STUDY GUIDE

GRADE 10 – 1ST SEM | UNIT 5

Division of Polynomials

Table of Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 3
Test Your Prerequisite Skills ........................................................................................................ 4
Objectives ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Lesson 1: Long Division of Polynomials
- Warm Up! ........................................................................................................................... 5
- Learn about It! ................................................................................................................... 7
- Let’s Practice! ................................................................................................................... 11
- Check Your Understanding! ............................................................................................ 17
Lesson 2: Synthetic Division
- Warm Up! ......................................................................................................................... 18
- Learn about It! ................................................................................................................. 19
- Let’s Practice! ................................................................................................................... 23
- Check Your Understanding! ............................................................................................ 30
Lesson 3: The Remainder Theorem
- Warm Up! ......................................................................................................................... 31
- Learn about It! ................................................................................................................. 32
- Let’s Practice! ................................................................................................................... 34
- Check Your Understanding! ............................................................................................ 39
Lesson 4: The Factor Theorem
- Warm Up! ......................................................................................................................... 40
- Learn about It! ................................................................................................................. 41
- Let’s Practice! ................................................................................................................... 42
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- Check Your Understanding! ............................................................................................ 46

Challenge Yourself! ..................................................................................................................... 47
Performance Task ....................................................................................................................... 47
Wrap-up ....................................................................................................................................... 50
Key to Let’s Practice! .................................................................................................................... 53
References ................................................................................................................................... 54

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Table of Contents
GRADE 10 – 1ST SEM | MATHEMATICS

UNIT 5

Division of Polynomials
Linear functions, quadratic functions, and cubic functions, all of which you have learned in
the previous units, belong to a class of functions called polynomial functions.

A clear understanding of polynomial functions

may seem insignificant at the moment, however,
it is of considerable importance to people who
pursue the study in the fields of physics,
chemistry, astronomy and other sciences.

Data may be collected in these disciplines and may be modeled using polynomial
functions. These in turn help make discoveries and
innovations beneficial to the human race.

Our modern technology and innovations today are also

founded on the concepts related to polynomials, some of
which are evidently complex things like the orbital satellites, radio telescopes, and
rollercoaster tracks, and others may be as common as car headlights.

An in-depth study of the basic operations involving polynomials is important for a good
foundation in algebra and even calculus. The process of division, specifically, long division,
is one of the fundamental concepts we learn in arithmetic that we will extend to
polynomials as a focus of the study in this unit. You will learn how to use long division on
polynomials. You will also learn about other topics related to division of polynomials such
as synthetic division, the Remainder Theorem, and the Factor Theorem.
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Test Your Prerequisite Skills

• Adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing monomials, binomials,

and trinomials
• Solving for 𝑥 in a linear equation
• Evaluating functions for the given value of the variable
• Adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing functions

Before you get started, answer the following items on a separate sheet of paper. This will
help you assess your prior knowledge and practice some skills that you will need in
studying the lessons in this unit. Show your complete solution.

1. Perform the indicated operation.

a. (𝑥 − 7)(𝑥 + 2)
b. (4 − 3𝑦)(4𝑦 + 1)
c. (2𝑥 − 3)(3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1)
d. (3𝑥 − 𝑦)2
𝑥𝑦 3 −𝑥 2 𝑦 2 −𝑥 3 𝑦
e.
−𝑥𝑦
22𝑎 +55𝑎4 −33𝑎5
3
f.
11𝑎3

2. Solve for 𝑥 and check your solution.

a. 8(𝑥 + 2) − 2(𝑥 + 5) = 3(2𝑥 + 1)
5𝑥+6 100−4𝑥
b. = −6
4 3
3(5𝑥−4)
c. = 5𝑥 + 4
2
d. 𝑥 2 − 9 = 0
e. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0
f. 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 2 4
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3. Solve for what is asked.

a. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4, what is 𝑓(1)?
b. If 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4, what is 𝑔(−3)?
c. If ℎ(𝑥) = √𝑥 3 − 𝑥, what is ℎ(2)?
d. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 11, what is 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))?

4. Evaluate the indicated expressions if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3.

a. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(2)
b. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(−2)
c. (𝑓𝑔)(6)
𝑓
d. (𝑔) (𝑠)

Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to

• perform division of polynomials using long division and synthetic division;
• identify the components of the Division Algorithm; and
• prove the Remainder Theorem and the Factor Theorem.

Lesson 1: Long Division of Polynomials

Warm Up!

Divide and Conquer

Materials Needed: whiteboard, markers, erasers, scratch papers, pen, coin

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Instructions:
1. This activity may be done between two groups (e.g. males vs. females, group 1
vs. group 2).
2. Your teacher has prepared a fishbowl with rolled small pieces of papers
containing questions for the activity.
3. At the start of the activity, a representative from each group will be called to
determine the group who will pick the question from the fishbowl. A coin toss
shall be done to determine which team gets to pick the item in the first round. In
the succeeding rounds, the player from the previous round’s winning team will
be the one to pick.
4. A representative from each group will then move towards the board to answer
the item. Your teacher will then read question twice before giving the signal to
answer.
5. After giving the signal, ample time will be given to let the representatives answer
the item.
6. The representative to be correctly verified by the teacher earns points for his or
her team. Each easy item is worth two points; average item three points; and
difficult item five points.
7. For the next round, a different player should represent each group.
8. The group with the most number of points wins.

Examples:

Easy: 2435: 5
10𝑎2 𝑥 3 𝑦 2
Average:
2𝑎𝑥 2 𝑦
10𝑥 5 −12𝑥 4 +20𝑥 3 −6𝑥 2 +23𝑥 6
Difficult:
2𝑥

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Learn about It!

A polynomial is an algebraic expression that can be written in the form

𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

where 𝑛 is a positive integer and n a is not equal to zero.

In Warm Up!, you have worked on division of polynomials were the divisor is only a
monomial. You have learned in your previous levels that if the dividend has more than
one terms, and the divisor is only a monomial, each term of the dividend must be divided
by the monomial divisor.

How about when the divisor already has more than one factors?

There are many ways to divide polynomials, one of which is called long division. This
procedure called is similar to division of whole numbers in many ways.

Let us illustrate this process with an example.

Divide 2𝑥 4 + 21𝑥 3 + 35𝑥 2 − 37𝑥 + 46 by 2𝑥 + 7.

Before we solve the given example, let us recall some of the terminologies used in
division. The polynomial we are dividing is called the dividend, while the polynomial by
which we are to divide is known as the divisor. In this case, the dividend is 2𝑥 4 + 21𝑥 3 +
35𝑥 2 − 37𝑥 + 46 and 2𝑥 + 7 is the divisor.

To begin the process of long division, we must check if the terms of the given polynomial
are arranged in descending order of degree. Once this is verified, we write the dividend
inside the division bracket, and the divisor to its left. 7
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Divide the first term 2𝑥 4 in the dividend by the leading term 2𝑥 in the divisor. Write the
result above the term 2𝑥 4 .

Multiply 𝑥 3 by the entire divisor 2𝑥 + 7 and write the answer below the dividend, just like
in division of whole numbers.

Subtract 2𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 from the terms 2𝑥 4 + 21𝑥 3 in the dividend and write the difference
below. Copy the rest of the terms of the dividend.

We have now completed one cycle of long division by performing division, multiplication,
and subtraction. Let us begin another cycle by taking 14𝑥 3 and dividing it by 2𝑥. This yields
7𝑥 2 , which we will write above the dividend.

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Multiply 7𝑥 2 by the entire divisor, then write the product below 14𝑥 3 + 35𝑥 2 . Calculate the
difference and copy the rest of the dividend. This completes another cycle of long division.

We keep repeating the cycle until the degree of the leading term under the dividend
becomes less than the degree of the leading term in the divisor. This produces two
expressions, namely the quotient (the polynomial written above the dividend) and the
remainder (the polynomial at the bottom, whose degree is less than that of the divisor).

In this example, the quotient is 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 and the remainder is 4 since its degree is
4
less than that of 2𝑥 + 7. Our final answer is written in the form 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 + 2𝑥+7.

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Notice that the remainder is written as a fraction whose denominator is the divisor, as
opposed to the practice of saying “remainder (whole number)” used in long division of
numerals. This is when we fully exhaust the dividend during division. Just like when we
divide 7 by 2, the answer is 3 and the remainder is 1. But if we fully exhaust 7 when
dividing, the answer is 3.5. The answer that contains a fraction is like an answer with a
decimal.

If we write this division in equation form, we have

2𝑥 4 + 21𝑥 3 + 35𝑥 2 − 37𝑥 + 46 4

= 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 +
2𝑥 + 7 2𝑥 + 7

and if we multiply both sides of the equation by 2𝑥 + 7, we obtain

Notice that this equation is of the form

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥)

where every function is a polynomial. This leads us to the division algorithm.

Division Algorithm

Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑑(𝑥) are polynomials such that the degree of 𝑑(𝑥) is less
than or equal to the degree of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑑(𝑥) ≠ 0. Then there exist polynomials
𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥), where the degree of 𝑟(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝑔(𝑥), which
satisfy the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥).
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The functions in this equation correspond to the polynomials involved in long division.
Here, 𝑓(𝑥)is the dividend, 𝑑(𝑥) is the divisor, 𝑞(𝑥) is the quotient, and 𝑟(𝑥) is the
remainder. Note that if 𝑟(𝑥) happens to be zero, then 𝑑(𝑥) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

The Division Algorithm states that a quotient and a remainder can always be obtained
from two polynomials through division, as long as the divisor is nonzero and its degree is
less than or equal to the degree of the dividend.

Let’s Practice!

Example 1: Find the quotient when 6𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 is divided by 3𝑥 − 1.

Solution:

Step 1: To divide, we need to make sure the polynomial is written in descending

order of the degrees. A zero may be used for a missing term. In the case of
the given dividend, this is already done.

Step 2: We divide the highest degree term in the dividend (6𝑥 3 ) by the term with the
highest degree in the divisor (3𝑥). The answer (2𝑥 2 ) is written above the
dividend.

Step 3: The answer (2𝑥 2 ) obtained in the previous step is then multiplied to the
divisor (3𝑥 − 1). We write the answer (6𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 ) below the dividend. Then,
we subtract and write the difference (3𝑥 2 ) and bring down the next term in
the dividend (−4𝑥 2 ).

Step 4: This cycle is repeated until the difference resulting from subtraction has a
lower degree than the divisor.

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2x 2 + x − 1
3x − 1 6 x 3 + x 2 − 4 x + 1
6 x 3 − 2x 2
3x 2 − 4 x + 1
3x 2 − x
− 3x + 1
−3x + 1
0

Therefore, the quotient is 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 and the remainder is 0. The exact

answer can also be written as 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1.

Try It Yourself!

Find the quotient when 9𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 15 is divided by 3𝑥 + 1.

Example 2: Divide 𝑎5 − 12𝑎4 + 24𝑎3 − 𝑎 − 12 by 𝑎 − 5 using long division.

Solution:

Step 1: To divide, we need to make sure the polynomial is written in descending

order of the degrees. The terms of the dividend are already in descending
order. The term with 𝑎2 is missing, thus, we may use a space for that.

Step 2: We divide the highest degree term in the dividend (𝑎5 ) by the term with the
highest degree in the divisor (𝑎). The answer (𝑎4 ) is written above the
dividend.

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Step 3: The answer (𝑎4 ) obtained in the previous step is then multiplied to the
divisor (𝑎 − 5). We write the answer (𝑎5 − 5𝑎4 ) below the dividend. Then, we
subtract, write the difference (−7𝑎4 ), and bring down the next term in the
dividend (24𝑎3 ).

Step 4: This cycle is repeated until the difference resulting from subtraction has a
lower degree than the divisor.
a4 − 7a3 − 11a2 − 55a − 276
a − 5 a5 − 12a4 + 24a3 + 0a2 − a − 12
a5 − 5a4
− 7a4 + 24a3
−7a4 + 35a3
− 11a3 + 0a2
−11a3 + 55a2
− 55a2 − a
−55a2 + 275a
−276a − 12
−276a + 1380
−1392

Therefore, the quotient is 𝑎4 − 7𝑎3 − 11𝑎2 − 55𝑎 − 276 and the remainder is
−1392. The exact answer can also be written as
1392
𝑎4 − 7𝑎3 − 11𝑎2 − 55𝑎 − 276 − .
𝑎−5

Try It Yourself!

Divide 3𝑎5 + 6𝑎4 − 24𝑎3 − 12 by 𝑎 − 2 using long division.

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Example 3: Divide (𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 1)2 by 𝑥 − 1 using long division.

Solution:

Step 1: Expand (𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 1)2 . This is equal to 𝑥 8 + 2𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1.

Step 2: Proceed with long division. To divide, we need to make sure the polynomial is
written in descending order of the degrees. The terms of the dividend are
already in descending order. The terms with 𝑥 7 , 𝑥 6 , and 𝑥 3 are missing; thus,
we may use spaces for these.

Step 2: We divide the highest degree term in the dividend (𝑥 8 ) by the term with the
highest degree in the divisor (𝑥). The answer (𝑥 7 ) is written above the
dividend.

Step 3: The answer (𝑥 7 ) obtained in the previous step is then multiplied to the
divisor (𝑥 − 1). We write the answer (𝑥 8 − 𝑥 7 ) below the dividend. Then, we
subtract, write the difference (𝑥 7 ), and bring down the next term in the
dividend (2𝑥 5 ).

Step 4: This cycle is repeated until the difference resulting from subtraction has a
lower degree than the divisor.

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x 7 + x 6 + x 5 + 3x 4 + 5x 3 + 5x 2 + 6 x + 8
x − 1 x 8 + 0 x 7 + 0 x 6 + 2x 5 + 2x 4 + 0 x 3 + x 2 + 2x + 1
x 8 − x7
x 7 + 0x 6
x7 − x6
x 6 + 2x 5
x6 − x5
3x 5 + 2x 4
3x 5 − 3x 4
5x 4 + 0 x 3
5x 4 − 5x 3
5x 3 + x 2
5x 3 − 5x 2
6 x 2 + 2x
6x 2 − 6x
8x + 1
8x − 8
9

Therefore, the quotient is 𝑥 7 + 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8 and the

remainder in 9. The exact answer can also be written as 𝑥 7 + 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 +
9
5𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8 + 𝑥−1.

Try It Yourself!

Divide (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 1)2 by 𝑥 + 5 using long division.

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Real-World Problems

Example 4: The volume of a lampshade in the shape of a pyramid

with a rectangular base is 3𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 − 45𝑥 − 50. What is
the area of the base if the height of the pyramid is 𝑥 +
1?

Solution:

Step 1: To determine the area of the rectangular base, we may use the formula for
the volume of a pyramid, and substitute the values for the volume and height
which is given in the problem.

𝑉=ℎ
3 2
3𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 45𝑥 − 50 = 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
3𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 − 45𝑥 − 50
𝐵=
𝑥+1

Step 2: We may solve this problem using long division. The resulting quotient will be
the value of the base.

Following the steps in long division, we have

3x 2 + 5x − 50
x + 1 3x 3 + 8 x 2 − 45x − 50
3x 3 + 3x 2
5x 2 − 45x
5x 2 + 5x
− 50x − 50
− 50x − 50
0

Therefore, the area of the base of the pyramid is 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 50.

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Try It Yourself!

Find the measurement of the width of the base in Example 4, using long division, if
the length is 𝑥 + 5.

Check Your Understanding!

1. Divide using long division.

a. (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) ÷ (𝑥 − 1) f. (4𝑥 3 + 24𝑥 2 − 20) ÷ (4𝑥 + 4)
b. (𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 5) ÷ (𝑥 + 4) g. (2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2) ÷ (2𝑥 + 3)
c. (4𝑎3 − 3𝑎2 + 10𝑎 − 5) ÷ (2𝑎 − 1) h. (𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 5) ÷ (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)
d. (12ℎ3 + 12 + 11ℎ + 20ℎ2 ) ÷ (2ℎ + 1) i. (2𝑛4 − 𝑛3 + 15 + 8𝑛) ÷ (𝑛 − 3)
e. (3𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 10) ÷ (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + j. (2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 10) ÷ (𝑥 − 2)
2) k. (2𝑥 4 − 6𝑥) ÷ (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2)

2. Find the quotient then identify the remainder if there is any.

a. (−5𝑥 5 − 1) ÷ (5𝑥 + 5)
b. (2𝑎5 + 5𝑎4 − 4𝑎2 + 10𝑎 − 5) ÷ (𝑎 + 1)
c. (5𝑦 6 + 4𝑦 3 + 12𝑦 2 − 5) ÷ (2𝑦 + 1)
d. (3𝑥 5 − 12𝑥 4 − 13𝑥 2 + 26𝑥) ÷ (3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 9)
e. (2𝑥 6 + 3𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 5) ÷ (2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5)

3. Solve the following problems.

a. The volume of a rectangular storage box is 8𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3. If its height is 𝑥 − 1,
solve for the area of its base. Find the answer using long division.
b. Some students are to be assigned to rooms. If each room can only accommodate
exactly 𝑥 2 + 4 students and there are 𝑥 5 + 7𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 28 of them, how many
of the students would not be assigned a room?

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Lesson 2: Synthetic Division

Warm Up!

Investigate and Discover

Materials Needed: pen, paper

Instructions:
1. This activity may be done by pair.
2. Your teacher will post two different posters containing two different
mathematical procedures.
3. You and your partner will investigate the two procedures separately. You may
take notes while doing your investigation.
4. Your teacher will then give the signal to stop and go back to your assigned
places.
5. You and your partner will then be given time to compare your notes and
procedures, and discover similarities and differences.
6. Keep your findings in hand while the teacher asks for volunteers to discuss their
findings in front of the class.

Poster 1 Poster 2

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Learn about It!

The process of long division is an effective way of dividing polynomials. It works for any
polynomial, regardless of the number of terms it contains. However, if the divisor is a
binomial of the form 𝑥 − 𝑘, where 𝑘 is a real number, we can use a more efficient method
to find the quotient. The procedure in poster 1 from Warm Up! shows the process of long
division while the other way suggested as more efficient is shown in poster 2. This
procedure is done by eliminating the recurring parts of the solution in long division. For
instance, let us consider the division (3𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 − 2) ÷ (𝑥 − 3) shown in both posters.

We begin by adding the term +0𝑥 2 so that the terms are complete, and proceed with long
division.

The above calculation can be shortened by eliminating its redundant components. For
instance, the coefficients 3, 9, and 22 each appear three times, and some of the terms of
the dividend are repeated in the succeeding lines. Omitting duplicate terms gives us the
following solution:

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Also, the terms of the dividend and the divisor are already written in descending order of
degree, so we can just count the terms instead of looking at the exponent of the variable
𝑥. This allows us to remove 𝑥 and any exponent it may have, leaving only the numerical
coefficients.

Next, we can move up the numbers that appear below the first subtraction and bring
down the leading coefficient of the dividend.

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Finally, we may slightly change the procedure by changing the sign of the divisor and
adding the numbers in each column instead of subtracting them. This produces the same
numbers in the bottom row while making the calculations easier.

This shortened process is called synthetic division. In this method, the quotient can be
obtained by appending powers of 𝑥 to the numbers in the bottom row. Each of these
should have exponents which are less than those in the dividend. The first one on the left
has a degree that is one less than the degree of the dividend, and each one after that has
a degree that is one less that the one to its left. Also, the remainder is equal to the last
number in the bottom row.

Let us apply the process of synthetic division in the example below.

Divide 3𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 − 6 by 𝑥 − 5.

Synthetic division requires the divisor to be a binomial of the form −𝑘 . In this example,
the divisor is 𝑥 − 5. Hence, 𝑘 = 5.

Like in long division, we make sure that the terms of the given polynomial are arranged in
decreasing order of their degrees. We then write the coefficient of each term in the
dividend, as well as the value of 𝑘 in the divisor.

Copy the coefficient of the leading term in the dividend below the horizontal line. 21
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Multiply the number you just copied by the value of 𝑘 which is written on the left side.
Write the product below the second coefficient of the dividend.

Add the numbers in the second column, then write the sum below them. At this point, we
have completed the equivalent of one cycle of long division.

To perform another cycle of synthetic division, multiply the latest sum by the value of 𝑘,
write the product on the third column, and add the numbers in that column. Write the
answer below the third column of numbers.

Repeat the cycle until the sum for the last column has been obtained.
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The last number in the bottom row is the remainder, while the rest of the bottom row is
composed of the coefficients of the terms of the quotient. Since the leading term of the
dividend has a degree of 3, the leading term of the quotient will have a degree which is
one less than this. Hence, the degree of the quotient is 2. The other terms of the quotient
will have decreasing powers of 𝑥. Therefore, the quotient is 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 and the
remainder is 4. The exact answer to the problem is

4
3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 + .
𝑥−5

Let’s Practice!

Example 1: Divide 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 by 𝑥 − 3 using synthetic division.

Solution:

Step 1: Equate the divisor to zero to know the value of 𝑘. In this case, 𝑥 − 3 = 0. Thus,
𝑘 = 3. This shall be the number in the division box in the extreme left. Write
the coefficients of the dividend in descending order from left to right. If ever
there are missing powers of the variable, use a zero to fill in the missing
term. In this case, there are no missing powers of 𝑥.

Step 2: Bring down the leading coefficient (2) in the dividend.

Step 3: Multiply the number in the division box (3) with the number you brought
down (2) and put the result (6) in the next column.
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Step 4: Add the two numbers in that column and write the result (3) at the bottom,
still aligned to this column.

Step 5: Repeat steps 3 and 4 until you reach the end of the problem.

Step 6: Write the final answer. The numbers at the bottom row except the last one
are the coefficients of the powers of the variable starting with a degree that
is one less than the degree of the dividend. The last number is the
remainder.

To write the exact answer, write the remainder as the numerator of a

fraction with the divisor as its denominator.

Following these steps, we have the following:

Therefore, the quotient is 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 8 and the remainder in 28. The exact

28
answer can also be written as 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 8 + 𝑥−3.

Try It Yourself!

Divide 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 10 by 𝑥 + 3 using synthetic division.

24
 STUDY GUIDE

Example 2: Find the quotient and the remainder when 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + 9 is divided by

𝑥 + 2 using synthetic division.

Solution:

Step 1: Equate the divisor to zero to know the value of 𝑘. In this case, 𝑥 + 2 = 0. Thus,
𝑘 = −2. This shall be the number in the division box in the extreme left. The
terms when written from the highest degree would be 5𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 9.
Write the coefficients of the dividend in descending order from left to right. If
ever there are missing powers of the variable, use a zero to fill in the missing
term. In this case, the 𝑥 2 term is missing.

Step 2: Bring down the leading coefficient (5) in the dividend.

Step 3: Multiply the number in the division box (−2) with the number you brought
down (5) and put the result (−10) in the next column.

Step 4: Add the two numbers in that column and write the result (−16) at the
bottom, still aligned to this column.

Step 5: Repeat Steps 3 and 4 until you reach the end of the problem.

Step 6: Write the final answer. The numbers at the bottom row except the last one
are the coefficients of the powers of the variable starting with a degree that
is one less than the degree of the dividend. The last number is the
remainder.

To write the exact answer, write the remainder as the numerator of a

fraction with the divisor as its denominator.

Following these steps, we have the following:

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 STUDY GUIDE

Hence, the quotient is 5𝑥 3 − 16𝑥 2 + 32𝑥 − 62 while the remainder is 133. The
133
exact quotient can also be written as 5𝑥 3 − 16𝑥 2 + 32𝑥 − 62 + 𝑥+2.

Try It Yourself!

Find the quotient and the remainder when 4𝑥 + 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 2 is divided by 𝑥 − 2

using synthetic division.

Example 3: Use synthetic division to find the quotient when (2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 25) is
divided by (2𝑥 + 5). .

Solution:

5 5
Step 1: Note that 2𝑥 + 5 is equal to 2 (𝑥 + 2). (𝑥 + 2) is in the form 𝑥 − 𝑘 where
5
𝑘 = − 2. Thus, (2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 25) ÷ (2𝑥 + 5) may be performed as
5 2𝑥 3 −5𝑥 2 −13𝑥+25
[(2𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 13𝑥 + 25) ÷ (𝑥 + 2)] ÷ 2. This is because
3 2
=
2𝑥+5
2𝑥 3 −5𝑥 2 −13𝑥+25 1
5 ∙ . Thus, we first divide (2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 25) by (𝑥 + 52)
(𝑥+ ) 2
2
and divide the answer by 2.

5
We first do the steps needed to divide (2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 25) by (𝑥 + 2).

26
STUDY GUIDE

5
Step 2: Equate the divisor to zero to know the value of 𝑘. In this case, 𝑥 + 2 = 0. Thus,
5
𝑘 = − 2. This shall be the number in the division box in the extreme left. Write
the coefficients of the dividend in descending order from left to right. If ever
there are missing powers of the variable, use a zero to fill in the missing
term. In this case, there are no missing powers of 𝑥.

Step 3: Bring down the leading coefficient (2) in the dividend.

5
Step 4: Multiply the number in the division box (− 2) with the number you brought
down (2) and put the result (−5) in the next column.

Step 5: Add the two numbers in that column and write the result (−10) at the
bottom, still aligned to this column.

Step 6: Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until you reach the end of the problem.

Step 7: Write the final answer. The numbers at the bottom row except the last one
are the coefficients of the powers of the variable starting with a degree that
is one less than the degree of the dividend. The last number is the
remainder.

To write the exact answer, write the remainder as the numerator of a

fraction with the divisor as its denominator.

Following these steps, we have the following:

27
 STUDY GUIDE

5
Therefore the quotient when 2𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 25 is divided by 𝑥 + 2 is
5
2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 12 − . This still has to be divided by 2. Thus the quotient is
𝑥−52
2𝑥 2 −10𝑥+12 5
which equates to 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 + 2𝑥−5.
5
− 5
2 2(𝑥− )
2

Try It Yourself!

Use synthetic division to find the quotient of (3𝑥 4 + 10𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2) ÷ (3𝑥 − 2)

Real-World Problems

Example 4: Sandra was given an assignment to find the

remainder when the expression (4𝑥 6 + 21𝑥 5 − 26𝑥 3 +
28𝑥 + 10) is divided by (𝑥 + 5), if there is any. On her
first try using long division, she found out that there is
no remainder. Is Sandra correct? Support your answer
showing the solution using synthetic division.

Solution:

Step 1: Equate the divisor to zero to know the value of 𝑘. In this case, 𝑥 + 5 = 0. Thus,
𝑘 = −5. This shall be the number in the division box in the extreme left. The
terms when written from the highest degree would be 4𝑥 6 + 21𝑥 5 − 26𝑥 3 +
28 + 10. Write the coefficients of the dividend in descending order from left
to right. If ever there are missing powers of the variable, use a zero to fill in
the missing term. In this case, the 𝑥 4 and 𝑥 2 terms are missing.

28
STUDY GUIDE

Step 2: Bring down the leading coefficient (4) in the dividend.

Step 3: Multiply the number in the division box (−5) with the number you brought
down (4) and put the result (−20) in the next column.

Step 4: Add the two numbers in that column and write the result (1) at the bottom,
still aligned to this column.

Step 5: Repeat Steps 3 and 4 until you reach the end of the problem.

Step 6: Write the final answer. The numbers at the bottom row except the last one
are the coefficients of the powers of the variable starting with a degree that
is one less than the degree of the dividend. The last number is the
remainder.

Following these steps, we have the following:

Hence, the quotient is 4𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 while the remainder is −5.

5
The exact quotient can also be written as 4𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥+5.

Step 7: Based on the result in Step 6, Sandra’s initial answer that there is no
remainder is incorrect since the results shows that there is a remainder of
−5.

29
STUDY GUIDE

Try It Yourself!

Bert, Sandra’s classmate, was given an assignment

similar to Sandra’s. However, the dividend in his
assignment was (3𝑥 5 + 21𝑥 4 − 26𝑥 3 + 28𝑥 + 10) while the
divisor is (𝑥 − 1). On his first try using long division, he
found out that there is a remainder. Is Bert correct? If he
is, what is the remainder? Support your answer showing
the solution using synthetic division.

Check Your Understanding!

1. Use synthetic division to divide the following:

a. (𝑦 2 + 11𝑦 − 19) ÷ (𝑦 + 4)
b. (𝑎3 − 2𝑎2 + 2𝑎 − 5) ÷ (𝑎 + 1)
c. (𝑏 3 − 7𝑏 2 − 13𝑏 + 3) ÷ (𝑏 + 2)
d. (3𝑦 3 − 𝑦 + 1 + 7𝑦 2 ) ÷ (3𝑦 + 1)
e. (4𝑣 3 + 6𝑣 2 − 8𝑣 − 12) ÷ (2𝑣 − 3)
f. (9𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 1) ÷ (3𝑥 + 1)
g. (6𝑎4 − 15𝑎3 + 28𝑎 + 6) ÷ (3 + 𝑎)
h. (𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 4) ÷ (𝑥 + 2)
i. (𝑦 4 − 8𝑦 3 + 10𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 4) ÷ (𝑦 − 2)
j. (2𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 2 − 1) ÷ (𝑥 + 1)
k. (4𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 3 − 36𝑥 2 − 22𝑥 − 10) ÷ (4𝑥 + 7)
l. (3𝑏 4 + 9𝑏 3 + 21𝑏 + 55) ÷ (3𝑏 + 9)
m. (7𝑥 5 − 58𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 3 + 137𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 − 16) ÷ (7𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 16)
n. (8𝑣 5 + 32𝑣 4 + 5𝑣 + 20) ÷ (𝑣 − 4)
o. (12𝑎5 − 15𝑎3 + 28𝑎 + 6 + 𝑎4 ) ÷ (2𝑎 − 3)
p. (𝑎5 − 243) ÷ (𝑎 − 3)
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STUDY GUIDE

2. Solve the following problems.

a. There are a total of 5𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 14𝑥^ − 8 books that are to be shelved. If
there are only 𝑥 + 1 shelves, how many books may be accommodated in each
shelf and how many are the excess that may not be accommodated?
b. The volume of a rectangular prism is 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 5. Find the area of its base
if its height is 𝑥 + 1.

Lesson 3: The Remainder Theorem

Warm Up!

Gallery Walk

Materials Needed: paper and pen, artworks, timer, (optional: printed paintings
with descriptions)

Instructions:
1. This activity may be done individually or by group.
2. Your teacher will post four stations around the classroom. Each station will be
highlighted by printed artwork.
3. Your group will then be assigned to one station, with the other groups assigned
to other stations.
4. Your teacher will then give you time to study and answer the activity sheet and
guide questions posted beside each artwork.
5. After the allotted time is over, your teacher will then ask you to move to another
stations.
6. The activity will end once all the groups have answered and passed through all
the stations.

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 STUDY GUIDE

Sample Activity Sheet

Dividend Divisor
𝒌 Remainder 𝑷(𝒌)
𝑷(𝒙) 𝒙−𝒌
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 𝑥−1

𝑥 3 + 27 𝑥+3

Guide Questions:
1. How did you solve for the remainder?
2. How did you find the value of 𝑘?
3. How did you solve for 𝑃(𝑘)?
4. What can you observe from the values of the remainder and 𝑃(𝑘)?

Learn about It!

There are instances in which we are only asked to find the remainder when a certain
polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by a binomial. Based on the previous lessons, this may be done
using either long division or synthetic division to solve for the quotient and identify the
remainder. However, there is a more efficient way of finding the remainder using a
specific theorem that we will discuss in this lesson.

As you have done in Warm Up!, you computed for value of 𝑘 and the remainder when a
polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑘, as well as 𝑃(𝑘).

Suppose we want to find the value of the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) when 𝑥 = 𝑘. We can do this by
substituting the given value of 𝑥 into the polynomial and simplifying. However, this
method could be cumbersome, especially if the terms of the polynomial have large
exponents. To work around this difficulty, we may use synthetic division along with a
principle known as the Remainder Theorem, which is stated as follows: 32
STUDY GUIDE

Remainder Theorem

If a polynomial function 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑘 (where 𝑘 is

a real number), and the division results in a remainder 𝑟,
then 𝑃(𝑘) = 𝑟.

To see why the Remainder Theorem holds true, consider the following statements:

1. The given assumptions of the Remainder Theorem are that a given polynomial 𝑃(𝑥)
is divided by a binomial 𝑥 − 𝑘, and a remainder of 𝑟 is obtained from this
operation.

2. According to the Division Algorithm, if we divide a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) (the dividend) by

a nonzero polynomial 𝑑(𝑥) (the divisor), we can obtain a quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and a
remainder 𝑟(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥).

3. Since the Remainder Theorem describes division of polynomials, we may substitute

the relevant expressions into the Division Algorithm. This gives us the equation
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑘)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟.

4. Now that we have found an expression for 𝑃(𝑥), we can evaluate the polynomial at
𝑥 = 𝑘.
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑘)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟
𝑃(𝑘) = (𝑘 − 𝑘)𝑞(𝑘) + 𝑟
= 0 ⋅ 𝑞(𝑘) + 𝑟
=0+𝑟
=𝑟

5. Therefore, 𝑃(𝑘) = 𝑟, and we have proven the Remainder Theorem.

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 STUDY GUIDE

Now, let us consider using synthetic division to find the remainder when the polynomial
function 𝑃(𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6 is divided by 𝑥 − 6.

As the solution shows, the remainder is 5772. Let us now check whether we will get the
same remainder when we apply the Remainder Theorem.

As the theorem states, if 𝑃(𝑘) = 𝑟, then 𝑃(6) = 5772 as shown in the synthetic division
done earlier. However, by using the Remainder Theorem we can just simply find the
remainder by evaluating the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) for 𝑘 = 6 as shown below:

𝑃(𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6
= 5(6)4 − 2(6)3 − 7(6)2 − 3(6) − 6
= 5(1296) − 2(216) − 7(36) − 3(6) − 6
= 6480 − 432 − 252 − 18 − 6
= 5772

Let’s Practice!

Example 1: Find the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 3 is divided by 𝑥 + 2.

Solution:

Step 1: Normally we would use synthetic division to find the remainder, but with the
Remainder Theorem, we just evaluate 𝑃(𝑥) for 𝑥 = 𝑘, wherein 𝑘 = −2.
34
 STUDY GUIDE

Step 2: We now evaluate 𝑃(−2).

𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 3
𝑃(−2) = 3(−2)5 + 5(−2)4 − 4(−2)3 + 7(−2) + 3
= −96 + 80 + 32 − 14 + 3
=5

Therefore, the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 + 3 is divided by

𝑥 + 2 is equal to 5.

Try It Yourself!

Find the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 13 is divided by 𝑥 − 2.

Example 2: The expression 4𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑥 + 8 leaves a remainder of −4 when divided by 𝑥 − 3.

Find the value of 𝑎.

Solution:

Step 1: We let 𝑃(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑥 + 8. Since the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 3

is −4, then 𝑃(3) = −4.

𝑃(3) = −4
2
4(3) − 𝑎(3) + 8 = −4
36 − 3𝑎 + 8 = −4
−3𝑎 = −48
𝑎 = 16

Hence, 𝑎 = −16 resulting to the dividend being 4𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 8.

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 STUDY GUIDE

Checking the answer by the Remainder Theorem, will result to

𝑃(3) = 4𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 8
= 4(3)2 − 16(3) + 8
= 36 − 48 + 8
= −4

Try It Yourself!

The expression 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 leaves a remainder of 3 when divided by 𝑥 + 2. Find the

value of 𝑎.

Example 3: Given that the expression 2𝑥 3 + 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐 leaves the same remainder

when divided by 𝑥 − 2 or by 𝑥 + 1, prove that 𝑚 + 𝑛 = −6.

Solution:

Step 1: Let 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐. Since the two remainders are equal, by the
Remainder Theorem we can say that 𝑃(2) = 𝑃(−1)

Step 2: We solve for 𝑚 + 𝑛.

𝑃(2) = 𝑃(−1)
2(2) + 𝑚(2) + 𝑛(2) + 𝑐 = 2(−1)3 + 𝑚(−1)2 + 𝑛(−1) + 𝑐
3 2

16 + 4𝑚 + 2𝑛 + 𝑐 = −2 + 𝑚 − 𝑛 + 𝑐
3𝑚 + 3𝑛 = −18
3(𝑚 + 𝑛) = −18
3(𝑚 + 𝑛) 18
=−
3 3
𝑚 + 𝑛 = −6

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 STUDY GUIDE

Try It Yourself!

The expression 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 7 leaves a remainder of 𝑝 − 1 when divided by 𝑥 + 1, and

a remainder of 𝑝 − 2 when divided by 𝑥 + 2. Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑝.

Real-World Problems

Example 4: Anita, a programmer, is trying to correct an

error in a string of code modeled in a
polynomial. As part of her debugging process,
she needs to look for a divisor or divisors for
that will result in a remainder of zero when used
to divide the polynomial. The table below shows
the given polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) and the set of binomial divisors. Identify which
one(s) result to a remainder of zero.

Polynomial 𝑷(𝒙) Divisors (𝒙 − 𝒌)

𝑥−2
𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6 𝑥+3
𝑥−1

Solution:

Step 1: To find which divisor gives a remainder of zero, we first need to identify the
values of 𝑘 to be used in applying the Remainder Theorem for each binomial
divisor in the form of 𝑥 − 𝑘.

For 𝑥 − 2, the value of 𝑘 to be used is 2.

For 𝑥 + 3, the value of 𝑘 to be used is −3 since 𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 − (−3).
For 𝑥 − 1, the value of 𝑘 toeo be used is 1. 37
STUDY GUIDE

Step 2: We evaluate 𝑃(𝑘) for each value of 𝑘 in Step 1. This gives us the remainder
when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑘 by virtue of the Remainder Theorem.

For 𝑘 = 2:
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6
= (2)4 − 3(2)3 + 5(2)2 + 3(2) − 6
= 16 − 24 + 20 + 6 − 6
= 12

For 𝑘 = −3:
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6
= (−3)4 − 3(−3)3 + 5(−3)2 + 3(−3) − 6
= 81 + 81 + 45 − 9 − 6
= 192

For 𝑘 = 1:
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 6
= (1)4 − 3(1)3 + 5(1)2 + 3(1) − 6
=1−3+5+3−6
=0

Since only 𝑃(1) results in a remainder of zero, then only the divisor 𝑥 − 1 can
be used to solve the error.

Try It Yourself!

Anita encountered another error in her code, however she cannot use any of the
divisors shown in Example 4. She discovers three more sets of divisors she can use.
Which among 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 − 3, and 𝑥 + 2 can be used to solve her problem (i.e. a divisor
that will yield a remainder of zero)?

38
STUDY GUIDE

Check Your Understanding!

1. Use the Remainder Theorem to determine the remainder when the first polynomial
is divided by the second polynomial.
a. 𝑎3 − 3𝑎2 − 𝑎 + 20; 𝑎 + 2
b. 𝑥 3 + 14𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 12; 𝑥 + 7
c. 2𝑎3 − 13𝑎2 − 20𝑎 + 25; 𝑎 + 3
d. 𝑎3 + 4𝑎 − 7; 𝑎 − 3
e. 6𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 + 𝑥; 𝑥 − 2
f. 2𝑦 4 − 𝑦 3 + 8𝑦 + 15; 𝑦 + 2
g. 2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 − 12; 𝑥 + 3
h. 𝑦 4 − 4𝑦 3 + 9𝑦 − 20; 𝑦 + 5
i. 𝑦 5 + 32; 𝑦 + 2
j. 𝑤 5 − 3𝑤 4 + 9𝑤 3 + 2𝑤 2 − 𝑤 − 10; 𝑤 − 4
k. 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 828; 𝑥 − 3

2. Find the value of 𝑘 so that the given dividend and divisor yield the indicated
remainder
a. (2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 8) ÷ (𝑥 + 2) yields a remainder of −2
b. (2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 𝑘) ÷ (𝑥 − 4) yields no remainder.
c. (𝑥 4 − 𝑘𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 − 10) ÷ (𝑥 − 2) yields a remainder of −4.
d. (3𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 𝑘) ÷ (𝑥 − 2) yields a remainder of −5.

3. Analyze and solve the following problems:

a. Meliza is looking for a value of 𝑚 wherein the polynomial 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑚𝑥 + 4
leaves a remainder of 4 when divided by 𝑥 − 2. Help Meliza find the value of 𝑚
by using the concepts you have learned in this lesson.
b. When 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 − 5𝑏𝑥 − 6 students are divided equally into 𝑥 + 3 or 𝑥 − 2
classrooms, there is no remainder. Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.

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STUDY GUIDE

Lesson 4: The Factor Theorem

Warm Up!
Investigate and Discover 2

Materials Needed: activity sheet, pen, paper

Instructions:
1. This activity may be done individually.
2. Your teacher will distribute the activity sheets, and you will complete the table
and answer the guide questions completely.
3. Your teacher will ask for volunteers to discuss their findings in class.

Sample Activity Sheet

What can you observe when a number

is divided by one of its factors?
What is the remainder when a number
is divided by one of its factors?
𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6
𝑥−1
Each polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) given on the 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2
right, is divided by a divisor 𝑥 − 𝑘. 𝑥−2
𝑥 − 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 8
4

𝑥+2
Determine the remainder by a. b. c.
calculating 𝑃(𝑘).
Express each 𝑃(𝑥) in the form 𝑃(𝑥) = a. b. c.
(𝑥 − 𝑘)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟.

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Guide Questions:
1. What have you observed when the polynomials are written in the form
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑘)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟?
2. What can you say about the divisor 𝑥 − 𝑘 and the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥)?

Learn about It!

The Remainder Theorem has a special case which occurs when the remainder is equal to
zero. This situation is explicitly shown in Warm Up!. This special case is an illustration of
the Factor Theorem, which may be stated as follows:

Factor Theorem

If 𝑃(𝑥) is a polynomial function and 𝑘 is a real number,

𝑥 − 𝑘 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) if and only if 𝑃(𝑘) = 0.

To see why the Factor Theorem is true, consider the following statements:

1. The Factor Theorem states that the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) satisfies 𝑃(𝑘) = 0 for some real
number 𝑘 if 𝑥 − 𝑘 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥).
2. By the Remainder Theorem, this means that if 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑘, then the
remainder is equal to 0.
3. Using the Division Algorithm,

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑘) + 𝑟(𝑥)

But if the remainder 𝑟(𝑥) = 0, we have

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑘)
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which clearly shows that 𝑥 − 𝑘 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) because 𝑃(𝑥) may be expressed as
the product of some polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑥 − 𝑘.

Let us study the examples below to thoroughly understand the Factor Theorem.

Let’s Practice!

Example 1: Determine whether 𝑥 + 2 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9 or not.

Solution: The binomial 𝑥 + 2 yields a value of 𝑘 = −2, hence, we can evaluate 𝑃(−2) as
follows:
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9
𝑃(−2) = 2(−2)4 − 5(−2)2 + 6(−2) − 9
= 32 − 20 − 12 − 9
= −9

Since the value of 𝑃(𝑥) when 𝑘 = −2 is nonzero, then the binomial 𝑥 + 2 is

not a factor of 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9.

Try It Yourself!

Determine whether 𝑥 + 2 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 6 or not.

Example 2: Determine whether 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑥 + 3 are factors of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 −

27𝑥 − 18 or not.

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Solution: We can solve this problem using synthetic division and check if the
remainder is equal to zero. However, the Factor Theorem provides a more
efficient method.

Step 1: Let us first consider 𝑥 + 2. The binomial can be written as 𝑥 − (−2) where 𝑘 =
−2. Substituting the value of 𝑘 to 𝑃(𝑥) will result in the following solution:

𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 27𝑥 − 18
𝑃(−2) = 2(−2)4 + 7(−2)3 − 4(−2)2 − 27(−2) − 18
= 32 + 56 − 16 − 54 − 18
=0

Step 2: Let us now consider 𝑥 + 3. The binomial can be written as 𝑥 − (−3) Thus, 𝑘 =
−3. Substituting the value of 𝑘 into 𝑃(𝑥) will result in the following:

𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 27𝑥 − 18
𝑃(−3) = 2(−3)4 + 7(−3)3 − 4(−3)2 − 27(−3) − 18
= 162 − 189 − 36 + 81 − 18
=0

Since 𝑃(𝑥) has a value of zero for both values of 𝑘, then we can say that 𝑥 + 2
and 𝑥 + 3 are factors of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 27𝑥 − 18.

Try It Yourself!

Determine whether 3𝑥 − 1 and 𝑥 − 2 are factors of 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 7𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 2.

Example 3: Find the value of 𝑎 such that 𝑥 + 2 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 𝑎.

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Solution:

Step 1: Given a divisor of 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − (−2), we shall use the value of 𝑘 = −2.

Step 2: Since 𝑥 + 2 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 𝑎, then by the Factor

Theorem, the remainder is equal to zero.

Step 3: Using 𝑃(−2) = 0, we then solve for the value of 𝑎.

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 𝑎
0 = (−2)3 + 3(−2)2 − 7(−2) + 𝑎
0 = −8 + 12 + 14 + 𝑎
0 = 18 + 𝑎
−18 = 𝑎
𝑎 = −18

Since the value of 𝑎 = −18, then 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 18.

Step 4: We can check whether 𝑃(−2) = 0 using the Remainder Theorem.

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 18

𝑃(−2) = (−2)3 + 3(−2)2 − 7(−2) − 18

= −8 + 12 + 14 − 18
=0

Try It Yourself!

The expression 𝑎𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 6 is exactly divisible by 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2. Find the values

of 𝑎 and 𝑏.

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Real-World Problems

Example 4: Pearl wants to check whether the encircled

dimension for a rectangular storage box (as
shown in the figure) is possible or not,
given that the volume is 𝑥 3 + 17𝑥 2 + 71𝑥 +
55. Assume that 𝑥 is an integer and that the
area of the base is also an integer. Support your answer using the Factor
Theorem.

Solution:

Step 1: We know that the formula for volume is given by 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ. Assuming that the
area of the base which is equal to 𝑙𝑤 is already an integer, that leaves us with
checking whether the height ℎ = 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of the volume 𝑥 3 + 17𝑥 2 +
71𝑥 + 55. Let us assign this volume as the polynomial 𝑉(𝑥) for the purposes
of this example.

Step 2: Since the given height is 𝑥 + 1, and we need to check if it is a factor of 𝑉(𝑥),
this shall be the 𝑥 − 𝑘 (where 𝑘 = −1) we shall use in applying the Factor
Theorem. As stated by the theorem, if 𝑉(𝑘) = 0 then 𝑥 − 𝑘 is a factor of 𝑉(𝑥),
so we must check whether 𝑉(−1) will be equal to zero.

𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 17𝑥 2 + 71𝑥 + 55

𝑉(−1) = (−1)3 + 17(−1)2 + 71(−1) + 55

= −1 + 17 − 71 + 55
=0

Since 𝑉(−1) = 0, 𝑥 + 1 is a possible height (with an integer value) for a

storage box with a volume of 𝑥 3 + 17𝑥 2 + 71𝑥 + 55.
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Try It Yourself!

Pearl made another storage box, however the volume was

changed to 𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 40𝑥 − 48. Will it be possible to have a
height of 𝑥 − 4? Assume all dimensions are integers.

Check Your Understanding!

1. Find out if the given binomial is a factor of the given function. (2 points each)
a. 𝑥 − 2; 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 14𝑥 2 + 6
b. 𝑥 − 5; 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 75
c. 𝑥 + 5; 𝑃(𝑥) = 8𝑥 + 𝑥 3 + 2 − 5𝑥 2
d. 𝑥 + 3; 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 3
e. 𝑥 − 2; 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10
f. 𝑥 + 7; 𝑃(𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 12 − 𝑥 3
g. 𝑥 − 4; 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 12
h. 𝑥 + 1; 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 2𝑥 5 + 13 − 4𝑥 3
i. 2𝑥 − 1; 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
j. 𝑥 + 2; 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 6
k. 𝑥 − 1; 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 6 − 11𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 + 9

2. Solve for the value of 𝑘 as indicated in each problem. (3 points each)

a. Find 𝑘 such that 𝑥 − 3 is a factor of 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 + 9.
b. Find 𝑘 such that 𝑥 − 4 is a factor of 𝑥 3 − 𝑘𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 20.
c. Find 𝑘 such that 𝑥 − 2 is a factor of 2𝑥 3 − 𝑘𝑥 − 3.
d. Find 𝑘 such that 2𝑥 − 1 is a factor of 2𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 𝑘𝑥 − 6.

3. The polynomials 𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3𝑎 and 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑏 have a common factor of

𝑥 + 2. Find 𝑎 and 𝑏. 46
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Challenge Yourself!

1. Identical squares are cut from each corner of an 8” × 11.5” rectangular piece of
cardboard. The sides are folded up to make a box with no top. If the volume of the
resulting box is 63.75 cubic inches, how long is the edge of each square that is cut
from each corner?

12𝑥 10 −24𝑥 8 +3𝑥 4 +4𝑥 3 −15𝑥 2 +7𝑥−13

2. Use Long Division to find the quotient of . Use
𝑥+5
synthetic division to check your answer. Show your complete solution.

3. What do you think is the remainder when 𝑥100 − 𝑥 99 + 𝑥 98 − 𝑥 97 + ⋯ − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 +

1 is divided by by 𝑥 − 1? Use the Remainder Theorem to support your answer.

4. Use the Factor Theorem to find all the prime factors of 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 19𝑥 2 + 46𝑥 + 120.
A factor is said to be prime if it can no longer be broken down into two or more
factors. In the case of this polynomial, expect all the four factors to be linear.

5. Research on the most common applications of polynomials in physics and present

at least three problems using the concepts you have learned in this unit.

Performance Task

Anyone pursuing a degree in Education specializing in Mathematics should have a good

grasp in understanding concepts, formulas and algorithms, and must be able to explain
them well not only to colleagues but also and most especially to students.

As a newly hired professor in your community college, you are assigned to perform a
series of tasks to explain an extension of Synthetic Division.

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You may refer to the instructions given below as guide.

1. Suppose 2𝑥 5 + 11𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 2 is divided by 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1.

2. Provide a solution using long division.
3. Simplify the long division process. You may refer to the discussion in Learn About It!
from Lesson 2: Synthetic Division.
4. Check whether you arrived at the same algorithm as shown below.

5. Notice that the algorithm resembles a synthetic division process. However, the
dividend in the form of 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by a divisor of the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 instead of
a linear divisor 𝑥 − 𝑘.
6. Create a step by step explanation on how to perform synthetic division when a
polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by as divisor of the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐.
7. You are required to submit a research paper highlighting the explanation for the
algorithm shown in Step 4. You also need to provide a discussion guide relating
long division and synthetic division from Step 3.

Your paper will be presented to the Dean of the College of Mathematics and the
discussion guide will be used in the next college symposium. The products will be rated in
terms of mathematical justification, accuracy, and efficiency.

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Performance Task Rubric

Below Needs Successful Exemplary

Criteria Expectation Improvement Performance Performance
(0–49%) (50–74%) (75–99%) (99+%)
Justification are Justification is
Justification is
not so clear. clear and
logically clear,
Justification is Some ideas are informatively
informative, and
ambiguous. not connected delivered.
professionally
Mathematical Concepts to each other. Majority of the
delivered. All
Justification learned in the Only a few relevant
relevant
unit were not relevant concepts
concepts learned
applied. concepts learned in the
in the unit are
learned in the unit are
applied.
unit are applied. applied.
The
information The
The information The information
given are information
given are given are
erroneous given are
erroneous and accurate and
Accuracy and do not accurate and
show some use show a wise use
show wise shows use of
of the concepts of the concepts
use of the the concepts
from this unit. from this unit.
concepts from this unit.
from this unit.
The discussion
The discussion The discussion guide is very
The
guide is guide is informative and
Efficiency discussion
somewhat informative flawlessly done.
guide is poor.
informative. and flawless. It is also easily
understandable.

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Wrap-up

Key Terms/ Formulas

Key Term Description

Long division of a polynomial by another polynomial
may be done using the following steps:

Step 1: To divide, we need to make sure the polynomial

is written in descending order of the degrees. A
zero may be used for a missing term. In the
Long Division
case of the given dividend, this is already done.

Step 2: We divide the highest degree term in the

dividend by the term with the highest degree in
the divisor. The answer is written above the
dividend.
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Step 3: The answer obtained in the previous step

then multiplied to the divisor. We write the
answer below the dividend. Then, we subtract
and bring down the next term in the dividend.

Step 4: This cycle is repeated until the difference

resulting from subtraction has a lower degree
than the divisor.

When a polynomial dividend 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by a

polynomial divisor 𝑑(𝑥), and yields a quotient of 𝑞(𝑥)
Division Algorithm and a remainder of 𝑟(𝑥), then 𝑓(𝑥) may be written as

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥).

Synthetic division is a shorthand way of performing long
division on polynomials. The following steps are done to
divide a polynomial in 𝑥 by a divisor of the form 𝑥 − 𝑘:

Step 1: Equate the divisor to zero to know the value

of 𝑘. This shall be the number in the division
box in the extreme left. Write the coefficients
of the dividend in descending order from left
Synthetic Division
to right. If ever there are missing powers of
the variable, use a zero to fill in the missing
term.

Step 2: Bring down the leading coefficient in the

dividend.

Step 3: Multiply the number in the division box with

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the number you brought down and put the

result in the next column.

Step 4: Add the two numbers in that column and

write the result at the bottom, still aligned to
this column.

Step 5: Repeat Steps 3 and 4 until you reach the end

of the problem.

Step 6: Write the final answer. The numbers at the

bottom row except the last one are the
coefficients of the powers of the variable
starting with a degree that is one less than the
degree of the dividend. The last number is the
remainder.

To write the exact answer, write the

remainder as the numerator of a fraction with
the divisor as its denominator.
If a polynomial function 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑘 (where 𝑘
Remainder Theorem is a real number), and the division results in a remainder
𝑟, then 𝑃(𝑘) = 𝑟.

If 𝑃(𝑥) is a polynomial function and 𝑘 is a real number,

Factor Theorem
𝑥 − 𝑘 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) if and only if 𝑃(𝑘) = 0.

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Key to Let’s Practice!

Lesson 1
18
1. 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 3 + 3𝑥+1
12
2. 3𝑥 4 + 12𝑥 3 − 𝑥−2
17956
3. 𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 + 29𝑥 3 − 143𝑥 2 + 719𝑥 − 3591 + 𝑥+5
4. 3𝑥 − 10

Lesson 2
58
1. 3𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 16 − 𝑥+3
2. quotient: −5𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 14; remainder: −28
3. 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
4. Yes. There is a remainder of 36.

Lesson 3
1. 83
2. 1
3. 𝑎 = 2; 𝑝 = 9
4. (𝑥 + 1)

Lesson 4
1. 𝑥 + 2 is not a factor.
2. Both 3𝑥 − 1 and 𝑥 − 2 are not factors.
3. 𝑎 = 1; 𝑏 = 11
4. Yes

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References

Bernabe, Julieta G., Pablo D. Aseoche Jr. Integrated Mathematics IV. Quezon City: JTW
Corporation., 2000.

“Division of Polynomials.” Accessed February 21, 2017. http://www.mhhe.com/math/

devmath/dugopolski/acs/student/olc/graphics/dugopolski02acs_s/ch05/others/ch0
5-5.pdf

“Long Division Polynomial Calculator” Accessed April 7, 2018.

http://calc101.com/webMathematica/long-divide.jsp#topdoit

Oronce, Orlando A., Marilyn O. Mendoza. E-Math IV. Quezon City: Rex Printing Company,
Inc., 2007.

“Remainder-Factor Theorem.” Accessed February 22, 2017.

https://brilliant.org/discussions/ thread/remainder-factor-theorem

Stapel, Elizabeth. “The Factor Theorem.” Purplemath. Accessed February 21, 2017. http://
www.purplemath.com/modules/factrthm.htm

“Synthetic Division Calculator” Accessed April, 7 2018.

http://www.mathcelebrity.com/synthetic-division-calculator

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