LESSON 3 CHARACTERSTIC OF DATA COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM
Effectiveness of a Data Communication System:
The effectiveness of a Data Communication System depends on the following factors:
Delivery:
When data is sent from one place to another correctly and successfully, this is called delivery.
Accuracy:
When data is sent, it must be accurate, which means that there must be no errors.
Timeliness:
For data to be considered timely, it must be sent within a reasonable amount of time.
Jitter:
The difference in packet arrival times in a network, which affects how consistently data is sent at regular
intervals, is called jitter.
Lesson 5 component of data communication system
A data communications system has five components:
 Sender
 Receiver
 Transmission medium
 Protocol
 Message
LESSON 6 DATA REPRESENTATION AND DATA FLOW
Following are the different forms of Information
 Text
 Numbers
 Images
 Audio
 Video
Data Flow between two devices in the following modes:
Simplex: In simple terms, simplex is like talking on a one-way street. While in simplex mode, data can
only go from one device to another. The device that receives the data cannot send it back. Like a TV
remote control, you can tell it what to do (like changing stations), but it doesn't get any information from
the TV.
Half Duplex: It is like talking on a walkie-talkie. Data can be sent and received in this mode, but not at
the same time. Like switching places in a chat. People listen to each other when they talk and talk to each
other when they listen. Changing between sending and getting is possible, but not both at the same time.
Full Duplex: Communication that works both ways is like a normal phone call. There is time for both
people to talk and listen. Like having a street that goes both ways, data can flow in both directions at the
same time. This is like how we talk to each other in real life—we can both talk and listen at the same
time, which makes dialogue smooth and natural.
LESSON 7 NETWORKS
Network: Interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication
Host: In computer networks, a host is any device that is connected to the network, like a computer or
printer. Each host has its own unique IP address, which lets other devices on the network talk to each
other and share data.
Connecting Device: In networks, a connecting device is either hardware or software that lets devices
talk to each other by controlling network traffic and managing data transfers easier.
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria such as:
  Performance
 Reliability
 Security

LESSON 8 PHYSICAL STRUCTURES

Network: Interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication
Host: In computer networks, a host is any device that is connected to the network, like a computer or
printer. Each host has its own unique IP address, which lets other devices on the network talk to each
other and share data.
Connecting Device: In networks, a connecting device is either hardware or software that lets devices talk
to each other by controlling network traffic and managing data transfers easier.
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria such as:
 Performance
 Reliability
 Security

LESSON 9 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY(MESH TOPOLOGY)

Physical Topologies

 Links + Nodes = Topology

 Topology: Physical Layout of Network
 Physical Topologies:

 Mesh: A network setup where each device is connected to every other device
through individual point-to-point links.
 Star: In a star network topology, every device is connected through a dedicated
point-to-point link solely to a central controller, often referred to as a hub.
 Bus: A single extended cable serves as a backbone to connect all devices within
a network in a multipoint configuration.
 Ring: Every device maintains an exclusive point-to-point link with only the two
neighboring devices on either side of it.

LESSON 10 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY2(STAR TOPOLOGY)

Mesh Topology:

A network setup where each device is connected to every other device through individual point-
to-point links.

Star Topology:

In a star network topology, every device is connected through a dedicated point-to-point link
solely to a central controller, often referred to as a hub.
LESSON 11: PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY (BUS TOPOLOGY)

Bus Topology:

A single extended cable serves as a backbone to connect all devices within a network in a
multipoint configuration.

Ring Topology:

Every device maintains an exclusive point-to-point link with only the two neighboring devices
on either side of it.

LESSON 12 LOCAL AREA NETWORK

Network classification:

Networks can be classified in various ways based on different criteria.

 Size
 Geographical Coverage
 Ownership

Local Area Networks

 Usually Privately owned

 Connects some hosts in a single office, building, or campus
 Can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office
 Can extend throughout a company
 Host Address

LESSON 13 WIDE AREA NETWORK

Wide Area Network

 Wider geographical span than a LAN

 Spans a town, a state, a country, or even the world
 Interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems
 Normally created and run by communication companies
 Point-to-Point WAN
 Switched WAN
 Internetwork

Point-to-Point WANs:
  A Point-to-Point Wide Area Network (WAN) is a type of network connection that
establishes a direct link or communication path between two specific locations or
endpoints.

Switched WANs:

 A switched WAN typically refers to a Wide Area Network (WAN) that utilizes switching
technology for data transmission

Internetwork:

 is a network that connects multiple individual networks or subnetworks together,

allowing them to communicate and share information across a larger, interconnected
system.

LESSON 14 SWITHCES

Switching

 Circuit-Switched Network: A dedicated link, referred to as a circuit, remains

constantly established between the two end systems, while the switch can solely
control its activation or deactivation.
 Packet- Switched Network: A packet-switched network is a type of data
communication network in which digital data is divided into small packets for
transmission.

Circuit Switched Network:

A circuit-switched network is a type of telecommunication network in which a dedicated

communication path or circuit is established between two devices for the duration of their
conversation.

Packet Switched Network:

A packet-switched network is a type of data communication network that transmits digital

information in discrete packets of data.

