kg/m, reaching 39 % of the conductor difference between the sags and conductor tensile stresses for conductors suspended in stringing
mass. blocks compared with conductors clipped-in in suspension clamps.
From equation (16.34), the creep strain e30 is obtained for this condition to be 0,074 % and
the para.meter ku is calculated from (16.35) to be 0,685. The creep strain to be considered is,
therefore, 16.9 References
e3 0 = 0,74 • 0,68 = 0,051 % 16.1 VBG 37: Bauarbeiten, Unfallverhütungsvorschríf t (Construction works, safety regula-
tions). Cologne, Berufsgenossenschaft der Feinmechanik und Elektrotechnik, 1977
The exponent n used in equation (16.32) is assumed to be 0,2 [16.33]. The para.meter e 1 h results
from
16.2 IEC 61 773: Overhead lines: Testing of foundations for structures. Geneva, IEC, 1996
e1h = 0,51/(2,628 • 105 )°~ 0,2 = 0,00420 %
16.3 EN 50 341-3-4: Overhead electrical lines exceeding 45 kV. Part 3-4: National Normative
It is assumed, that the conductors are sagged either 12 h, 24 h, 7 d, 14 d or 30 d after strínging. Aspects (NNA) for Germany. Brussels, CENELEC, 2002
The equívalent temperature differences for which the sag is determined fol!ow from (16.36).
For this case, the creep strain expected at the time of adjustment is to be determined from 16.4 ENV 206: Concrete; attributes, productíon, implementation and quality evidence. Brus-
(16.32) 11vith the mentioned parameters n and e1 h and then to be substracted from the strain sels, CEN, 1990
674 16 Constructi on
and equip-
Brussels, 16.28 DIN 48207-2: Overhead lines with nominal voltage exceeding 1 kV: Methods
16.5 ENV 197: Concrete; composition, requiremen ts and parameter of confonnity. ment for the installation of conductors. Part 2: Pulling grips, steel made. Frankurt, DKE,
CEN, 1992 Draft 2000
16.6 DIN 1164-1: Cement; Part 1: Compositio n, requiremen ts. Berlín, DIN, 1994 16.29 DL'J\l 48207-3: Overhead lines with nominal voltage above 1 kV: Methods and
equipment
for the installation of conductors . Part 3: Swivel joints. Frankfurt, DKE, Draft 2000
16.7 Betonkalen der (Annual concrete report 1996), Part l. Berlin, Emst & Sohn
Power
16.8 DIN 4226-1: Aggregates for concrete, aggregates with dense structures, definitions,
char- 16.30 Raymond, W.: Replacing conductors of high-voltage transmissio n lines. Síemens
Technology 2 (1980), pp. 35 to 42
acteristics and requiremen ts. Berlín, Drn, 1983
n of
16.9 DIN 1045: Reinforced concrete structures; design and constructio ns. Berlín, DIN,
1988 16.31 Kieflling, F.: Die Verlegung der Leiter einer Hochspann ungs-Freile itung (Installatio
for a hígh-voltag e transmissio n line). Elektrizita. tswirtschaft 78 (1979), pp.
conductors
Berlín,
16.10 DIN 4226-3: Aggregates for concrete, aggregates with dense.and porous structures. 712 to 719
DIN, 1983 mit unter-
16.32 He!ms, R.; Ziebs, J.: Stand der Untersuchu ngen an AI/St-Freile itungsseilen
16. 11 ISO 2736: Test of concrete; preparation of test cubes, specimens taken from fresh
concrete. schiedlichen Querschnitt sverhiiltnis sen (Status of actual investigatio n for ACSR conduc-
Geneva, ISO, 1986 tors vvith different cross-sectional portions). Berlín, Bundesans talt fiir Materíalprü fung,
Report 1967
16.12 ISO 4013: Concrete; classification of consistence. Geneva, ISO, 1979 ver-
16.33 Brandt, E.; Thomas, R.: Der Eínfluss der bleibenden Seildehnun g auf das Durchhangs
ISO 1979
16.13 ISO 9812: Fresh concrete: Determinin g of consistence, spreading index. Geneva, halten von Freileitunge n (The ínfluence of permanent creep on sags of overhead lines).
ISO Elektrizitii.tswirtschaft 78 (1979), pp. 262 to 268
16.14 ISO 1411: Fresh concrete: Determinin g of consistence, compressio n test. Geneva,
Electra 24
1979 16.34 Cigré SC22 WG22-05: A practical method of conductor creep determinati on.
1991 (1974), pp. 105 to 137
16.15 ISO 4109: Fresh concrete: Determinin g of consistence, slump test. Geneva, ISO,
conduc-
ISO, 1991 16.35 IEC 61395: Overhead electrical conductors. Creep test procedure for stranded
16.16 ISO 4110: Fresh concrete: Determinin g of consistence; "Vebe" test. Geneva, tors. Geneva, IEC, 1998
ISO,
16.17 ISO 4012: Concrete; determinin g of compressio n strength at test cubes. Geneva, 16.36 Flug, R.; Schnakenbe rg, D.: Überlegung en bei der Projektieru ng einer neuen
380-
1978 kV-Freileitung (Considerat ions on designing a new 380 kV transmissio n line). Elek-
16.18 DIN 1048-1: Testing concrete; testing of fresh concrete. Berlín, DIN, 1991 trízita.tswir tschaft 70 (1971), pp. 606 to 610
engineers).
16.19 Schneider, K.-J.: Bautabellen für Ingenieure (Constructi on tables for
th
Düsseldorf, Werner-Verlag, 13 edition 1998
ns for the
16.20 Gardes, J.-L. et al.: EDF's approach to the design and constrution offoundatio
transmissio n network overhead lines. Cigré Report 22-104, 1994
(Solid wall
16.21 Studiengesellschaft Stahlanwen dung e.V. Stahlmaste in Vollwandbauweise
Civil
steel towers): Project No. 152. Universita.t-Gesamthochschule Essen, Departmen t
Engineering , 1992

16.22 Gohm, H.; Kiefüing, F.; Mahr, V.: Verformung von Stahlvollwa ndrnasten mit Steckstéiflen
with
beim Einsatz in Hochspann ungsfreileit ungen (Deformati on of solid-wall steel poles
31
slip joint used for transmissio n lines). Elektrizita. tswirtschaf t 97 (1998)23, pp. 27 to
für eine
16.23 Raymond, W.; Schnakenbe rg, D.: Errichtung 227 m hoher Stahlgitterm aste
n
Freileitung s-Flusskreu zung (Erection of 227 m high steel towers for a 380 kV transmissio
line river crossing). Elektrizitat swirtschaft 78 (1979), pp. 255 to 261
Erlangen,
16.24 Fuchs, A.; Schramm, H.: 500 kV overhead transmissio n line across Suez Canal.
Siemens AG PTD H2, 1999
/800-
16.25 Schramm, H. et al.: Freileitung der Superlative verbindet Europa und Asien. 420-kV
420
kV-Bospor uskreuzung III (Superlativ e transmissio n line connects Europe with Asia,
kV /800 kV Bosphorus Crossing III). Elektrizitat swirtschaft 99 (2000}, pp. 13 to 19
devices
16.26 IEC TS 61328: Live working - Mínimum requiremen ts for the utilization of tools,
and equipment. Geneva, IEC, 2000
and equip-
16.27 DIN 48207-1: Overhead lines with nominal voltage exceeding 1 kV: Methods
ment for the installatíon of conductors. Part 1: Installation of conductors. Frankfurt,
DKE, Draft 1999