NOVEMBER 2023

THE ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
GROUP 9
 TABLE
of contents

01. Overview of the Endocrine System 05. Pineal Gland

02. Hormones 06. Thyroid Gland

03. Pituitary Gland 07. Parathyroid Gland

04. Hypothalamus 08. Adrenal Gland

Endocrine System
Referred to as hormone systems
It consists of glands located throughout the
body including the pituitary gland, pineal
gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, and
adrenal glands.
The glands produce various secretions called
hormones and are released into the
bloodstream and/or the fluids surrounding the
cell.
Information is communicated to peripheral
cells and organs through hormones via
connected tissue spaces and the vascular
system.
 Endocrine vs. Exocrine
ENDOCRINE EXOCRINE
consists of glands that consists of glands that
release secretions directly release secretions through
into the bloodstream. ducts.
This includes the sebaceous
and sweat glands of the skin.
HORMONES
A secretory product of the endocrine
cells and organs that acts as
chemical messengers released into
the bloodstream and connective
tissue spaces to act on the target
cells and organs.
It regulates the activities of the cells,
tissues, and organs in the body.
EXAMPLE OF HORMONES
ESTROGEN
ANDROGEN
Examples of biological processes
regulated by hormones :

Blood sugar control

Differentiation, growth, and function of reproductive
organs
Body growth and energy production
 Hormonal actions

1. Paracrine control 2. Autocrine control

the hormones would act on target the cells express receptors for the
cells that have compatible specific hormones they secrete.
receptors for the particular
hormone.
 3 classes of
compounds
1. Steroids
Made up of lipid cholesterol
Transported to the target cell with the help of specialized carrier
proteins such as androgen-binding protein.

2. Peptides and proteins

Peptides consist of short amino acids
proteins consist of longer polypeptides.
It regulates physiological processes, which include growth,
development, metabolism, and reproduction.
It dissolves instantly in the blood as it’s released in the bloodstream and
does not require any special transport proteins

3. Amino acid
Referred to as amine hormones, synthesized and secreted by many
neurons and variety of cells including cells of the adrenal medulla.
 Hormone receptors
1. Cell surface receptor 2. Intracellular receptor
these receptors interact with These are receptors located within
hormones that are unable to the cell
penetrate the cell membrane such Hormones that bind this receptor
as peptide hormones and have the ability to cross the cell
catecholamines. membrane such as steroids and
thyroid hormones.
 FEEDBACK
MECHANISMS
Feedback occurs when the response to a
stimulus (action of a hormone) has an effect on
the original stimulus (hormone-secreting cells)
1. Positive feedback
A change in one direction generates another
change in the same direction.
2. Negative feedback
A change in one direction produces a change in
the other.
PITUITARY GLAND
(HYPOPHYSIS)
PITUITARY GLAND
The pituitary gland and the
hypothalamus, the portion of the brain
in which the pituitary gland is
attached, are morphologically and
functionally linked in the endocrine
and the neuroendocrine control of
other indocrine glands.
"MASTER ORGANS" of Endocrine
System
 GROSS AND
DEVELOPMENT OF
PITUITARY GLAND

Composed of glandular epithelial tissue

and neural tissue.
A pea-sized, compound endocrine gland
that weight 0.5g in males and 1.5 in
multiparous women.
It is centrally located at the base of the
brain, where it lies in a saddle-shaped
depression of the spenoid bone called
the sella turcica.
S ELLA TURCICA

Sella Turcica - "Turkish Chair" in

latin

A short stalk, infundibulum, and

a vascular network connect the
pituary gland to the
hypothalamus.
 TWO FUNCTIONAL
COMPONENT OF
PITUITARY GLAND:

ANTERIOR LOBE
01
(Adenohypophysis) 

POSTERIOR LOBE
02 (Neurohypophysis) 
ANTERIOR LOBE OF
PITUITARY GLAND
The glandular epithelial tissue.
It is derived from an upgrowth
from the oral ectoderm of the
primitive oral cavity called
Rathke's pouch.
Produces and secretes a majority
of the hormones of the pituitary
gland
 The anterior lobe of pituary gland is consist
of three derivatives of Rathke's pouch.

PARS DISTALIS PARS TUBERALIS PARS INTERMEDIA

A tubular sheath that Resides between the

Majority of the hormone
extends from the pars posterior pituitary and
production occurs
distalis and winds around pars distalis
The distal part of the
the pituitary stalk. Consist of pale cells that
pituitary and forms the
Epithelial cells arranged in are large
majority of
cords and hypophyseal Main hormone secreted is
adenohypophysis
portal vessels reside in this MSH/Melanocyte-
space. stimulating Hormone
PITUITARY GLAND
ANTERIOR LOBE
POSTERIOR LOBE OF
PITUITARY GLAND
The neural secretory tissue.
Has its embryological origins in
nervous tissue.
It formed from a downgrowth of the
diencephalon that forms the floor
of the third ventricle.
The embryonic infundibulum gives
rise to the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland.
POSTERIOR LOBE OF
PITUITARY GLAND

1. Pars Nervosa

neural lobe or posterior lobe
constitutes the majority of the posterior pituitary,
and is storage site oxytocin and vasopressin

2. Infundibulum

pituary stalk
connects the hypothalamic median eminence with
the pituitary gland
it constitutes an important element in the proper
functioning of hormonal regulation.
HYPOTHALAMUS

is a tiny but vital portion of the brain found at the

base of the brain and part of the diencephalon.
is responsible for linking the nervous system to
the endocrine system
plays a critical part in regulating different
physiological processes required for maintaining
the body's internal equilibrium, or homeostasis.
Functions:
1. Temperature Regulation
The hypothalamus controls the body's core temperature and works as a
thermostat, activating reactions to maintain a steady internal environment.
When the body temperature deviates from the fixed point, the hypothalamus
initiates temperature regulation mechanisms such as sweating or shivering.
2. Satiation and Hunger
The hypothalamus regulates appetite and food intake.
It receives messages from hormones and nutrients in the circulation, as well as the
digestive system, and influences sensations of hunger and fullness.
influences the emotional and reward components of eating behavior via its links
with the limbic system.
3. Thirst
Responds to changes in blood osmolarity, which is the concentration of solutes in
the blood, to help regulate fluid balance.
When blood gets more concentrated (showing dehydration), the hypothalamus
induces thirst, pushing the person to drink water.
4. Control of Hormones from the Pituitary Gland:
The hypothalamus regulates the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
is responsible for the production and release of releasing hormones such as
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH),
and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).
influences the function of different endocrine glands, including the adrenal glands,
gonads, and thyroid gland, impacting activities such as stress response,
reproduction, and metabolism.
5. Autonomic Nervous System Control:
The hypothalamus governs the autonomic nerve system, which controls involuntary body activities.
It affects the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve systems, influencing heart rate, blood pressure, digestion,
and other autonomic activities.
6. Circadian Rhythms and Sleep-Wake Cycle:
The hypothalamus is crucial in controlling the body's circadian rhythms, influencing the sleep-wake cycle.
It reacts to environmental signals such as light and darkness to help synchronize the internal biological clock
with the external day-night cycle.
Primary hormones produced by the hypothalamus:

1. Oxytocin:
is engaged in a variety of reproductive and social activities. It is involved in uterine contractions during birthing, milk ejection during n
and is also linked to social bonding and emotional reactions.
2. Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone - ADH):
controls the body's water equilibrium. It works on the kidneys to lower urine output, which aids in water conservation. It also aids in b
vessel constriction.
3. Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH):
CRH promotes pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) production. ACTH, in turn, stimulates the adrenal glands to create cor
stress hormone involved in the body's reaction to stress.
4. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH):
GnRH controls the pituitary gland's secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). These hormones ar
essential for the reproductive system's control, including the menstrual cycle and sperm generation.
5. Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH):
TRH promotes the pituitary gland's secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH activates the thyroid gland, causing it to ge
and release thyroid hormones that control metabolism.
Hormonal Regulation

Despite being an important regulator of hormonal balance in the body,

the hypothalamus is also vulnerable to hormonal control. This process
involves complex feedback loops and interactions with other endocrine
glands.
1.Mechanism of Negative Feedback:
The hypothalamus responds to variations in hormone concentrations in the circulation.
Peripheral hormones, which are the end products of several endocrine glands, frequently affect the hypothalamus
via a negative feedback process.
Increased amounts of these peripheral hormones often restrict hypothalamic releasing hormone release.

2.Cortisol Regulation:
Cortisol, a stress hormone generated by the adrenal glands, is controlled by a feedback loop including the brain.
Cortisol levels in the circulation rise, signaling the brain to reduce the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone
(CRH).
Lower CRH levels, in turn, cause less stimulation of the pituitary gland, resulting in less production of
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
The reduction in ACTH restricts the generation and release of cortisol from the adrenal glands.

3.Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) and Gonadal Hormones:

Gonadal hormones like estrogen and testosterone provide input to the hypothalamus.
When sex hormone levels are high, the hypothalamus decreases the production of gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH).
Reduced GnRH levels reduce pituitary gland stimulation, leading in lesser release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
This feedback loop is critical for reproductive function control.
4. Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) and Thyroid Hormones:
Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) control the hypothalamic release of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).
Thyroid hormone levels that are elevated signal the hypothalamus to limit TRH release.
Reduced TRH levels, in turn, reduce pituitary gland activation and the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH).

5. Interactions that are Complex:

The hypothalamus' hormonal control is not simply limited to negative feedback loops, but also involves intricate
interactions with many hormones.
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, for example, is formed by interactions between the hypothalamus,
pituitary gland, and adrenal glands and plays an important part in the body's reaction to stress.
Clinical aspects of the hypothalamus:

Endocrine Disruptions:
The hypothalamus controls pituitary gland hormone release, regulating the functioning of other endocrine glands.
Hypothalamic dysfunction can result in illnesses such as hypopituitarism or hyperpituitarism, which impact
development, metabolism, and reproductive processes.

Metabolic Disorders and Obesity:

The hypothalamus is responsible for controlling hunger and energy balance. Obesity and metabolic diseases can be
exacerbated by disruptions in this control. Conditions such as leptin resistance or hypothalamic signaling dysfunction
might affect the body's capacity to control food intake and energy expenditure.

Temperature Dysregulation:
Damage or malfunction in the hypothalamus can impair the body's capacity to regulate temperature. This might result
in disorders such as hyperthermia or hypothermia, in which the body fights to maintain a normal temperature.
Sleep Disorders:
The hypothalamus is important in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms. Dysfunction in this region can contribute to
sleep disorders such as insomnia or disorders defined by disruptions in the sleep-wake cycle.

Stress-Response Disorders:
The hypothalamus is an important component of the stress response system. Dysregulation can result in conditions such as persistent
stress, anxiety, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Reproductive Disorders:
The hypothalamus controls reproductive activities by secreting gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). abnormalities in this control can
result in reproductive complications such as menstruation irregularities, infertility, or sexual development abnormalities.

Disturbances in Water Balance:

Dysregulation in the hypothalamus can affect fluid balance and lead to illnesses like diabetes insipidus, in which the body has difficulties
managing water levels.

Neurological Conditions:
Tumors, infections, or damage to the hypothalamus can cause neurological diseases with symptoms ranging from cognitive impairment to
changes in behavior and emotional control.

Dysfunction of the Autonomic Nervous System:

The hypothalamus controls the autonomic nerve system, and malfunction in this area can lead to illnesses like dysautonomia by influencing
processes such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is a tiny pinecone-shaped
organ found near the center of the brain's
epithalamus. Despite its small size, this gland
plays a crucial role in controlling a variety of
physiological functions.
Key Functions:

1. Melatonin Synthesis
Primary Function: Melatonin synthesis and production, a hormone that influences the sleep-wake cycle.
Light Sensitivity: Reacts to light exposure; in darkness, melatonin levels rise, promoting sleep.

2. Rhythms of the Day

Biological Clock: Controls the body's intrinsic circadian rhythms, allowing it to synchronize with the day-
night cycle.
Melatonin Secretion Peaks at Night: Melatonin secretion peaks at night, supporting sleep.

3. Photosensitivity
Light Sensitivity: A sensitivity to light input received via the eyes.
Day-Night Balance: Light inhibits melatonin, which contributes to alertness throughout the day.

4. Reproductive Influence
Potential Role: Influences reproductive hormones, although the methods are unknown.
Particular Features:
1. Calcification:
Pineal Calcification: Over time, the gland may develop calcified deposits.
Current research is looking at the causes and consequences of pineal gland calcification.

2. Importance in Spiritual and Philosophical Terms:

Third Eye Symbolism: The pineal gland is connected with spiritual perception in many cultures and is
commonly referred to as the "third eye."
Metaphysical ideas are intertwined with ideas about consciousness, enlightenment, and higher levels of
awareness.
Function of Thyroid Hormone
• Thyroxine (T4): This is the primary hormone your thyroid
makes and releases. Although your thyroid makes the
most of this hormone, it doesn’t have much of an effect
on your metabolism. Once your thyroid releases T4 into
your bloodstream, it can convert to T3 through a process
called deiodination
• Triiodothyronine (T3): Your thyroid produces lesser
amounts of T3 than T4, but it has a much greater effect
on your metabolism than T4.
• Calcitonin: This hormone helps regulate the amount of
calcium in your blood.
Microscopic Features
• A thin connective tissue capsule surrounds the gland.
• Stroma is the space between the follicles and containing numerous capillaries and lymphatics
& sympathetic nerves. Capillaries lie in close contact with the walls of follicles for transfer of
released hormone to the blood.
Microscopic Features
• Septa extends from capsule divide the
gland into lobules and carrying blood
vessels, nerves and lymphatics into
gland.
•Parenchyma contain hollow, spheroidal
structures called Thyroid follicles and
Para-follicular cells.
Thyroid Follicles
• Thyroid follicle is a roughly spherical
cystlike compartment with a wall formed
by a simple cuboidal or low columnar
epithelium, the follicular epithelium.
•Each follicles contain a gel-like mass
called colloid.
•The apical surfaces of the follicular cells
are in contact with the colloid, and the
basal surfaces rest on a typical basal
lamina.
Two types of Cells

1. Follicular cells (principal cells)

•single layer of simple cuboidal cells with round central nuclei and dark chromatin
•responsible for production of the thyroid hormones T4 and T3
•Each follicle is filled with a gel like mass called colloid
•The colloid consists mostly of thyroglobulin and thyroid hormones that are bound to the
colloid.
• Resting gland:
- lumen of follicle full of colloid
- lined by simple squamous epithelium
• Highly active gland:
- lumen of follicle contain less colloid
- lined by simple columnar epithelium
• Moderately active gland: Most common
- lumen of follicle contains moderate amount
of colloid
- lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
2. Parafollicular cells ( Clear cells)
• found inside the basal lamina of the follicular
epithelium or as isolated clusters between
follicles.
•They are responsible for secreting calcitonin, a
hormone that regulates calcium metabolism.
•larger than follicular cells
•They have a smaller amount of rough
endoplasmic reticulum, large golgi complexes,
and numerous small granules containing
calcitonin.
ABNORMAL THYROID FUNCTION
PARATHYROID
GLAND
Parathyroid gland
These are ovoid in shape, small pea-sized
endocrine glands arranged in pairs behind
the thyroid glands.
Located in the neck which regulates the
calcium and phosphate levels in the blood.
Each parathyroid gland is surrounded by a
thin connective tissue capsule, separating it
from the thyroid.
Parathyroid gland

SUPERIOR PARATHYROID GLANDS

INFERIOR PARATHYROID GLANDS
 Cells that that constitute the epithelial
cells of the parathyroid glands

1. Principal (chief) cells 2. Oxyphil cells

A major portion of the parenchyma A minor portion of the parenchymal
cells of parathyroid. cells.
It is responsible for regulating the the cells are more rounded and
synthesis, storage, and secretion of larger than principal cells
large amounts of parathyroid have an acidophilic cytoplasm.
hormones.
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Functions
Action on bone tissue Urinary phosphate excretion
The major effect of parathyroid hormone It is increased by PTH

1 on bone is bone resorption. PTH also has

an anabolic effect on bone that results in
increased bone mass, hence, it is utilized
3 secretion which lowers the
concentration of phosphate
in the blood and extracellular
in osteoporosis treatment. fluids.

2 Kidney excretion of calcium

It is decreased by PTH
stimulation of tubular
4 Intestinal absorption of calcium
It has increased under the
influence of PTH.
reabsorption which conserves
calcium.
Parathyroid
glands
The main target organs are the bones and
kidneys. When calcium levels are low,
parathyroid hormone is released into the
bloodstream which triggers the bones to
release calcium and increase levels in the
blood. The kidneys would stop calcium from
being lost in urine and stimulate the kidneys
to increase vitamin D metabolism.
ADRENAL GLAND
 ADRENAL GLANDS
Also known as Suprarenal Glands

Small, flattened- triangular in shape

Located at the superior part of each kidneys

Produces different hormones and catecholamines

covered by thick connective tissue capsule

 S ECRETORY PORTION OF THE
ADRENAL GLANDS
ADRENAL CORTEX ADRENAL MEDULLA
- outer part of the glands
- The inner portion and smaller
-Largest part of the adrenal glands, amounting
to about 90% of the glands volume. portion of the glands
- The part of the adrenal glands where steroids - It lies deep within the cortex
hormones are produced and secreted.
and forms the center of the
- It is located under the capsule enveloping the
gland. adrenal gland.
- The cortex can be divided into three zones:
- Where the production of
zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculate and zona
reticularis. catecholamines takes places
ADRENAL GLAND
 DIFFERENT EMBRYOLOGICAL
ORIGINS

C O R T E X M E D U L L A

•Derived from the • Derived from the

mesodermal mesenchyme. neural crest cells.
DEVELOPMENT OF
ADRENAL GLAND
•The cortex develops from the cells
of the Intermediate mesoderm,
while the medulla is developing
from cells in the neural crest and is
migrating from the neighboring
sympathetic ganglion.
DEVELOPMENT OF
ADRENAL GLAND
•Mesodermal cells from the fetal
cortex surround the cells of the
developing medulla.
DEVELOPMENT OF
ADRENAL GLAND
•With 7 months of development in
the womb, the fetal cortex will
occupy about 70% of the cortex
while the permanent cortex
develops outside
the fetal cortex.
DEVELOPMENT OF
ADRENAL GLAND
•By 4 months of age, the fully
developed adrenal cortex is now
visible and the permanent cortex
replaces the fetal
cortex, which has completely
disappeared at this age.
 HORMONES PRODUCED BY
CORTEX

MINERALOCORTICOIDS GLUCOCORTICOIDS ADRENAL

ANDROGENS
-This hormone functions as a -hormones present in
-Helps in regulating
response to illness and as well as both male and female.
electrolyte homeostasis.
to regulate body metabolism

- Hormones helps to - Usually their function is

-Normal metabolism and provide
maintain the body’s salt insignificant but it aids
resistance to stress;
and water balance and in with the growth and
suppress inflammatory response
preventing serum reproduction of both
and some
acidosis. genders.
allergic reactions.
 • CATECHOLAMINES
-these are hormones that are responsible
for all of the stress response in the body,
which can include increased heart rate,
blood pressure, breathing rate and
HORMONES PRODUCE
dilated pupils in the eye.
BY MEDULLA
- These are sympathomimetic or produce
effects similar to those
induced by the sympathetic division of
nervous system
ZONATION OF THE ADRENAL
CORTEX

1 ZONA GLOMERULOSA

2 ZONA FASCICULATA

3 ZONA RETICULARIS
 ZONA GLOMERULOSA
The narrow outer layer of the cortex that consists of about 15% of the cortical volume.
-Formed in a closely packed ovoid cluster and curved columns.

- A rich network of fenestrated sinusoidal capillaries surrounds each cell cluster and cells are relatively small
and columnar or pyramidal.
- In humans, areas of the cortex may lacks a recognizable Zona glomerulosa
.
- Zona glomerulosa produces aldosterone, which functions in controlling blood pressure
.
-Cells of this layer secrete mineralocorticoid which function in the regulation of salt and water balance in the
body.
-Aldosterone are secreted by the zona glomerulosa
RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE
SYSTEM

it is a system that provides the feedback to zona

glomerulosa
 ZONA FASCICULATA
The thick middle layer of the adrenal cortex with amounts to about
80% of the cortical volume.

- Cells are large and polyhedral, the are typically arranged in long
straight cords
.
- Zona fasciculate produces glucocorticoid

- Cortisol, is one of the glucocorticoids produced by the zona

fasciculata
 GLUCOCORTICOIDS EFFECTS IN
DIFFERENT TISSUE
• In the liver- glucocorticoids triggers the conversion of amino
acids to glucose as well as the polymerization of glucose
to glycogen.

• In adipose tissue- they stimulate the breakdown of lipids to glycerol and free fatty acids.

• In other tissues- they reduce the rate of glucose use and

promote the oxidation of fatty acids.

Glucocorticoids also functions in immune and inflammatory response as well as

stimulate destruction of lymphocytes in lymph nodes and inhibits mitosis by transformed
lymphoblast.
 CRH-ACTH SYSTEM
-The production and secretion of glucocorticoids in the zona fasciculata in

under the feed back of the CRH-ACTH SYSTEM or the corticotropin-

releasing hormone-Adrenocorticotropic hormone system

•ACTH is essential for cell growth and maintenance as well as to

stimulate steroids synthesis and increase blood flow through the
adrenal glands.
 ZONA RETICULARIS
- Produces both glucocorticoids and androgen.

- Cells are arrange in a anastomosing cords which is

separated by fenestrated capillaries

- Its principal secretion are weak androgens, mostly

DHEA or dehydroepiandrostreno.
Zona reticularis is also under
- It also secrete glucocorticoids .
the feedback of the CRH-
ACTH system.
 CELL OF THE ANDRENAL
MEDULLA
-The medulla, which us the center part of the adrenal glands is
composed of large, pale-staining epithelioid cells called
Chromaffin cells or also known as medullary cells.

- Ganglion cells are also present in the medulla with their

axons extending peripherally to the adrenal cortex in order to
modulate its secretory activity and innervates blood vessel
 CHROMAFFIN CELLS
- are organized in ovoid clusters and short interconnected cords.

- are characterized by their numerous secretory vesicles, profiles of rER and a

well-developed Golgi apparatus.

-Have two populations by the nature of their membrane-bounded vesicles

• A population of cells that contains only large dense core vesicle.

• A population of cells which contains vesicles that are smaller in size, have

more homogenous is less dense

 FETAL ADRENAL GLAND
-- consist of an outer permanent cortex and an inner fetal cortex or fetal
zone

- This gland originates from the mesodermal cells, which penetrate the
underlying mesenchyme which will then develop into a large eosinophilic
cell mass that will then become the functional fetal cortex or zone.

- The portion called the permanent cortex originate from the secondary
mesodermal cell, when fully developed in the embryo, the permanent
cortex will appear similar to that of the zona glomerulosa.
 The development of the fetal adrenal glands is a complex process of
maturation and preparation of the fetus for extrauterine life.

Upon birth, the fetal cortex undergoes a fast involution that will
reduce the gland within the first postnatal month until about a
quarter of its previous size.The permanent cortex will grow and
mature in order to form the the different zonation of the adult cortex
and with the involution and disappearance of the fetal cortex cells,
the chromaffin cells will then form the medulla

If the Adrenal gland fails to develop properly, Adrenal disorder may be present
such as the congenital adrenal hyperplasia, a disorder that causes the body to
produce an insufficient amount of cortisol.
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