LESSON 15 : INTERNET

The Internet

 An internet (note the lowercase i) is two or more networks that can communicate with
each other
 The Internet (uppercase I ), and is composed of thousands of interconnected networks.
 Accessing the Internet
 LESSON 16 INTERNET HISTORY

Internet History

 Telegraph and Telephone networks, before 1960: Constant-rate communication only

 ARPANET: short for Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, was one of the
earliest and most significant computer networks that laid the foundation for the
development of the modern internet.
 MILNET: short for Military Network, was a computer network used by the United States
Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1980s.
 CSNET: short for Computer Science Network, was a computer network that played a
significant role in the early development of the internet.
 NSFNET: The National Science Foundation Network, commonly known as NSFNET,
was a pivotal computer network that played a crucial role in the development and
expansion of the internet in the United States.

LESSON 17 INTERNET STSNDARD AND ADMINISTRATION

Internet Standards and Administration

 Internet draft: An Internet draft is a provisional document, still under development, and
lacking official status, typically having a lifespan of approximately six months.
 Request for Comments (RFC) : Based on guidance from internet authorities, a draft could
be released as a Request for Comment (RFC).

 Proposed Standard
 Draft Standard
 Internet Standard
 Historic
 Experimental
 Informational

LESSON 18 Protocol Layering

Protocol Layering - Introduction

 Protocol
 Rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be
able to communicate effectively.
 Protocol Layering
 Simple Communication: Exchange of information between two or more individuals or
entities using straightforward and easily understood language or methods. We may need
only one simple protocol.
 Complex Communication: The task is divided between different layers, in that case we
need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
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Protocol Layering - Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages


o Modularity
o Separation of Service & Implementation
o Reduced Complexity & Cost

Disadvantages


o Complexity: Layering introduces multiple protocols, each responsible for a
specific function or task.
o Overhead: Each layer adds overhead in the form of headers, trailers, and
additional processing.

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite


o Protocol suite used on the Internet today.
o Each Layer provides specific functionality.
o Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a hierarchical
protocol suite used for data communication in computer networks.
o Presented in 1973 and chosen to be the official protocol of Internet in 1983

 Encapsulation is the process of enclosing data from higher network levels with headers from
lower layers in order to facilitate transmission, similar to placing a letter inside an envelope.
 Decapsulation refers to the procedure of unsealing the envelope, eliminating the headers, and
gaining access to the initial data upon reception. These operations guarantee the appropriate
encapsulation and decapsulation of data as it traverses various network layers.

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There are several reasons OSI did not replace TCP/IP, three of them are mentioned below:

 OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place

 Some layers in OSI not fully defined
 Performance of TCP/IP better than that of OSI
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The following topics in these two layers will be covered:

 Analog & Digital Transmission

 Transmission Media
 Switching
 Error Detection and Correction
 Media Access and Data Link Control
 Wired and Wireless LANs

 he data signals can take two forms: Digital and Analog

Digital Data:

 Digital data is information that is stored in a precise numerical form, most often in the binary
system, where data is stored as groups of 0s and 1s. In a digital representation, each number (bit)
stands for a different piece of data. Digital data is accurate, simple to change, and can be sent,
saved, and processed quickly by computers and other electronic systems. Noise and degradation
are less likely to happen during transfer, so it can be used for long-term storage and accurate
communication.
 Analogue Data:
 On the other hand, analogue data uses constant signals to show information. Within a certain time
frame, these signals can have a lot of different meanings. Natural sounds, human voices, and
temperatures in the surroundings are all examples of analogue data. An analogue signal is
different from digital signals because it is constant and could have any value within a certain
range. In audio and video signals, for example, analogue signals are used when the information
they carry changes smoothly and constantly. During transfer and conversion, noise and
degradation can happen to analogue data.
 Phase or Phase Shift refers to the position of a point on a waveform in relation to a reference
point, usually measured in degrees or radians. This is an important concept in signal processing
and telecommunications, as it helps with wave synchronization and alignment.
 Formula:

360 degrees= 2pi rad

1degree = 2pi/360 rad

Digital Signal as Composite Analog Signal

 Based on Fourier analysis, a digital signal is a composite analog signal

 A digital signal, in the time domain, comprises connected vertical and horizontal line
segments.
 A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency of infinity.
 A horizontal line in the time domain means a frequency of zero.
 Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of infinity implies all frequencies in
between are part of the domain.
ransmission of Digital Signals

 Digital signal, periodic or non-periodic, is a composite analog signal with frequencies

between zero and infinity (Infinite Bandwidth)

 Two approaches for transmission:

o Baseband Transmission: Baseband transmission is a method of transmitting
digital signals over a communication medium, such as a cable or a fiber optic line,
in which the entire bandwidth of the medium is used to send a single stream of
data.
o Broadband Transmission: Broadband transmission is a method of sending
multiple signals simultaneously over a communication medium, such as a cable,
fiber optic line, or wireless channel, by dividing the available bandwidth into
multiple frequency channels.

Transmission of Digital Signals

 A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency of infinity

 A horizontal line in the time domain means a frequency of zero.
 Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of infinity implies all frequencies in
between are part of the domain.

Broadband Transmission (Modulation)

 Changing the Digital signal to an Analog signal for transmission

 Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel—a channel with a bandwidth that does
not start from zero
 More available than a low-pass channel

Transmission Impairments

 Transmission media are not perfect

 Cause Signal impairments
 Signal sent is not the same as the signal received

 Transmission Impairment
 What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation,
distortion, and noise
 Transmission Impairment
 Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection
causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is
not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
 Attenuation
 Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through
a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is
why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the
electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat.