Introduction to Coral Reef

Ecosystems, Threats, and Solutions

Burt Jones and Maurine Shimlock photo

The Coral Reef Alliance:

Coral Parks Program
Education Series

©2003
 Introduction to Coral Reef Ecosystems,
Threats, and Solutions

Introduction
Coral reefs are one of the most spectacular and valuable ecosystems on
the planet — and one of the most threatened. Climate change, coastal
development and tourism, destructive fishing, and other human activities
are endangering their very existence. At the current rate of destruction,
more than one-third of the world’s coral reefs will be destroyed within our
lifetime. This will mean devastating losses in biological diversity, shoreline
protection, income, food, and scientific discoveries.

However bad the outlook may seem, there is still hope for coral reefs. With
increased education comes an increased appreciation and understanding
of the immense value of coral reefs. This has led to exciting initiatives
and conservation projects in countries throughout the world. Coral reef
protected areas are being established worldwide and are considered one of
the best tools for reef protection.

This handbook was designed to provide community members, dive

instructors, tour operators, park managers, tourists, non-governmental
organizations and government officials with a basic overview of coral reef
ecology, benefits of coral reefs, global threats, and solutions for keeping
coral reefs alive. We hope that this handbook will raise awareness of the
beauty and value of coral reefs, and the urgent need to protect them.

Please send your comments to:

The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL)

417 Montgomery St., Suite 205
San Francisco, CA 94104
Tel: 415-834-0900
Fax: 415-834-0999
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.coral.org

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Kathleen Auterio and Rebecca Thomson for their
contributions to this publication.

Authors
The staff of the Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL)

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 Introduction to Coral Reef Ecosystems,
Threats, and Solutions

Table of Contents
PART I: Understanding Coral Reefs 4

Section: 1) Understanding Coral Reefs 5

2) Taxonomy and Coral Reefs 6
2) What Are Coral Reefs? 7
3) What Are Corals? 8
4) Environmental Conditions Necessary for Coral Reef 9
Species and Healthy Coral Reefs
5) How Old Are Coral Reefs 10
6) Where Are Coral Reefs Found? 11
7) Types of Coral Reefs 12
8) Reef Patterns, Zones and Related Ecosystems 13
9) Hard Versus Soft Corals 15
10) Growth Forms of Corals 16
11) How Do Reefs Grow? 17
12) How Do Corals Eat? 18
13) How Do Corals Reproduce? 20
14) Coral Reef Ecology: Key Concepts 22
15) Coral Reef Ecology: Diversity and Symbiosis 23
16) Coral Reef Ecology: Energy Flow and the Food Web 24
17) Competition and Disturbance 26

PART II: Value of Coral Reefs 27

Section: 1) Why Are Coral Reefs Important? 28

PART III: Threats to Coral Reefs 30

Section: 1) Threats to Coral Reefs 31

2) Natural Threats 33
3) Natural Threats Influenced by Humans 34
Mass Bleaching Events and Climate Change 35
Disease Outbreaks 36
Crown of Thorns and Other Predator Outbreaks 38
4) Anthropogenic Threats 39
Destructive Fishing Practices and Overfishing 40
Marine-Based Pollution 41
Marine Debris 42
Mining, Harvesting and Trade 43
Land-Based Pollution 45
Coastal Development 46
Sedimentation 47
Tourism 48

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 Introduction to Coral Reef Ecosystems,
Threats, and Solutions

Table of contents (continued)

PART IV: Searching for Solutions 50

Section: 1) Searching for Solutions 51

2) International Efforts 52
3) Regional and National Efforts 53
4) Community-Based Conservation 54
5) Coral Reef Protected Areas 55
6) Integrated Coastal Zone Management 58
7) Sustainable Tourism 59
8) Awareness/Advocacy 60
9) Coral Reef Recovery and Restoration 61
10) What We Can Do as Individuals 62
11) Activities to Help Reduce Threats to Your Reefs 65

PART V: Appendix 67

Section: 1) Glossary 68
2) About the Coral Parks Program 74
3) CORAL’s Educational and Outreach Materials 75

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Part I: Understanding Coral Reefs

4
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Understanding Coral Reefs

Clear turquoise water ebbs and flows at the edge of a tropical shore.
Coral reefs support
a greater variety of Beneath the water’s surface exists a breathtaking underwater world. Home
animals and plants than to a diversity of colorful exotic fish, corals, and countless other marine
the densest tropical creatures — this is the coral reef.
rain forest.
Oceans, seas and fresh water cover more than seventy percent of the
Coral reefs:
earth’s surface. While coral reefs take up only a very small fraction of the
• Make up less than ocean (less than one-tenth of a percent), they are home to an astonishing
0.1% of the ocean. variety of animals and plants. Coral reefs have very high biological diversity
(biodiversity) — approximately 93,000 species of plants and animals have
• May house over 3
already been identified in coral reefs, and scientists predict that there may be
million species of
plants and animals. over three million.

• 11% of coral reefs Coral reefs are the primary source of food and income for millions of people,
have already been produce valuable chemical compounds for medicines, and provide natural
lost.
wave barriers that protect beaches and coastlines from storms and floods.
• 32% of coral reefs
could die in the next Yet coral reefs are in danger. Already, eleven percent of the world’s coral
30 years. reefs have been lost and another sixteen percent were severely damaged
during the 1998 El Niño event. Scientists predict that another thirty-two
percent may be lost in the next thirty years if human threats are not reduced.

As our awareness of the value of coral reefs increases, so do our efforts to

reduce current threats. Coral reef marine protected areas (MPAs), Integrated
Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), sustainable tourism, education and
outreach programs and coral reef rehabilitation are just a few of the many
Coral reefs are one
of the earth’s richest steps being taken to conserve and protect these valuable and beautiful
and most beautiful ecosystems.
treasures, and one of
the most threatened.

5
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Taxonomy and Coral Reefs

The taxonomic When studying living organisms and ecosystems such as coral reefs, scientists
hierarchy: use a structured hierarchy to describe and categorize species based on
• Kingdom.
natural relationships. Taxonomy is an ordered classification system that
starts with the broadest set of physical similarities between living organisms,
• Phylum. and progressively moves towards greater levels of common characteristics.

• Class. This system, first established by the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus
• Order.
in the 18th century, provides a method of universally accepted names for
species throughout the living world and across cultural boundaries. The
• Family. following table is an example of taxonomic classification for humans (Homo
sapiens) and mushroom coral (Fungia scutaria.)
• Genus.

• Species.
Taxonomic level Example: Humans Example: Mushroom Coral
Kingdom Animalia Animalia

Phylum Chordata Cnidaria

Class Mammalia Anthozoa

Order Primates Scleractinia

Family Homonidae Fungiidae

Genus Homo Fungia

Although nearly
100,000 species have Species sapiens scutaria
been identified in
coral reefs, there are
likely millions yet to be
discovered and named Taxonomy helps prevent confusion surrounding common names of living
by scientists.
organisms. For example, in Hawaii there is a popular eating fish named
mahimahi. However, this same fish is called dorado in the Caribbean and
dolphin fish in many other parts of the world. So, although the common
name can change from place to place, the scientific name will always
be classified according to it’s genus and species, that being Coryphaena
hippurus.

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

What Are Coral Reefs?

Coral reefs are huge
Coral reefs are massive limestone structures that provide food and shelter
structures built over for marine life. Hard corals are responsible for much of the solid, limestone
hundreds, if not (calcium carbonate) framework of the reef. Built over hundreds, if not
thousands, of years. thousands of years, some coral reefs are so large they can be seen from
outer space.
Reef animals include:

• Sponges. In and around the limestone framework of coral reefs live a complex array
of plants and animals. Some of them — like calcareous algae (algae with
• Corals. limestone in its tissues) — help to build the reef up. Others — such as
worms, grazing fish, urchins and boring sponges — break it down. Many
• Mollusks.
other animals, including more than 4,000 different species of fish, find shelter
• Worms. on the reef and make it their home. This multitude of life is what we know
as the coral reef.
• Crustaceans.
Animals commonly found in and around coral reefs include:
• Echinoderms.

• Marine fish. • Soft corals, hard corals, fire corals, anemones.

• Marine amphibians. • Hundreds of different species of sponges.

• Conch, clams, sea slugs, cowries.

• Fireworms, Christmas tree worms, fan worms.

• Crabs, lobster, shrimp.

With the invention of
SCUBA diving in the • Urchins, starfish, basket stars, sea cucumbers.
1950’s, humans had
a whole new way of • Thousands of different species of fish.
experiencing, viewing
and studying coral
reefs.
• Sea turtles and sea snakes.

These animals co-exist in complex relationships. If one species on a coral

reef is removed or dies out from human impacts such as overfishing, its
disappearance can have far reaching consequences for the whole coral reef
and the balance of the ecosystem can be dramatically changed.

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

What Are Corals?

What are corals?
Although they are often mistaken for plants or rock, corals are simple
animals, belonging to a group of invertebrates (spineless animals) called
• Cnidarians - corals, cnidarians. Anemones, hydroids and jellyfish are also cnidarians. All
anemones, hydroids cnidarians are characterized by a large stomach cavity and specialized
and jellyfish. stinging cells called cnidocytes, which they use to capture prey.
• Cnidocytes -
specialized stinging Polyps are the actual coral animals. Thousands of these animals cover one
cells. coral branch or mound. A polyp has a small cylindrical body, with an opening
or mouth encircled by numerous stinging tentacles.
• Polyp - coral animal.

• Colonies - groups of
Corals often grow into huge coral colonies or coral heads. Each coral head
polyps. can be made up of hundreds or thousands of individual polyps, which are all
linked to their neighbors by connective tissue — including their stomach. So
when one eats, they all eat!

Cross-section of a coral polyp

Coral polyps can

range in size from 1-3
millimeters in diameter
(for colonial corals)
to 25 centimeters (in
some solitary corals).

Illustration courtesy of NOAA

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Environmental Conditions
Necessary for a Healthy Coral Reef
Corals are very sensitive organisms and environmental conditions need to be
Corals are very
sensitive and conditions just right. Corals need:
need to be just right for
them to flourish. Abundant Sunlight
Reef-building corals cannot survive without sunlight, since zooxanthellae,
Corals need:
their symbiotic algae, require sunlight for photosynthesis. The majority of
• Sunlight. zooxanthellae reef-building corals do not grow below 45m (150ft).

• Warm water. Warm Temperatures

Corals can only live within a narrow temperature range from around 16°C -
• Low nutrients.
29°C (62°F - 85°F). This explains why corals thrive in the warmer waters of
• Sediment-free water. the tropics.

• Salty water. Low Nutrient Levels

Corals are adapted to live in ocean water, which contains very low levels of
• A hard substrate to
nutrients. Nutrients, which are needed by all living organisms, are found
grow on.
in food and dissolved in water. Too many nutrients can upset the natural
balance of life on the reef, creating conditions that favor other fast growing
organisms such as marine plants and sponges.

Clear Sediment-Free Water

Corals prefer clear water with low levels of sediments (small particles of
earth, rock and sand). Sediments can bury corals, blocking out needed
sunlight and killing them. Corals tend to live in areas with some wave action
as this helps supply them with food and oxygen as well as keeping corals free
of sediment.
Corals are very
sensitive to changes
in temperature. Salty Water
Sometimes an increase Corals are marine animals adapted to live in seawater with a salinity of
of just 1 or 2°C can around 35 parts per thousand. In areas that are too salty, or not salty
cause coral bleaching.
enough, corals cannot survive.

Hard Substrate
Corals need a hard substrate or surface to attach to and cannot successfully
colonize loose substrates such as rubble or sand. If the substrate is unstable,
young coral colonies will be crushed and killed by wave action and storms.

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

How Old Are Coral Reefs?

Coral reefs are one of the oldest ecosystems on earth.
Coral reefs have
existed for more than
570 million years. • The ancestors of modern coral reef ecosystems were formed around
570 million years ago. During this time, blue green algae and later
Coral reefs have sponges (not corals), were the major reef builders.
survived:

• Sea level changes. • Modern coral reefs as we know today, have existed for a staggering
240 million years.
• Mass extinctions.
• The tropical seas were divided from 24 to 5 million years ago and
• Land uplifting.
coral reefs were distributed into the regions that we know of today.
• Glaciations.
• Most existing coral reefs are between 5,000 and 10,000 years old.
• Natural disasters.
Over geological time there have been several mass extinctions associated
with coral reefs. Reefs have survived changing sea levels, uplifting of
landmasses, periods of widespread warming and repeated ice ages as well as
recurrent short-term natural disasters such as cyclones and hurricanes. Over
geological time coral reefs have shown a remarkable ability to adapt and
survive.

Unfortunately, human activities now represent a much more immediate threat

to the short-term survival of coral reefs than do natural disasters. Loss of
coral reefs as a result of human activities has been steadily increasing in
recent decades and is now a problem in nearly every region of the world. In
Southeast Asia alone, eighty-eight percent of coral reefs are “at risk” from
The age of coral
human impacts.
can be determined
by counting annual
growth bands similar
to tree rings.

Vibrant coral reef Kevin Roland photo

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Where Are Coral Reefs Found?

Distribution of coral
Worldwide, coral reefs cover an estimated 284,300 square kilometers. This
reefs: area represents less than 0.1 percent of the world’s oceans and less than 1.2
percent of the continental shelf area.
• 284,300 square
kilometers of coral Coral reefs are found all around the world within the tropics (between 30
reefs worldwide.
degrees north and 30 degrees south of the equator). Some are also found
• Coral reefs live farther from the equator in places where warm currents flow out of the
between 30°N and tropics, such as Florida and southern Japan.
30°S of the equator.
Coral reefs can be found in 3 broad regions:
• Most coral reefs are
found in the Indo-
Pacific. • Caribbean and Atlantic

• Indian Ocean and Red Sea

• Pacific and Southeast Asia

Most coral reefs are found in the Indo-Pacific, an area that stretches from
the Red Sea to the Central Pacific. This is also the area of highest species
diversity among reefs overall. Less than eight percent of the world’s coral
reefs are found in the Caribbean and Atlantic, and species diversity is much
lower in these regions.

Indonesia has more

coral reefs and greater
species diversity than
any other country in
the world.

The red dots represent areas with coral reefs. Illustration courtesy of NOAA

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Types of Coral Reefs

Scientists generally divide coral reefs into five main classes: fringing, barrier,
There are five main
types of reef:
atolls, bank or platform, and patch reefs.
Fringing reefs lie around islands and
• Fringing.
continents, and are separated from the
• Barrier. shore by narrow, shallow lagoons. They
usually parallel the coastline and at their
• Atoll. shallowest point can reach the water’s
surface.
• Bank or platform.

• Patch. Barrier reefs also grow parallel to the

coastline, but are separated by deep, wide
lagoons. At their shallowest point, they
can reach the water’s surface, forming a
“barrier” to navigation. The Great Barrier
Reef in Australia is the most famous
example, and is the largest barrier reef in
the world.

Atolls are rings of coral that create

protected lagoons and are often located in
the middle of the sea. Atolls usually form
when islands surrounded by fringing reefs
sink into the sea or the sea level rises
around them (they are often the tops of
underwater volcanoes). The fringing reefs
The word “atoll” continue to grow and eventually form
comes from the circles with lagoons inside.
Maldivian word atolu.
Atolls are mainly
found in the Pacific, Bank or platform reefs are open ocean Illustration courtesy of NOAA
and along a wide reefs that are simple structures with many
stretch in the Indian Over geological time, the formation and
Ocean.
different origins, yet no clear attachment eventual erosion of oceanic islands leads
to the coastline. Most of these reefs have to the creation of several different types
an area that is exposed to wind and a of coral reefs.
sheltered side where lagoons and small
reef patches can be found. Larger and
slightly submerged reefs of this type are
also called shoals.

Patch reefs are small areas of reef that

occur in shallow waters and lagoons.

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Reef Patterns, Zones and Related Ecosystems

Coral reefs are very unique, differing from one to the next. Yet, there are
Reef patterns and
zones: similar patterns or zones (see illustration page 14) that can be identified
on most reefs, based on depth, environmental conditions, reef structure,
• Intertidal zone. and species composition. The following zones and related ecosystems are
found in many coral reefs around the world:
• Lagoons.
The intertidal zone is where the land meets the ocean, and includes
• Reef flat.
beaches, mangroves, lagoons and areas where fresh water meets salt
• Back reef. water. Beaches are important for coral reefs, as they filter out runoff and
sediments from the land. Much of the sand
on beaches is produced from the natural
breakdown of coral fragments. Mangroves
are highly adapted plants that thrive in
intertidal waters. They are also extremely
important for coral reefs, filtering mud and
sediments from the land, and acting as
nurseries for juvenile reef species. A recent
study documented that up to 26 times
more fish can be found on reefs near intact
mangroves than reefs far from mangroves. NOAA photo courtesy of Richard Mieremet

Lagoons are areas of deeper water (3-10

meters deep) that separate reefs from the
coast. They are generally filled with sand,
seagrasses and patch reefs, and are home
to a diverse group of plants and animals.
Mangroves are being Seagrasses provide habitat and nursery
destroyed at an
grounds for many marine animals, and help
alarming rate. At NOAA photo courtesy of Heather Dine
one time, mangroves stabilize the sand and substrate.
lined 75% of tropical
coastlines. Today less The reef flat is the shallow platform that extends outwards from the shore
than half remain.
(1 to 2 meters deep and up to hundreds of meters wide). Exposure to
harsh physical conditions limits coral growth, giving way to sand, rubble and
encrusting algae. Many small invertebrates are found in the reef flat, including
mollusks, worms and crustaceans.

The back reef is located where the lagoon rises up towards the shallow
waters of the reef flat. The back reef gets a lot of sun exposure with generally
calm conditions, and is characterized by a mixture of intricate coral gardens
and sandy patches.

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Reef Patterns and Zones (continued)

Reef patterns and
zones:

• Reef crest/algal
ridge.

• Forereef/reef front.

• Spur and groove.

• Buttress zone.

Illustration courtesy of NOAA

The reef crest or algal ridge is the highest point of the reef facing the
ocean, and is characterized by a line of waves that break along the edge.
Often exposed at high tide, the reef crest ranges from 1-50 meters wide.
Constant wave action and exposure limits coral growth, but some branching
corals have adapted to this environment. Coralline algae dominates (hence
the name “algal ridge”), and small crabs, shrimps and cowries can be found
seeking shelter in the nooks and crevices.

The forereef or reef front is on the seaward side of the reef crest, where
the reef slope falls steeply towards the seabed. Conditions change greatly
with depth.

The ridges of the In the shallowest areas there is intense wave action, with limited coral
buttress zone help
growth (mainly branching corals).
coral reefs by
dissipating the impact
of strong waves, and Between 10-20 meters is the greatest diversity and abundance of life on the
draining debris and reef. Massive corals prevail, and extensive spur and groove formations
sediment off the reef. — sections of a reef found seaward from the reef flat and made of high
ridges of corals (spurs) that are separated by sandy bottom channels
(grooves) — often develop in the buttress zone (the zone of deep channels
separated by high ridges or buttresses). Many animals inhabit the holes and
crevices, and large fish, including sharks, jacks, barracudas and tunas patrol
the buttress zone in search of food.

In the deeper, darker waters of the forereef (beyond 20 meters), corals

become patchy and are replaced with sponges, sea whips, sea fans and
ahermatypic (non-reef building) corals that do not depend on sunlight.

14
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Hard Versus Soft Corals

Hard corals:
Corals are generally classified as either hard coral or soft coral. Hard
• Hermatypes (reef- corals are the primary reef-building animals, and are responsible for the
building corals). limestone foundation of tropical coral reefs. Although soft corals do
not have the reef-building capacity of hard corals, they and their cousins
• Limestone gorgonians (sea fans and sea whips), form an important part of the coral
skeleton.
reef ecosystem, occurring in most reef habitats and displaying a dazzling
• 6 tentacles. array of colors and shapes.

• Depend on
zooxanthellae.
Hard corals Soft corals
• Tropical waters Architects of coral reefs, known as the Known as ahermatypes or non-reef
reef-building corals or hermatypes. building corals.
Hard skeletons made of limestone Soft and bendable skeletons, often
Soft Corals:
(calcium carbonate). resembling plants or trees.
• Ahermatypes (non-
reef-building corals). Six tentacles on their polyps. Eight tentacles on their polyps.
Depend on microscopic plants called Some, but not all soft corals, depend on
• Soft and bendable. zooxanthellae, which live within the zooxanthellae.
tissue of the polyps.
• 8 tentacles.
Only found in tropical waters. Can grow in cool, dark regions like
• Not all depend on caves, where reef-building corals cannot
zooxanthellae. survive.
Examples include brain coral and Examples include leather coral and tree
• Live in both tropical
elkhorn coral. coral.
and cooler waters.

Hard corals are How do hard corals build a reef?

responsible for building Each hard coral polyp grows within its own hard cup or “calyx” where it lays
the single largest
biological structure
down a skeleton of limestone. When the polyp dies, its limestone skeleton is
in the world – the left behind and is used as the foundation for a new polyp. Over time, layer
2300 kilometers long upon layer of limestone builds up to create the framework of the reef. At the
Great Barrier Reef in surface of the framework is a thin layer of living coral animals.
Australia.

15
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Growth Forms of Coral

Scientists currently estimate that there are 794 species of reef-building corals
Hard corals can be
divided into a number throughout the world. Identifying coral species can be surprisingly difficult
of different shapes even for experts, and in some cases impossible without taking a sample to
including: a laboratory for testing. A simple way to categorize corals is based on their
different shapes. Corals can be classified into ten general growth forms:
• Branching.

• Elkhorn. 1) Branching - numerous branches with secondary

branches.
• Digitate.
2) Elkhorn - large, sturdy, flattened branches. Branching
• Encrusting.

• Table. 3) Digitate - like fingers or clumps of cigars with no

secondary branches.
• Foliose.
4) Encrusting - grows as a thin layer against the hard rocky Elkhorn
• Massive.
surface.
• Submassive.
5) Table - broad horizontal surfaces with fused branches.
• Mushroom.
6) Foliose - plate-like portions rising above the substrate, Digitate
• Flower/cup.
similar to the open petals of a rose.

7) Massive - ball-shaped or boulder-like and can be as

small as an egg or as large as a house.
Foliose
The growth rate of 8) Submassive - knobs, columns or wedges protruding
corals varies according from an encrusting base.
to their shape. A
massive coral may 9) Mushroom - resemble the tops of mushrooms, mostly
grow just 4 millimeters
solitary, living unattached to any underlying substrate. Massive
per year, whereas
a branching coral
can grow up to 10 10) Flower/Cup - look like flowers, or like egg cups that
centimeters per year. have been squashed, elongated or twisted.

While growth patterns are primarily species-specific, the

Cup or Flower
exact same kind of coral can look very different from one
place to the next, changing its shape, color and size to suit its environment.
For example, where there are strong waves, corals tend to grow into robust
mounds or flattened shapes. In more sheltered areas they grow into more
intricate shapes such as delicate branching patterns.

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

How Do Reefs Grow?

Reef builders include: Coral reefs are in a constant state of change. While reefs naturally grow
upward towards the sun, there are also forces at work that constantly erode
• Hard corals. and break reefs down. Reef growth can be illustrated by comparing the rate
of construction with the rate of erosion:
• Coralline algae.

• Fire coral. Reef Growth =

• Sand & sediments. Reef Construction - Reef Erosion
• Encrusting Reef Construction
organisms.
Hard corals build the reef framework by laying down layer upon layer of
calcium carbonate (limestone). Reef limestone also comes from sediments
Reef eroders include: and other natural materials that fall into open spaces and are glued together
by cementing organisms such as coralline algae, sponges or encrusting
• Sponges. fire coral. Cementing organisms make the reef structure stronger and more
• Worms. wave resistant. Over hundreds, if not thousands of years, this accumulation
can result in massive limestone structures, some large enough to be seen
• Sea urchins. from space.
• Parrotfish. Reef Erosion
• Crown-of-thorns The reef framework is also constantly being broken down and eroded from
starfish. waves and storms, and from bioeroders. Bioeroders are species that eat
away at corals or burrow into the reef structure. Bioeroders include, for
example, sponges, polychaete worms, sea urchins, parrotfish, and crown-of-
thorns starfish.
Coral reefs are
constantly in a state
of change, being
broken down by
storms and natural
eroders, while they
are at work rebuilding
themselves.

Christmas Tree Worm M.L. Frost photo

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 Understanding
Coral Reefs

How Do Corals Eat?

Corals cannot make
Zooxanthellae
it on their own - they Within the tissues of hard coral polyps live microscopic, single-celled algae
need their symbiotic called zooxanthellae (pronounced zo-zan-THEL-ee). Several million of
friends. these algae live in just one square inch of coral, and give coral its brownish-
green hue.
Zooxanthellae:

• Share food with Zooxanthellae and coral have a symbiotic relationship, in which both the
corals. coral and the algae benefit. This relationship is complex and not yet fully
understood.
• Process polyps’
wastes.
Scientists believe that the algae provide coral with:
• Give coral its color. • Energy and nutrition - Zooxanthellae use the energy from sunlight
to create sugars through photosynthesis. The algae also process the
Corals: polyps’ wastes, helping to retain important nutrients. Up to ninety-
eight percent of a hard coral’s nutritional needs can be met by the
• Provide a safe and
sheltered home for
surplus food produced in this way. This allows hard corals to survive in
zooxanthellae. nutrient-poor waters.

• Appear white or • Calcium carbonate - Zooxanthellae help produce calcium carbonate

“bleached” without for the polyps’ skeleton.
zooxanthellae.

Meanwhile, the coral polyps provide zooxanthellae with:

• Shelter - Coral polyps provide the tiny algae with a safe home.

• Nutrient recycling - The algae uses the coral’s waste matter (such as
A single zooxanthella
nitrates and phosphates) to help with photosynthesis.
is about 10 microns in
diameter or equivalent Can corals survive without zooxanthellae?
to the thickness of a Hard corals are extremely reliant on zooxanthellae, and often cannot survive
human hair. without it, unless they are able to acquire enough nutrition by capturing
plankton from the water column. Stress can cause coral polyps to expel
their zooxanthellae. They then appear white or bleached. While most hard
corals seem to be able to live without symbiotic algae for short periods of
time, they often die over the long-term during intense or extensive bleaching
events.

18
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

How Do Corals Eat? (continued)

Filter Feeders
• Corals are filter
feeders that capture Corals are also known as filter feeders, as they filter zooplankton (tiny,
zooplankton (tiny floating animals) from the water. At night some of the coral polyps come
animals) from the out of their skeletons to feed, stretching out their long, stinging tentacles to
seawater. capture the zooplankton as it floats by.

The cnidocytes (stinging cells) of the polyp are covered with nematocysts,
which are small, coiled, harpoon-like structures. As zooplankton pass by, the
nematocysts are ejected, delivering a painful sting that stuns the prey and
draws it back in to the mouth of the polyp.

While soft corals can feed all day long, in most cases, hard corals only feed
after dark. During the daytime, coral polyps retract their tentacles into their
cups. All that can be seen of hard corals are their skeletons and a thin layer
of tissue. This is why people sometimes mistakenly believe these delicate
animals are rocks.

The word
“zooplankton” comes
from “zoo,” meaning
animal, and the Greek
word “planktos,”
meaning wanderer or
drifter.

Coral polyps Leslie Richter photo

19
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

How Do Corals Reproduce?

Corals have many strategies for reproducing, which are highly variable and
Coral reproduction is
highly varied: complex. Corals reproduce both asexually and sexually.

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction: Some corals reproduce asexually in a process called budding, in which the
parent polyp divides into an exact genetic replica of itself. As new polyps are
• Budding.
added, a coral colony develops.
• Fragmentation.
Another type of asexual reproduction is called fragmentation, in which
pieces or fragments of the coral colony are broken off and distributed by
Sexual reproduction.
currents and waves. If the fragment settles on solid bottom, it may fuse
• Hermaphrodites. right there and continue to grow asexually through budding.

• Planula Larva. Sexual Reproduction

About three-quarters of coral species are hermaphrodites, meaning that
• Brooding.
they are both male and female, and one colony produces both eggs and
• Spawning. sperm. The remaining quarter of coral species have separate male and
female colonies that produce eggs and sperm separately.

Sexual reproduction can happen in two ways:

• The sperm swims into the mouth of a polyp containing an egg and
fertilizes it internally. The young polyp (planula larva) then matures
within the polyp in a process known as brooding.

• Most coral species (seventy-five percent) reproduce by coral

Coral spawning events
spawning, in which the polyps eject both eggs and sperm into the sea
on the Great Barrier
Reef can be so highly for external fertilization.
synchronized that the
massive slick of eggs
and sperm can be
clearly seen the next
day from the air.

Coral spawning Chuck Savall photo

20
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

How Do Corals Reproduce? (continued)

Mass Coral Spawning
Reproduction:
Extraordinarily, in some areas of the world, mass coral spawning events occur
• Spawning – release on the same night once a year, as millions of gametes (eggs and sperm)
of sperm and egg are released into the water. With such a high concentration of gametes in
in the sea for the water, the threat of predators is reduced for each individual. Scientists
fertilization.
believe this synchronicity is influenced by the moon, water temperature, and
• Gametes – eggs and biological factors involving chemicals in the water column.
sperm.
Life of the Planula Larva
• Planula larvae Once the egg is fertilized, a new individual is created called a planula larva.
– baby corals.
It is naturally attracted to the light, and swims to the surface of the water
where it remains for several days up to several weeks. The planula larva
eventually returns to the bottom of the ocean floor, and if conditions are
favorable, it attaches to a hard surface or substrate and starts a new coral
colony.

Planula larvae can travel long distances, driven by winds and currents. This
means that a coral in one part of the world can produce a new coral in
another part of the world. This greatly affects species distribution, and has
important implications for marine protected area (MPA) managers when
setting up networks of marine reserves.

Planula larvae travel

long distances, and
can repopulate coral
reefs hundreds to
thousands of miles
away.

Coral spawning David Colvard photo

21
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Coral Reef Ecology: Key Concepts

Coral reefs are one of Ecology - The study of the interactions among and between organisms and
the most diverse and their environment, and the study of the abundance and distribution of those
productive ecosystems organisms. Ecologists are fascinated by coral reefs, as they are one of the
on the planet. most diverse and productive ecosystems on the planet.
Key concepts:
Ecosystem - The combination of living or “biotic” organisms (fish, algae,
• Ecology zooplankton) and non-living or “abiotic” conditions (rain, salinity, sunlight)
that make up a particular environment, and make it unique. Coral reefs are
• Ecosystem one type of ecosystem. Other related coastal ecosystems are seagrasses and
mangrove forests.
• Habitat

• Community Habitat - The specific location where a plant or animal lives. For example,
the habitat of a particular species of flounder might be sand, coral rubble and
• Population seagrass areas near patch reefs.
• Organism
Community - All the plant and animal species that live together in a
• Biodiversity particular habitat. For example, all of the cardinal fish, lobster and shrimp
that occupy a cave are part of the same community.

Population - All the members of one species in a habitat. Therefore, you

might refer to a population of shrimp, or a population of frogfish.

Organism - Any living thing that is composed of one or more cells.

Biodiversity - The total diversity of living things and of the ecosystems of

At least 11% of the which they are a part. This includes genetic variability among individuals
world’s reefs qualify within each species (genetic diversity), the diversity of different species
as biodiversity hot (species diversity), and the variety of ecosystems (ecosystem diversity).
spots: areas of high
species uniqueness
and diversity that
have already been
significantly impacted
by humans.

22
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Coral Reef Ecology: Diversity and Symbiosis

Coral reefs have very high species diversity. In fact, coral reefs have more
Coral reef diversity
and symbiosis: species per unit-area than the densest tropical rainforest!

• Scientists have identified 93,000 coral reef species.

Diversity: • Some scientists predict there could be over 3 million reef species.
• There are approximately 4,000 species of coral reef fish (twenty-five
• 93,000 coral reef
species identified. percent of all identified marine fish species).
• Coral reefs contain 32 of the 34 recognized animal phyla (see
explanation of taxonomy on page 6), compared to 9 phyla in tropical
Symbiosis: rainforests.
• Mutualism.
With such a multitude of species competing for space on the reef, many have
• Commensalism. evolved to become very specialized, living in unique habitats with specific
diets and defense mechanisms. For example, the octopus will change shape
• Parasitism. and color to avoid predation. Parrotfish have a specialized beak-like mouth
that enable them to scrape algae off of corals. There are countless such
examples of specialization on coral reefs.

The existance of so many species has also led to a great diversity of

interactions, including many complex two-way interactions, known as
symbiosis. Symbiosis occurs when two species live together and either one
or both depend on the other for survival. There are three types of symbiotic
relationships:

• Mutualism - Both species benefit from the relationship. For example,

cleaner fish or “cleaners” have a mutually symbiotic relationship with
Some crabs will pick up
sponges and seaweed larger fish such as groupers. The cleaners feed on the parasites and
and place them on damaged tissues of the skin and mouth of the larger, host fish. The
their backs. The crabs cleaner benefits from the food obtained, and the host rids itself of
are then camouflaged annoying parasites.
from predators and the
sponges and seaweed
can enjoy better food • Commensalism - Only one species benefits from the relationship. For
selection. example, small fish known as remoras, cling to larger fish such as sharks
or rays. Although the shark doesn’t have any known benefit, the remora
saves energy from swimming, and is nourished by food scraps from the
shark.

• Parasitism - One species benefits from the relationship while harming

the other. For example, parasitic isopods that look like roaches attach
themselves to the heads and faces of certain species of fish and can
destroy the flesh.

23
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Coral Reef Ecology: Energy Flow and the Food Web

Key components of Tropical marine waters are very low in nutrients, so it is difficult for species
energy flow and the to survive. Yet, coral reefs are full of life, existing as biologically diverse
food web in coral reefs: ecosystems in areas that are low in organic nutrients (food derived from
living matter). This can be explained by looking at energy flow on the coral
• Organic nutrients.
reef food web and the importance of a tiny algae.
• Energy flow.
All ecosystems function with energy flowing in one direction from the sun, and
• Photosynthesis. through nutrients, which are constantly being transferred through different
levels of the ecosystem. Plants are able to use the sun’s energy, and convert
• Food web.
it to organic matter in a process known as photosynthesis. This energy is
• Zooxanthellae. then passed through the ecosystem in a series of steps of eating and being
eaten, otherwise known as the food web.

On a coral reef, photosynthesis is carried out primarily by the small algae

called zooxanthellae (see page 18). These tiny algae live within the tissues
of corals in a symbiotic relationship and are arguably the most important
organisms on coral reefs. Like all green plants, zooxanthellae obtain energy
from the sun. The coral benefits from this energy, which can provide up to
ninety-eight percent of its nutritional needs. Hard reef-building corals are able
to thrive in relatively nutrient free waters, since they can get so much energy

Coral reefs live in

shallow, sunny waters
because their symbiotic
algae needs sunlight
for photosynthesis.

24
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Energy Flow and the Food Web (continued)

The sun is the source
Each step in the food web involves a transfer of energy through different
of all energy on the feeding or trophic levels. Coral reef algae produce energy from the sun, and
coral reef. are therefore called producers. Zooxanthellae is a primary producer. All
other species in the food web are called consumers, because they get their
• Producers - produce energy by eating other organisms. So, for example, a coral is a primary
energy from the sun.
consumer as it obtains its energy from zooxanthellae and other tiny animals.
• Consumers - eat A butterflyfish then eats the coral, so is a secondary consumer. A barracuda
plants and animals. then comes along and eats the butterflyfish, so is a tertiary consumer, and
so on. Energy is lost in each step of the trophic levels.
• Detritivores -
scavengers that eat
waste matter from
plants and animals.

Eels,
jackfish, sharks
Tertiary Consumers
↑

Sea urchins, sea anemones,

crustaceans, seastars, snails,
parrot fish, butterfly fish, porcupine fish
Secondary Consumers
↑

Corals, clams, sea urchins, crustaceans,

brittle stars, grazing fish
Primary Consumers
Coral reefs are more ↑
productive than
tropical rainforests. Zooxanthellae, calcareous algae, algal mats,
phytoplankton, marine plants
Primary Producers

Also important are the detritivores or scavengers, which are animals that
feed on dead plants and animals and their wastes. Detritivores help speed
up the process of breaking down dead animal and plant material, thus
recycling nutrients back into the food web. A sea cucumber is one example
of a detritivore.

What does it mean to say a coral reef is “productive”?

This means that the primary producer, being zooxanthellae, generates a
lot of energy for the ecosystem. Coral reefs have higher productivity than
tropical rainforests — one reason that reefs are so fascinating to ecologists.

25
 Understanding
Coral Reefs

Competition and Disturbance

All organisms in nature need both space and habitat in order to survive, and
Competition and
disturbance: the many species that live among the coral reef are no exception to this
general ecological rule. Thus competition — striving to survive in a limited
• Corals and space among other organisms — is never-ending in reef environments. As
reef organisms a result, corals and other reef organisms have developed a wide range of
are constantly
both aggressive and defensive mechanisms to help them survive in this
competing for space.
competitive environment.
• Local disturbance
helps maintain For example:
biodiversity.
• Branching corals grow more rapidly than encrusting or massive corals,
often out-competing them for space.

• Slower growing species survive due to their defensive stinging tentacles,

which can prevent faster-growing corals from taking over.

• Soft corals and sponges have toxins that they use for both defense and
aggression.

• Some bioeroders, such as segmented worms and some species of

urchins, live within holes and tunnels that they have bored into the reef
structure.

• Many other creatures make their homes in the natural open spaces of
the reef structure.
The saddled butterfly
fish, having evolved Constant change is another fundamental aspect of any living ecosystem.
resistance to their Disturbance to the biological or physical structure of a coral reef —
toxins, will rip resulting from natural forces such as storms and waves — commonly opens
tentacles from sea up new places for animals and plants to grow and allows new species to
anemones if given the
colonize or establish themselves in a particular environment. With such
chance.
intense competition for space, this type of local disturbance can actually
be beneficial. It can prevent individual species from taking over, helping to
maintain stability and biological diversity in a coral reef environment.

26
Part II: Value of Coral Reefs

27
 Value of
Coral Reefs

Why Are Coral Reefs Important?

Biodiversity
Coral reefs are valuable
in many different ways: Coral reefs have a very high level of biological diversity, with 93,000
species already identified by scientists. In fact, coral reefs contain 32 of the
• High biodiversity. 34 recognized animal phyla (see page 6), compared to only 9 phyla found in
tropical rainforests. Diversity is critical in maintaining the delicate balance of
• Coastal protection.
ecosystems. If one major species or population is removed, the ecosystem
• Seafood. can be permanently disrupted.

• Jobs and income. Coastal Protection

Coral reefs protect coastlines and help prevent erosion. They act as natural
breakwaters, absorbing the force of storm waves and reducing damage to
the shore. With more than half of the world’s population living within 60km of
the sea, coastal erosion is an issue affecting billions of people.

Seafood
Coral reefs have supplied communities with food for millennia. Not only
is seafood a major source of animal protein, coral reef fisheries are also
important sources of income. If managed properly, reefs can yield, on
average, 15 tons of fish and other seafood per kilometer per year.

Economic Value
Coral reefs provide millions of people with jobs and income through fishing
and tourism. Studies have shown that on average, countries with coral reef
industries derive more than half of their gross national product from them.
By one estimate, coral reefs provide economic goods and ecosystem services
worth about $375 billion each year.
Approximately 500
million people depend
on coral reefs for their
livelihoods.

Tegan Hoffmann photo

Coral reef fishes are a primary source of protein for coastal
communities throughout tropical regions of the world.

28
 Value of
Coral Reefs

Why Are Coral Reefs Important? (continued)

Coral reefs are
Aesthetic and Cultural Value
valuable in many Coral reefs are one of the most colorful and unique environments in the
different ways: natural world. Humans are drawn to the beauty of coral reefs, which we
explore by snorkeling, diving, or through photographs. Coral reefs are also
• Aesthetic and culturally significant to many coastal communities, with legends and religious
cultural.
practices tied to reef life.
• Medicines.
New Medicines
• Carbon sink. More and more species that live on coral reefs have been found to contain
compounds that can be used in medicine (biomedical compounds), including
some applied to the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
cancer, ulcers and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, the unique skeletal
structure of coral has been used to make our most advanced forms of bone
grafting materials.

Carbon Sinks
Coral reefs absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is
one of the greenhouse gases involved in global warming, which has
been implicated in rising global and sea surface temperatures, rising sea
levels and the associated loss of land. For this reason, coral reefs are known
as “carbon sinks” because they help remove carbon dioxide from the

In dollars per unit

area, coral reefs are
the most valuable
ecosystem on the
planet.

Mary Lou Frost photo

The beauty of coral reefs inspires many people

to experierince these natural wonders.

29
Part III: Threats to Coral Reefs

30
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Threats to Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are among the world’s most fragile and endangered ecosystems.
Coral reefs are in peril:
Eleven percent of the world’s coral reefs have already been lost and another
• 11% of the world’s sixteen percent were severely damaged during the 1997-1998 global
coral reefs are bleaching event. Scientists predict that another thirty-two percent may be
already dead. lost over the next thirty years if human threats are not reduced.
• 32% of coral reefs
could die in the next The loss of healthy coral reefs would mean the extinction of thousands of
30 years. marine species, as well as the elimination of a primary source of food, income
and employment for millions of people around the world.
Scientists identify
threats as:
When scientists identify threats to coral reefs, they generally categorize them
• Natural vs. Anthro- as: natural vs. anthropogenic; acute vs. chronic; and small-scale vs.
pogenic (caused by large-scale.
humans).
Natural vs. Anthropogenic
• Acute vs. chronic.
Coral reefs have been altered by natural events for millions of years, such as
• Small-scale vs. large- storms and hurricanes, volcanic activity, changes in sea level and sea surface
scale. temperature, natural predators and disease outbreaks. Natural events are
often very slow. For example, changes in sea level can take thousands of
years, allowing coral and other organisms to adapt to different environmental
conditions.

Natural events, such as hurricanes, can damage and weaken coral reefs. But
healthy reefs generally have a strong ability to recover from such natural
disturbance. Hurricane events can actually benefit the reef, helping to
maintain biodiversity by opening up new space and habitat for coral species
If human threats are
not reduced, coral reefs to grow.
could be lost forever.
In the past century, anthropogenic or human-induced threats have
increased in both frequency and intensity, and what once took hundreds
of years to occur now takes hours, days, weeks, and months. This causes
severe and sometimes irreversible damage to coral reefs, as the coral has
not had time to adapt or recover from these rapid environmental changes.
Examples of anthropogenic threats include pollution, sedimentation,
destructive fishing and global warming. Scientists believe that human
activities actually intensify some natural disturbances (see page 33).

31
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Threats to Coral Reefs (continued)

Acute vs. Chronic
Threats to coral reefs:
Acute disturbances are short-term and often have a significant immediate
• Acute vs. chronic. impact on the environment. Natural events like hurricanes are considered
acute, as are human-induced threats such as the one-time dropping of an
• Small-scale vs. anchor on a coral head. Given time, corals and reef communities can recover
large-scale.
from acute disturbances.

However, chronic disturbances can be more damaging to reefs over time.

Chronic threats are long-term, low-level, and sometimes undetectable.
They include, for example, the day-to-day exposure of reefs to human waste
and sewage, or anchor damage from multiple boats that occurs on a regular
basis. Scientists have found that it is much more difficult for coral reefs to
recover from such chronic threats.

When faced with both acute and chronic threats, coral reefs are at great risk.

Small-scale vs. Large-scale

Scientists also distinguish between small and large-scale disturbances.
Small-scale disturbances occur in a localized area for a short period of
time. Examples include a small, local bleaching event, the spread of a coral
disease, or a Crown of Thorns starfish (COTS) outbreak.

Large-scale disturbances affect a larger area, and often occur more

frequently and to a point beyond which the reef can recover. Examples
include a mass global bleaching event, a widespread disease outbreak, or a
major oil spill.
Coral reefs are at
risk from long-term,
chronic threats such as
pollution, overfishing
and global warming.

32
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Natural Threats
Natural threats: Natural disturbances can cause severe changes to coral communities, but
coral reefs are resilient, and have managed to survive and adapt to these
• Low tides and pressures for millions of years.
sunlight.
• Environmental threats such as low tides and sunlight can expose
• Hurricanes/typhoons
and big storms. shallow corals to air and ultraviolet radiation, which can overheat and
dry the coral’s tissues.
• Volcanic eruptions.
• Powerful volcanic eruptions, hurricanes, typhoons or storms
• Sea level change.
can flatten a reef in minutes. This can lead to compounded problems,
• Sea surface such as phase-shifts, in which fast growing algae replaces the slower-
temperature change growing corals.
(SST).
• Increased sea surface temperatures and changing sea levels
• Predators.
can also have a profound effect on corals, leading to exposure and
• Disease. coral bleaching.

• Predators consume the tissue of coral polyps, such as fish, marine

worms, snails, barnacles and starfish.

• Disease also occurs naturally in coral reefs, causing mass mortality in

corals, sea fans and other reef creatures.

Coral reefs generally recover from natural threats. However, if subjected to

numerous and sustained threats, such as those influenced by humans, the
Corals are more survival rate is sigificantly decreased.
susceptible to disease
when they are already
stressed by other
factors, such as
sedimentation and
pollution.

33
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Natural Threats Influenced by Humans

Scientists believe that
In the past few decades, natural threats to coral reefs have become more
human activities are frequent and intense. Coral bleaching events correlated with climate
increasing the rate change have become widespread disasters, and disease and predators of
and severity of natural the coral reef ecosystem have exploded in outbreaks. Scientists have found
threats, such as: direct connections between human activities and the increase in natural
• Mass bleaching
threats to coral reefs, including:
events.
• Mass Bleaching Events and Climate Change: Increases in carbon
• Disease outbreaks. dioxide emissions is changing the climate, increasing sea surface tem-
perature and ultraviolet light, leading to mass bleaching events around
• Predator outbreaks.
the world.

• Disease Outbreaks: Sewage effluent is correlated with the outbreak

and spread of disease, such as Black Band Disease in the Caribbean.

• Predator Outbreaks: Over-fishing and increased nutrients in the wa-

ter column from agro-industry and sewage effluents are causing preda-
tor outbreaks, such as Crown of Thorns Starfish (COTS).

Between 1979 and

2002 scientists
documented over
65 mass bleaching
events. Only 9 were
documented between
1960 and 1979. Bleached coral Wolcott Henry photo

PHASE SHIFT
Often, when a coral dies, other reef life immediately tries to gain
access to the valuable space. The first species to colonize the
empty spaces are usually algae and soft corals, which grow much
faster than hard corals. When this happens, a coral reef changes
into a community comprised primarily of algae and soft coral.
This is called a phase shift.

34
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Mass Bleaching Events and Climate Change

Over the last twenty years, human-induced climate change has been a
Climate change
causes: growing concern for scientists, policy makers, and environmentalists. Coral
reefs are one of the ecosystems most vulnerable to climatic influences.
• Increased
sea surface The greenhouse effect is a natural occurrence in which heat-trapping
temperatures.
gases — primarily carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide — act as
• Rising sea levels. a blanket, preventing the heat of the sun from escaping. Without the
greenhouse effect, the earth would be too cold to live on.
• More storms.
However, in recent years the temperature of the earth has increased
Impacts to coral reefs
significantly in what is known as global warming. Most scientists believe
include:
that global warming is the result of human activities that have increased
• Coral bleaching. greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This is mainly due to the burning
of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) to run cars, power industries, and heat
• Slower coral growth. and cool homes. Increased agriculture, deforestation, landfills, industrial
production, and mining also contribute to the problem. The resulting side
• Physical damage.
effects have been:

• Increase in sea surface temperatures (SSTs).

• Rising sea levels.

• More frequent and severe storms.

These climatic changes have had devastating consequences for coral reefs:

In 1997, the United • Coral Bleaching – Coral polyps exposed to heat, utraviolet (UV)
States emitted about light and other stressors expel their symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae),
one-fifth of total global
and appear white or bleached. Corals can survive some degree of
greenhouse gases
of the industrialized bleaching, but as the length and severity of the stress increase, so does
world. coral mortality.

• Slower Coral Growth – Sea level is expected to increase between 15

and 95 centimeters over the next century. The growth rate of coral is
likely to be slower than this. As a result, corals will be deeper, receive
less sunlight and grow at a slower rate.

• Physical Damage – Increased coral mortality is expected as storms

and cyclones become more frequent and intense. Coral reef growth
may not be able to keep pace with these destructive events.

35
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Disease Outbreaks
The incidence of disease on coral reefs has only recently been recognized. The
Examples of coral reef
disease outbreaks first observations were recorded in the Caribbean as recently as the 1970’s
include: and in the past few years the number of recorded diseases has increased
dramatically.
• White band disease
in hard corals.
Diseases have contributed to the die-off of seagrasses, corals, sea fans,
• Fibropapilloma in sea urchins, sponges, fish, and other organisms. Diseases can modify the
sea turtles. structure and composition of reefs by removing locally abundant species.
Examples of disease outbreaks include:
• Aspergillus in sea
fans.
• White-band Disease, affecting staghorn and elkhorn corals, devastated
• Coralline Lethal Caribbean coral populations by as much as ninety-five percent in the
Orange Disease in 1980’s.
coralline algae.
• Fibropapilloma, a tumor-forming, debilitating and often fatal disease,
has affected sea turtles globally.

• Aspergillus, a fungus of terrestrial origin, has caused tissue destruction,

skeletal erosion and death in Caribbean sea fans.

• Coralline Lethal Orange Disease (CLOD) has affected coralline algae

in the Pacific.

People have observed hundreds of coral reef diseases all over the world, but
scientists have only documented approximately 10 official coral reef diseases,
including black-band, CLOD, white plague and yellow blotch disease.
During the 1970s
and 1980s, white-
band disease spread
throughout the
western Atlantic,
eliminating up to 95
percent of the elkhorn
and staghorn corals in
some locations.

Diseased coral Wolcott Henry photo

36
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Disease Outbreaks (continued)

What causes disease outbreaks?
What causes disease?

• Natural conditions. • Outbreaks can occur naturally on a local level. Oftentimes, disease
outbreaks start locally but then expand to affect a wider region.
• Stress.
• Any stress to corals can make them more vulnerable to disease.
• Contact with polyps.
Stresses include: sedimentation, pollution, physical damage, increased
• Nutrients. nutrients, extreme temperatures, extreme salinities.

• Contact with coral polyps (such as diver or anchor damage) removes

its protective mucus and causes tissue damage that can make the coral
vulnerable to attack from disease.

• There is a correlation between certain disease outbreaks and increased

nutrients in the water column from sewage.

DIADEMA
During the early 1980’s the black spiny urchin, Diadema, got sick
and died by the thousands all around the Caribbean. Up until
then divers had considered Diadema to be nothing more than
a nuisance and scientists had not given it much thought at all.
However Diadema is an herbivore. It spends its life grazing on
the marine plants (algae) that live on the reef and compete with
corals for space to grow. Without Diadema to keep the plants in
check many reefs became quickly overgrown with algae and the
Coral diseases have
become a chronic and corals were killed.
often catastrophic
problem for reefs in the
Caribbean.

Magnificent Sea Urchin Jeff Dawson photo

37
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Crown of Thorns and Other Predator Outbreaks

Predator population explosions occur when a species of animal on a
Population explosions:
reef increases dramatically, threatening the health and well being of the reef.
• Drupella (coral- This is particularly damaging when the animal preys on coral.
eating snail).
• Drupella is a small snail that eats away at the tissue of branching
• Crown of Thorns
corals. It is a common predator in the Indo-Pacific, and has caused
Starfish - COTS.
significant damage to some coral reefs.

• The Crown of Thorns Starfish (COTS) is a predator of corals, able

to eat extensive sections of reef in one night’s grazing. Recent
population outbreaks in the Pacific have devastated whole reefs, with
up to ninety percent mortality in some areas. COTS generally prefer
branching corals over large massive corals.

What causes COTS outbreaks? Scientists belive there are several

possible explanations:

• It could be a natural cycle of the species, with populations reaching

these numbers only once every hundred years.

• Nutrient pollution from the land could increase the plankton food for
Crown of Thorns larvae.

• Overfishing of predators of juvenile COTS such as snappers.

• Overfishing of predators of adult COTS such as Tritons.

In 1978-79 a massive
COTS outbreak
devastated 90% of the • Rising sea temperatures may favor COTS by increasing its ability to
coral reefs of Fagatele reproduce.
Bay in American
Samoa.
CROWN OF THORNS
Early attempts to contain Crown of Thorns outbreaks failed
because people did not take into account the biology of the
predator. Divers would remove all the COTs they could find
from a reef, chop them up and throw them back into the water.
Unfortunately COTS can regenerate arms and other parts quickly,
so the divers were literally doubling and tripling the problem.

38
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Anthropogenic (Human-Caused) Threats

Human activities are threatening the world’s reefs at an alarming rate. In the
The four tops threats,
according to the World last century human pressures have increased dramatically with rapid and un-
Resource Institute planned coastal development, pollution, overfishing, coral mining, and other
include: damaging activities. The scale and rate of impacts affecting tropical waters is
increasing, and the intensity of disturbances are becoming more chronic and
• Over-fishing and
long-term so that the corals are not able to recover.
destructive fishing.

• Marine-based pollu- The main anthropogenic threats reviewed in this section include:
tion.
1) Destructive Fishing Practices and Overfishing
• Land-based
pollution.
2) Marine-based Pollution
• Coastal develop-
ment. 3) Marine Debris

4) Mining, Harvesting and Trade

5) Land-based Pollution

6) Coastal Development and Sedimentation

7) Tourism

Human threats could

destroy 32% of coral
reefs within the next
30 years.

Wolcott Henry photo

Coral destroyed by destructive dynamite fishing.

39
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Destructive Fishing Practices and Overfishing

In many areas, coral reefs are threatened by destructive fishing practices
Unsustainable fishing
practices include: and overfishing. As fish catches get smaller, there is increased pressure for
fishermen to use more extreme methods to catch fish and find an income.
• Dynamite or “blast” Although this may yield short-term economic benefits, it endangers the
fishing. long-term sustainability of the fishing industry and other related coral-reef
industries.
• Cyanide fishing.

• Muro Ami. Destructive fishing techniques destroy coral reefs habitats, reduce fish
stocks, and prevent coral growth as a result of sedimentation. Types of
• Bottom trawling. destructive fishing include:
• Overfishing.
• Dynamite or “blast” fishing - Fish are killed by an explosion and then
skimmed off the surface or collected from the bottom. The explosion
kills large numbers of fish and other marine organisms, and destroys the
physical structure of the reef.

• Cyanide fishing - Fishers squirt cyanide, bleaches and other poisons in

reef crevices to stun fish, making them easy to catch. This is a popular
method for capturing live fish for the aquarium and food trades. The
poisons cause bleaching and kill surrounding corals and marine life.

• Muro Ami - A line of divers smash the reef with rocks and poles to
drive the fish into waiting nets, causing physical damage to the reef
structure. Muro ami has recently been replaced by a more sustainable
technique know as paaling in which the divers hold hoses with
compressed air and drive the fish towards the nets with bubbles.
According to the 2002
Reefs at Risk Report,
56% of the coral • Bottom-trawling - A bottom trawl is dragged along the bottom of the
reefs in Southeast sea floor in order to catch a target species. The trawl net is dragged
Asia are at risk from over everything in its path, indiscriminately capturing virtually all marine
destructive fishing
life in the habitat being fished.
practices.

• Overfishing occurs when fish and marine creatures are harvested at

rates faster than they can reproduce. In some areas, overfishing has
already resulted in the local extinction of highly-valued species such as
giant clam and grouper. Changes in fish populations can greatly affect
the reef ecosystem. For example, the removal of algal grazers such as
parrotfish may lead to algal blooms that smother living corals.

40
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Marine-Based Pollution
Marine-based pollution is harmful to coral reefs, although the degree of its
Sources of marine
pollution: impact is still unknown.

• Oil discharge from Marine pollution comes from:

boats and planes.
• Deliberate discharge of oil from tanks and vessels.
• Tanker accidents.

• Oil leaks. • Tanker accidents causing oil leaks.

• Ballast and bilge • Oil leaks from tanks and pipelines.

discharge.

• Radioactive waste. • Dumping of fuel from airplanes.

• Ballast and bilge discharge containing oil, tar and other pollutants as
well as non-native species that can become invasive.

• Radioactive waste from military activity.

Marine-based oil and toxic chemicals damage coral reefs by:

• Altering coral reproductive tissues, growth, behavior and development.

• Harming zooxanthellae.

• Preventing juvenile coral from settling on the reef and growing.

A 1986 oil spill in
Panama led to a • Deteriorating the physical reef structure.
decrease in live coral
coverage of 50-75% • Reducing the resilience of coral reefs to other stresses.
in the shallow water
reefs.
Although tanker wrecks and oil spills receive a great deal of press coverage,
the damage is often acute and short-term. Coral reefs are far more
threatened by the chronic, long-term leakage of fuel from boats and land.

41
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Marine Debris
Sources of marine Marine debris or garbage is also harmful to coral reef inhabitants. Marine
debris: debris comes from:

• Land. • Garbage washed into the sea from land.

• Boats.
• Materials discarded from boats.
• Ship wrecks.
• Fishing nets that have been lost or discarded by commercial fishing
Garbage is harmful vessels (otherwise known as ghost nets).
to coral inhabitants
because it:
• Ship and plane wrecks from battles and bombing raids that often
• Strangles and chokes release toxic paints and chemicals into the marine environment.
marine life.
Free-floating nets and garbage can be deadly to marine life — smothering,
• Spreads alien
suffocating, entangling and destroying corals, fish, sharks, sea turtles and
species.
marine mammals. Sea turtles often mistake plastic bags for jellyfish, and as
• Reduces the beauty a result, eat them and die. Alien (non-native) species that are attached to
of a location. marine debris are sometimes transported far from their place of origin and
introduced in remote reefs, altering the natural ecosystem.

Garbage can also destroy the beauty of beaches and coral reefs, which
lessens the appeal of a location for tourists. This can result in significant
economic losses to coastal areas dependent on the tourism industry.

In the Northwestern
Hawaiian Islands
more that 300 tons
of debris - primarily
discarded fishing nets
- has been removed by
government divers.

NOAA photo
Marine debris, particularly discarded fishing nets, can cause
extensive damage to coral reefs and other marine species.

42
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Mining, Harvesting and Trade (continued)

Coral reef species are harvested and traded in numerous domestic and
Coral reefs are
exploited for many international markets for:
different things.
Construction
Mining and harvesting Corals are mined for limestone and construction materials. Sometimes coral
may be for:
pieces are removed for use as bricks or road-fill. Sand and limestone from
• Construction. coral reefs are also made into cement for new buildings.

• Souvenirs/Jewelry.

Corals are commonly harvested for

construction materials on both a local and
commercial scale in many places around
the world.

Jamie Oliver photo

Souvenirs/Jewelry
Coral species are used in the dried ornamental trade business, where they
are collected and traded for souvenirs and jewelry.

According to one
The sale of corals as souvenirs and jewelry
study, Indonesia
poses a serious threat to the helath of coral
supplies 95% of the
reefs in many regions of the world.
world’s coral trade,
while the United States
imports 85% of the
dead coral and 98% of
the live coral.
Wolcott Henry photo

43
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Mining, Harvesting and Trade

Coral reefs are
Aquarium trade
exploited for many Coral, fishes and “live rock” (dead coral rock covered with encrusting
different things. organisms such as algae and sponges) are collected for the marine aquarium
industry.
Mining and harvesting
may be for:

• Aquarium trade.
In addition to living coral and “live rock,”
• Medicines. milions of coral reefs fishes are harvested
every year from around the world to
support the aquarium industry.

Chuck Savall photo

Medicines
Coral reef species are collected for Eastern medicines (such as seahorses)
and Western medicine (coral used for bone grafts).

Medicines can be derived from a variety

of coral reef organisms, including hard
corals, gorgonians and others.
Experts estimate that
95% of the fish sold in
the saltwater aquarium
trade are wild-caught.
Burt Jones and Maurine Shimlock photo

While these practices provide short-term economic benefits, if not managed

in a sustainable way, they result in long-term damage.

CITES
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) regulates the international trade of certain animals and
plants. Under the terms of the convention, species are classified
based on their vulnerability to extinction. Species listed under
“Appendix II,” including many corals, sea turtles and shellfish,
cannot be imported without special permits.

44
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Land-Based Pollution
As coastal populations increase, so does the discharge of effluents (liquid
Land-based pollution
is a serious threat to waste products) in coral reef areas. It has been estimated that about forty
coral reefs. Sources of percent of marine pollution is land-based, and ninety percent of this collects
pollution can be: in shallow, coastal waters, where coral reefs thrive.
• Non-point source
Seventy-five percent of pollutants entering the sea come from non-point
pollution.
sources, meaning that they come from a general area rather than one single
• Point-source source such as a discharge pipe. Examples include:
pollution.
• Storm-water runoff from urban areas and industry.
• Pollution causes
eutrophication
(excess nutrients) • Agricultural runoff (pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers).
leading to
phytoplankton • Atmospheric discharge of soot (airborne materials generated from the
blooms. burning of various fossil fuels) and toxic chemicals.

Point-source pollution comes from a specific, easily identifiable source

that discharges directly into the water. It often leads to small areas of
contamination that impact shallow, near-shore coral reefs. Examples include:

• Pipes that discharge industrial pollutants and toxins directly into the
water.

• Sewage overflow.

The main impact of pollution is the resulting excess in nutrients, primarily

More than 400 million
gallons of oil enter the caused by human waste and agricultural runoff. Eutrophication (high
oceans every year, but nutrient levels) can produce increased algal cover, and can result in
only about 37 million phytoplankton blooms (algal plankton) that turn the water green and
gallons of it is from block out the sunlight needed for hard corals to survive.
major oil spills – the
rest is primarily from
industrial waste and Pollution may also increase coral diseases and predators, and help the growth
automobiles. of animal competitors such as filter-feeding sponges, boring mollusks, and
polychaete worms, which overtake living corals.

45
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Coastal Development
Poorly managed
Almost half a billion people live within 100 kilometers of a coral reef. This
coastal development number is expected to double by 2050, with the greatest increases in
can lead to: population likely to take place in the poorer developing countries in the
tropics. Coastal development is necessary to support growing populations.
• Acute physical However, unplanned development is one of the major causes of coral reef
damage from
construction.
damage.

• Chronic, long- Construction to support growing human populations can cause acute
term damage from physical damage to coral reefs. Coastal development damages coral reefs
sedimentation and from:
pollution.

• Direct physical damage from the construction of piers, resorts

and airports, dredging of marinas or shipping lanes and land
reclamation (shoreline filling) to build airports and hotels.

• Pollution from agricultural chemicals, sewage and other pollutants

draining into the sea.

• Sedimentation from construction and inland erosion that reaches

reefs from storms and rivers.

Singapore has lost an

estimated 60% of its
coral reefs through
land reclamation.

Coastal development in Cancun, Mexico Wolcott Henry photo

46
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Sedimentation
Sedimentation — suspended earth, rock and sand particles in the water
Sedimentation is
caused by: — is a leading cause of coral reef damage. A main impact of coastal
development has been increased sedimentation in near-shore waters. Corals
• Dredging. cannot thrive in water containing high levels of sediment which:
• Forestry.
• Makes the water cloudy or turbid, blocking out sunlight.
• Agriculture.
• Smothers and buries corals.
• Over-grazing.
• Prevents planula larvae (juvenile corals) from finding a suitable
• Land-clearance.
substrate to colonize.
• Land reclamation.
Sediment is washed into the sea from runoff in rivers and rainwater. It is
• Mangrove also stirred up from the ocean floor. Sedimentation comes from:
deforestation.
• Dredging of ports and boat marinas.
• Bottom-trawling.

• Forestry, particularly clear-cutting.

• Agriculture, especially ploughing between crops.

• Over-grazing of cattle and other animals.

• Land-clearance for housing, industrial development, agriculture, etc.

Land cleared for logging or agriculture is most susceptible to erosion.
Heavy rains wash the loose mud and silt directly into the ocean and
Silt from dredging
and runoff buries onto coral reefs.
corals and suffocates
sensitive reef • Land reclamation and shoreline filling for coastal development.
organisms.
• Clearing of mangrove forests for firewood and shrimp farms
(mangroves filter sediments from the reef).

• Bottom trawling for fish.

47
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Tourism
The damaging impacts of tourism are primarily caused by:
Impacts from tourism
are mainly produced
from: • Coastal development.

• Tourism • Hotel, cruiseships, lodging, and restaurant operations.

development.

• Hotels, lodging and • Marine recreation.

restaurants.
Coastal Development for Tourism
• Marine recreation. Tourism related coastal construction includes the development of resorts,
stores, restaurants and parking lots; the construction of piers and marinas;
and the development of artificial beaches and beach replenishment. These
activities lead to:

• Physical damage to the coral and reef structure.

• Increased sedimentation.

• Increased industrial and toxic pollution.

This can greatly affect the health of coral reefs, which can in turn, negatively
affect the tourism industry.

Hotels, Lodging and Restaurants

Hotels, cruiseships, and lodging operations create solid and liquid wastes
from landscaping, sewage, laundry, and other guest services. Restaurants
It takes only a second
to break a small piece that sell local endangered fish and shellfish are depleting the local marine
of coral off, but it can resources. These activities cause:
take up to 25 years for
it to grow back. • Increased sedimentation.

• Increased sewage and other land-based pollutants.

• Increased destructive or overfishing of marine resources.

48
 Threats to
Coral Reefs

Tourism (continued)
Marine Recreation
Marine recreation
causes: Specific activities such as snorkeling and diving can have negative effects on
coral reefs, including:
• Physical damage.
• Physical damage caused by anchors and ship groundings. In Guam
• Marine pollution.
there were at least 15 ship groundings and 13 sinkings between 1992
• Sedimentation. and 1996. Divers, snorkelers and swimmers also cause physical damage
by kicking and walking on living corals.
• Destructive fishing.
• Marine pollution from boat maintenance and operation and improper
• Disturbances to
sewage and garbage disposal.
marine life.

• Sedimentation from poor boating practices, divers, and snorkelers.

• Destructive and overfishing of marine resources for souvenirs.

• Disturbing marine wildlife while viewing, such as turtles, whales,

dolphins, and other wildlife.

For more information on tourism and coral reefs see CORAL’s Handbook on
Sustainable Tourism for Marine Recreation Providers.

According to NOAA,
over 23 million
Americans spend over
290 million boating
days a year in coastal
waters, primarily in
coral reef areas.

49
Part IV: Searching for Solutions

50
 Searching for
Solutions

Searching for Solutions

Human activities are a serious threat to the future of coral reefs. If
Coral reef conservation
efforts include: immediate action is not taken to reduce human impacts, many of the world’s
coral reefs could be lost forever. By promoting and participating in the
• International, conservation of these unique marine ecosystems, we protect the lives and
Regional, and homes of millions of sea creatures. We also enhace jobs, food, income and
National projects.
places of incredible natural beauty for local communities and tourists alike.
• Community-Based
Conservation. As public awareness of the value of coral reefs increases, so do efforts to
protect them. Conservation programs range from international and regional
• Coral reef protected projects `and laws to the day-to-day actions of individuals.
areas.

• Integrated Coastal This section highlights the following solutions:

Zone Management.
• International, Regional and National Efforts.
• Awareness/Advocacy.
• Community-Based Conservation.
• Sustainable Tourism.

• Coral Reef Recovery • Coral Reef Protected Areas.

and Rehabilitation.
• ICZM – Integrated Coastal Zone Management.
• Individual actions.
• Awareness and Advocacy.

• Sustainable Tourism.

• Coral Reef Recovery and Rehabilitation.

• Individual Actions.

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 Searching for
Solutions

International Efforts
International
International programs:
Experts and policymakers from around the world have joined forces on
• ICRI. several international initiatives to help understand, monitor, and reverse the
decline in coral reef health. International programs address:
• ICRAN.
• Global trends.
• GCMRN.
• Shared lessons.
• ICRIN. • Funding from international agencies and programs.
• International laws and conventions.
• Reef Base.
The central international body for coral reef conservation is called the
• Dive In To Earth Day.
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). ICRI draws on various
• Reef Check. international experts to develop solutions to coral reef problems, and draws
attention to coral reef issues at international forums. ICRI has several
• REEF. operating units including:

• International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN) – Improves

marine protected area management and effectiveness.
• Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCMRN) – Central body
for coral reef monitoring information.
• International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRIN) – Spreads awareness
and education of coral reef issues.

There are many other international coral reef initiatives that exist, such as:

• Reef Base - Online information system about coral reef ecosystems

Coral reef conservation
begins at home, yet
around the world (www.reefbase.org).
there are lessons to be • Dive In To Earth Day - Grassroots coral reef conservation events held
shared by experts and in more than 50 countries each year (www.coral.org/divein).
communities around • Reef Check (www.reefcheck.org/) and Reef Environmental
the world. Education Foundation (REEF) (www.reef.org/) - Volunteer networks
for global coral reef monitoring.

International agencies such as the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP), and several non-governmental organizations such
as the Coral Reef Alliance, the World Wildlife Fund, and The Nature
Conservancy, also work at an international level to help reverse coral reef
degradation.

52
 Searching for
Solutions

Regional and National Efforts

Regional
Coral reef initiatives
include: Coral reefs regularly pass through more than one country, such as the
Mesoamerican Barrier Reef, or the Red Sea. Even seemingly distant and
• National programs. remote coral reefs are interconnected by larval distribution, or are affected by
the same weather patterns or human disturbances. It is therefore important
• Regional programs.
to approach coral reef conservation from a regional perspective to address
• International shared coral reef issues within a geographic region. Examples include the
programs. Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP), and the Eastern African Regional
Seas Programme.

Regional initiatives help to:

• Identify and understand patterns such as coral bleaching events or
disease outbreaks.
• Establish networks of marine protected areas (MPAs).
• Understand larval distribution.
• Monitor species distribution.
• Establish policies and programs that prevent and/or solve threats.

National
Coral reefs exist in more than one hundred countries, and national laws
and policies vary greatly from one country to the next. In some, coral reef
protection is incorporated within broad environmental policies. In other
situations, there are particular agencies and laws that deal specifically with
coral reefs. Involvement at the federal level is necessary to:

• Establish national laws and policies.

The South Pacific
Regional Environment • Enforce legislation.
Program supports • Set up marine protected areas (MPAs).
coral reef conservation • Collect user-fees (based on who are the “users” of a MPA) and taxes.
projects throughout • Prioritize national funding for conservation projects.
Polynesia, Melanesia,
and Micronesia.
Examples of national projects include the United States Coral Reef Task Force
and the Indonesian Coral Reef Working Group.

53
 Searching for
Solutions

Community-Based Conservation
Community involvement
Although it is important to address coral reef conservation from a global
and support is key perspective, without the support of the local community, most conservation
to the success of a projects will not succeed. Community-based conservation involves the
conservation program. active participation and support of the local communities who depend on the
coral reef for food and income.
• Key stakeholders:
People who rely on
coral reef resources Conservation planning should involve representatives from key stakeholder
for their livelihood. groups (people who rely on coral reef resources for their livelihood).
Examples of key stakeholders include:

• Boat taxi drivers.

• Community members.
• Developers.
• Dive and tour operators.
• Fishers.
• Investors.
• Local government officials.
• Local merchants.
• Non-governmental organizations (NGO’s).

It is also important to incorporate local knowledge and wisdom in coral reef

conservation planning. In many parts of the world coral reefs have been
successfully managed and protected by indigenous communities for hundreds
of years.

In Fiji and other Pacific

There are many different ways that communities can be involved in coral reef
Island nations, reefs conservation. For example, dive operators can collect user fees from tourists
were sustainably to support local marine protected areas. Fishermen can help patrol the
harvested for millennia reefs from illegal poaching. Community groups can organize regular beach
using wisdom passed cleanups and educational programs. In some cases, non-governmental
down through
generations.
organizations (NGO’s) can be hired to manage the marine protected areas.

Every place is different, with its own reefs and unique problems. Models
cannot always be replicated, but sharing lessons and information helps
everyone improve their conservation efforts.

54
 Searching for
Solutions

Coral Reef Protected Areas

A coral reef protected area is an area that has been set aside to provide
Different types of
protected areas: lasting protection for part or all of the coral reef and related ecosystems
within its boundaries. Coral reef protected areas have been used as a
• MPAs. management tool to protect, maintain, or restore natural and cultural
resources in coastal and marine waters that contain coral reefs. They have
• Reserves.
proven to be one of the most promising solutions for the survival of coral
• LMMAs. reefs and the many benefits they provide to people.

• Coral Parks. There are many different types of coral reef protected areas that can vary in
name, official designation and management approach.

• Marine Protected Area (MPA) generally refers to a protected area

that is officially recognized by a government body. For example,
Arrecifes de Cozumel in Mexico, or the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in
Australia.

• Marine Reserve is a protected area that prohibits fishing and

harvesting of marine resources in order to protect fish stocks and other
reef organisms. An example is the Hol Chan Marine Reserve in Belize.

• Locally Marine Managed Area (LMMA) is a community designated

and managed protected area, such as the coral reef of Waitabu, Fiji.
Each LMMA may have a different conservation strategy. For example,
one may be a marine reserve, prohibiting fishing and harvesting of
marine organisms, while another might balance different uses of local
resources.
The Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park is
the largest coral reef • Coral Park is a broad term used to describe any protected area that
protected area in includes a coral reef within its boundaries and allows visitation (such
the world, covering as dive tourism). Just like parks on land, coral parks combine sensible
344,800 square
recreation and management to help protect the park’s ecosystem.
kilometers.
Examples of coral parks are Bunaken National Park in Indonesia and Apo
Island in the Philippines, both of which are also recognized MPAs.

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 Searching for
Solutions

Coral Reef Protected Areas (continued)

Benefits of MPAs
Benefits of coral reef protected areas
include: If properly managed, coral reef protected areas can benefit from:

• Renewed fish stocks. • Renewed fish stocks. Areas with “no-take” zones (no fishing) have
shown to have:
• Social and economic
benefits.
• Increase in fish biomass (weight of fish catch) both inside and
outside the protected area.
• Research.
• Higher fish density and biodiversity.
• Biodiversity.
• Larger carnivorous fish and invertebrates.

• Increase in fish larvae, which also repopulate neighboring areas as

larvae is transported by currents.

• Social and economic benefits

• Improved quality of life for local communities, as cultural heritage is
preserved, and increased fish stocks lead to more food and income.

• Reef-based tourism can be a non-extractive industry (an practice

that uses the reef without harvesting resources) that attracts millions
of divers and snorkelers each year. This income can replace the
community’s reliance upon destructive activities with short-term
benefits such as dynamite fishing.

In 2000, there were

• Research
an estimated 660 • Researchers can learn about the natural functioning of intact coral
coral reef marine reef ecosystems.
protected areas
worldwide. • Scientists can conduct biomedical research in healthy coral reef
ecosystems in order to find cures for diseases.

• Biodiversity
• Protection of natural biological diversity and food web stability.

• Protection of reproductive spawning grounds for fish and other reef-

based organisms.

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 Searching for
Solutions

Coral Reef Protected Areas (continued)

Ten Ways Effective Parks Protect Coral Reefs
Coral parks and other types of coral reef protected areas have proven to be one of the
most effective ways at protecting and conserving coral reef ecosystems. A coral park
is a marine protected area (MPA) that includes a coral reef in its boundaries and allows
visitors. The coral parks program of the Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) helps tourism and
conservation to work in partnership for the benefit of coral reefs, the tourism industry
and local communities.
1. Address Specific Threats. Each coral park has its own goals and objectives, depending
on what activities and threats are present. In general, parks protect against threats such as
overfishing, coral collecting, dynamite fishing, mining, sedimentation, and pollution.

2. Provide Active Management. Staff or volunteers patrol the park, enforce rules, anticipate
and address new threats, and provide services, facilities, and information to users.

3. Supply Visitor Education. Information is available to visitors and community members

about the rules of the park and the life found there.

4. Support Local Education. Outreach and education programs for local communities help
ensure protection of coral reefs. Examples include snorkeling programs for local children,
seminars for those who work in or near the park, and resources and materials for teachers.

5. Promote Dive Briefings. Dive operators are active partners in frontline protection by
briefing divers about ways to reduce recreational damage.

6. Partner with Local Dive Operators. They are the eyes and ears of the park and can
report violations and encourage visitors to follow regulations.

7. Collect Admission Fees. Financial support comes from park visitors, ensuring that the
park is self-sustaining and providing an insurance policy for the reef, allowing visitors to
return to a protected spot. A self-financed park is not subject to politics or current fads.

8. Install Mooring Buoys. Moorings are in place, used and maintained. They protect fragile
reefs from anchor damage caused by tour boats and fishermen.

9. Conduct Research and Monitoring. Ongoing programs scientifically monitor the state of
the reefs.

10. Provide Protection for Critical Habitat and Endangered Species. Parks are poised
for action when development plans or overfishing threaten particular species. Parks can
exert pressure to leave turtle nesting grounds undisturbed or fight the removal of nearby
mangrove forests.

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 Searching for
Solutions

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

ICZM takes a comprehensive approach to coastal zone management, with
ICZM
the goal of coordinating all uses of the coastal zone. This includes ocean-
• ICZM manages based activities such as fishing and diving; beachside activities such as
activities in all parts beach replenishment and hotel development; and inland activities such as
of the coastal zone. agriculture and forestry. ICZM views the coastal zone as a complete system,
not as separate parts.
• Communication and
cooperation are keys
to success. The underlying concept of ICZM is that no part of the physical
environment exists independently — actions in one impact another.
So, for example, if a mangrove forest is cut down, this could lead to coastal
erosion and flooding, which could impact coastal settlements and destroy
near shore coral reefs.

ICZM depends on communication and cooperation between all

management bodies and stakeholders. For example, if the parks department
of a local, state or federal government establishes a marine reserve — but
does not use a comprehensive ICZM approach to coordinate with other
coastal zone activities — the reserve may be threatened by impacts resulting
from a large private sector development that is planned within the next
five years. In an ideal scenario, stakeholders, government officials and
community members involved in ICZM planning would be aware of these
development proposals, and would communicate with the developers to come
up with a compromise or alternative plan of action that minimizes impact to
the environment.

A coast is more than

just a beach. The
coastal zone is the
transitional area
between land and sea.

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Sustainable Tourism
Tourism is the fourth largest industry in the world and is growing rapidly.
Sustainable Tourism:
Eighty-five percent of all global tourism is in coastal areas. Reef-based
• Sustainable tourism tourism is a big draw for tourists and is vital to many tropical countries —
allows future especially small islands and developing states.
generations to use
the resource.
What is sustainable vs. unsustainable tourism?
• Unsustainable
tourism destroys the • Sustainable tourism uses natural resources in such a way as to leave
resource. them healthy and undamaged for future generations.

• Unsustainable tourism degrades and destroys the natural resources

that support the economy of a region.

What are the benefits of sustainable tourism?

• It is a non-extractive industry (uses the reef without harvesting

resources) that can provide income to local communities while
sustaining healthy reefs over the long-term.

• It can help generate income and much needed revenue to keep a

Marine Protected Area functioning. There is a demand for sustainable
tourism from divers in particular, who are willing to pay more for the
best dive spots, and are willing to do so through MPA user fees.

• It can educate tourists about the coral reef through environmental

literature and briefings aboard boats and other tour operations and a
Sustainable tourism
is estimated to be the general sense of businesses engaging in good environmental practices.
largest growth area
in tourism in the next • It is estimated to be the largest growth area in tourism over the next
decade. decade. This growth can simultaneously benefit the environment and
businesses and communities that adopt good environmental practices.

For more information, see CORAL’s Handbook on Sustainable Tourism for

Marine Recreation Providers.

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Awareness/Advocacy
Outreach and education — to local communities, key stakeholders, policy
Through education,
people gain: makers, tourists, and other target audiences — is critical to any successful
conservation program. We are all responsible for educating others about the
• Appreciation value of coral reefs. Help coral reefs by sharing your knowledge.
• Respect
Through education, people gain:
• Pride
• Appreciation of the beauty and complexity of coral reef ecosystems.
• Foresight
• Respect for the value of coral reefs as sources of protein, income,
• Empowerment
medicine and recreation.
• Motivation
• Pride in local coral reef resources.

• Foresight and understanding of the long-term consequences of our

actions, which might ultimately change our behavior.

• Empowerment with the knowledge necessary to make informed

decisions and participate in management discussions.

• Motivation to participate in or support coral reef conservation projects

through donations or time.

The United Nations

declared 1997 the
International Year of
the Reef to spread
global awareness of
the plight of coral
reefs.
Fijian dive operators celebrate the completion of a
CORAL workshop in Taveuni, Fiji, 2003.

CORAL has educational and outreach materials such as good environmental

practice guidelines for the marine recreation sector, issue briefs for policy
makers and influential community leaders, and handbooks on other coral
reef-related topics (See appendix, page 74.) For more information, visit
our website at www.coral.org/ or email us at [email protected]/.

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Coral Reef Recovery and Restoration

Reef recovery occurs when a coral reef returns to the condition it was in
Coral reef recovery
and restoration: before being damaged by threats such as hurricanes, oil spills, bleaching
events, or other impacts.
• Restocking marine
life. Scientists are studying various ways to help restore reefs and restock marine
life in damaged or depleted areas:
• Transplanting coral
fragments.
• Transplanting coral fragments. In areas that have been damaged by
• “Planting out” storms or development projects, biologists can take coral fragments and
articficially reared reattach them to the substrate to establish coral colonies in new areas.
corals.

• Enhancing coral • “Planting out” artificially reared corals. This process involves taking
growth rates. corals grown in farms — both in the ocean and in artificial tanks — and
placing them out in living coral reef areas.
• Artificial reefs.
• Enhancing coral growth rates. Scientists are looking at various ways
to enhance the growth rates of living corals. One method, called mineral
accretion, uses low voltage electrical current to speed up the growth
rates of marine organisms with limestone skeletons.

• Artificial reefs. Often constructed of such items as old tires, rocks and
“reef balls,” artificial reefs can contribute to the recovery of marine life in
previously damaged or depleted areas.

Some scientists question the value of such approaches in comparison to

natural recovery processes. Furthermore, the high cost of such activities
Low-tech and low-
cost restoration makes them unrealistic options for most coral reef communities. At a
projects have been minimum, efforts should be made to reduce human threats, educate people,
implemented in
Komodo National Park
using rock piles to help
create places for corals
to settle and grow.

Divers survey a reef in Indonesia.

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What We Can Do As Individuals

Everyone Can Help Keep Coral Reefs Alive and Healthy
We can all make a
difference:
As a community member:
• In our communities. • Learn about and obey local laws designed to protect coral reefs.
• In the water.
• Support local MPAs and other coral reef protected areas by paying user-
fees, even if they are voluntary.

• Participate in community stakeholder discussions.

• Volunteer your time or money to help with a conservation project

(organize a Dive In To Earth Day event www.coral.org/divein).

• Share your knowledge with others.

In the water:
• Do not step on or touch coral.

• Do not disturb or harass marine life. (Download CORAL’s Diving,

Snorkeling, Whale & Dolphin Watching, and Turtle Watching Guidelines
at www.coral.org.)

• Be a responsible boater: avoid dropping anchors on coral reefs, dispose

of waste in a proper receptacle, navigate carefully, use clean-burning
4-stroke outboard engines, perform regular maintenance on engines
and fuel tanks, safely dispose of waste, etc. (See CORAL’s Handbook on
Sustainable Tourism for Marine Recreation Providers).

Dive in to Earth Day 2003 in Apo Island, Philippines.

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What We Can Do As Individuals (continued)

At home:
We can all make a
difference: • Reduce, reuse, recycle. Try to keep trash to a minimum and dispose
of batteries in a safe way. Try to avoid excess packaging and plastic
• At home. bottles, which often end up on in the ocean.
• If you live on a small
• Save energy. Turn out lights you are not using. Run dishwashers
island.
and washing machines with full loads. Buy energy efficient appliances.
Wrap your water heater to save heat. Use compact florescent bulbs.

• Drive less. Take public transportation to help reduce fossil fuel

emissions. Join a car pool. Walk or bike to work.

• Avoid fertilizers or other pesticides in your garden.

If you live on a small island:

• Avoid non-biodegradable items such as styrofoams and plastics, which
can threaten marine life if they get into the ocean.

• Buy non-threatened fish species that are harvested in a sustainable

manner and do not deplete local fisheries.

• Avoid dumping toxic chemicals and household cleaners down drains and
sewers that flow directly into the ocean.

• Promote and support community programs aimed at protecting local

coral reefs and other natural areas.

Dive in to Earth Day 2003, cleaning trash from the beach in Barbados.

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 Appendix
Appendix

What We Can Do As Individuals (continued)

We can all make a As a consumer:
difference: • Avoid purchasing souvenirs made from coral or other marine organisms.
• As a consumer.
• Buy the least toxic household products, such as biodegradable cleaners or
• As a business owner. water-based, low biocide/volatile organic compound (VOC) paints.

• Avoid ordering seafood that is harvested in an unsustainable way. For

more information, check out www.seafoodchoices.com/.

• Support businesses that make an effort to protect the environment.

As a marine recreation business owner or operator:

• Avoid selling items that threaten local natural areas, such as coral jewelry,
shells or threatened fish species.

• Support environmentally responsible boating practices such as the use

of moorings as an alternative to anchoring (See CORAL’s handbook,
Sustainable Tourism for Marine Recreation Providers.

• Support and promote sustainable fishing practices.

• Educate tourists about how to minimize their impact on the environment

during marine recreation activities.

• Support work being done by local non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) to protect the environment.

Wolcott Henry photo

Avoiding the purchase of ornamental items such as coral
jewelry can go a long way towards protecting coral reefs.

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Activities to help reduce threats to your reefs

Here are some creative ideas to help reduce threats to your reefs:

Overfishing and Destructive Fishing

• Conduct fish or reef surveys. Monitoring species diversity and abundance on the reef helps
track changes and improves our understanding of the threats impacting those changes, such
as overfishing. You can take part in reef monitoring programs such as Reef Check or REEF.

• Make friends with local fishers. Teach a fisher how to dive, or hire local fishers to give
them an alternative source of income. Talk to fishermen about the benefits of marine reserves
and coral reef protected areas.

• Involve children. Children are our future fishers - and our future ambassadors for coral
reefs. Teach them about the beauty and importance of coral reefs. Plan a lesson or event with
the local school that teaches about over-fishing and destructive fishing. Have a conservation
poster contest and display the entries in local business windows.

• Bring the underwater world to the non-diving community. Show slide shows and
videos of beautiful coral reefs to your community. Set up a touch tank for local kids and adults
to experience some of the amazing creatures that inhabit the reef. This can help educate them
about species that are affected by destructive fishing practices.

• Hold a fair or festival. You can use a variety of activities at a festival to involve and
educate, including art displays, environmental displays, music and speakers. You can also
raise funds with sales of food or merchandise and donate those funds to your local coral reef
protected area. Involve the community in planning and execution by soliciting participation by
businesses, clubs, or other community groups.

Anchor Damage
• Install mooring buoys. Even a carefully placed anchor can drag and destroy reefs.
Installation and use of mooring buoys dramatically reduces anchor damage on reefs. Borrow
ideas from CORAL’s Handbook on Mooring Buoy Installation and Maintenance.

• Throw a fundraiser to raise money for new buoys and for mooring buoy maintenance.

• Plan a community meeting. Build community support and awareness by holding a

slideshow that contrasts healthy and anchor-damaged coral.

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Coastal Development
• Invite local government and policymakers on a glass bottom boat tour. The opportunity
to experience the reef first-hand can leave a lasting impression and stimulate interest in coral
reefs.

• Mangrove restoration. Support mangrove restoration in your local community and talk to your
local government about the importance of mangroves to coral reef health.

• Have children conduct a natural history of your area. Talk to the elders and find out where
vibrant reefs and mangroves used to be. This helps preserve cultural traditions and illustrate the
impacts of development.

• Help your community adopt a reef, coral park or beach. You can personalize efforts by
focusing on one area to protect and preserve.

• Have a coastal/underwater clean up. Keep track of the types and total quantities of garbage
to help determine what is impacting the reefs.

• Start an indigenous plant nursery. Removal of vegetation for development increases erosion
and increases sedimentation in coastal waters. Planting native plants helps protect the reefs.

Diver / Snorkeler Damage

• Distribute Coral Friendly Guidelines. These guidelines help raise awareness of ways
that divers and snorkelers can reduce damage to the reef. You can download copies at
www.coral.org.

• Participate in community events such as Dive In To Earth Day. This helps build a
community network of concerned citizens. Visit www.coral.org/divein.

• Offer buoyancy clinics. This can be a fun way to strengthen bonds within the dive and snorkel
community and refresh basic skills in a casual setting.

• Give environmental dive briefs to your clients on every dive. Studies have shown that divers
who have been given an environmental brief cause far less damage to reefs.

• Are your dive sites too crowded? If the same dive groups tend to visit the same dive sites,
consider rotating through several different sites. This helps to reduce stress on the reef and
makes sites more attractive places to dive.

• Form a Dive Operator Association. Work with others in the dive industry to develop local
codes of conduct and environmental standards. A unified voice can make a big difference.

We can all help to keep coral reefs alive for future generations.
Thank you for doing your part - The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL)
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Part V: Appendix

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 Appendix
Appendix

Glossary
Acute threat: A threat that is short-term and dramatic.
Ahermatypic (non-reef building) corals: Corals with a soft, bendable
skeleton and eight tentacles; also known as soft corals.
Annelids: Worms that have a segmented body form. Marine worms are called
polychaete worms.
Anthozoans: Marine organisms with radial segments that grow individually or
in colonies (corals, anemones, gorgonians).
Anthropogenic threat: A human-induced threat to the natural environment.
Asexual reproduction: A form of reproduction that takes place without the
formation or union of gametes (eggs and sperm).
Atoll: A type of coral reef that develops as a ring around a central lagoon;
commonly the result of sinking islands or volcanoes.
Back reef: The inner section of a barrier reef or atoll that rises up towards the
shallow waters of the reef flat.
Bank or platform reef: Open ocean reefs that are simple structures with
many different origins, yet no clear attachment to the coastline.
Barrier reef: A type of coral reef that generally is found at some distance from
the coast. At their shallowest point they can reach the water’s surface and form
a “barrier” to navigation.
Biodiversity: The total diversity of living things and of the ecosystems of which
they are a part (including species, genetic and ecosystem diversity).
Bioeroders: Any living organisms that naturally breaks down coral by
burrowing, scraping away, or eating the coral. Examples include urchins,
parrotfish and some polychaete worms.
Biomass: The total weight of living organic material in an environment.
Bleaching: Symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) are expelled by reef corals causing
the coral to look white or “bleached”; generally a response to stress.
Bottom trawling: A method of fishing where large nets are weighted and
dragged behind a vessel, often catching many target and non-target species and
well as causing significant physical disturbance to bottom habitats.
Branching: A type of coral growth form where colonies branch out to maximize
surface area; commonly found in calm, shallow waters.
Breakwater: A barrier that protects a shore from waves and coastal erosion.
Brooding: A form of fertilization where planula larvae develop within the
stomach-like structure of corals before they are released into the water.
Budding: A form of asexual reproduction in which a new individual is produced
as an exact gentic replica of the parent polyp.
Buttress zone: Deep channels outside of a reef crest where spur and groove
formations commonly occur.

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Appendix

Glossary
Calcareous algae: Algae that secretes calcium carbonate from seawater
and deposits it in its tissues. When the algae dies, it leaves a fossil “skeleton”
behind.
Calcium carbonate: A mineral that hard corals secrete from sea water to
create their limestone skeletons.
Calyx: A small, cup-like skeletal depression which is home to the coral polyp.
Carbon sink: Ecosystems, such as oceans and forests, that absorb carbon
from the atmosphere.
Chronic threat: A threat that is persistent over time.
Cnidarians: Invertebrates with stinging cells and a large stomach cavity
(corals, anemones, jellyfish).
Cnidocyte: A type of cell which releases a harpoon like structure (called a
nematocyst) for capturing prey and defense; found in Cnidarians.
Colonies: The collection or family of polyps that make up a coral head.
Commensalism: A symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits
without harming the other.
Community: All the plant and animal species that live together in a
particular habitat.
Coral park: A broad term that is used to describe any protected area that
includes a coral reef within its boundaries and allows visitation.
Coral reef protected area: An area that has been set aside to provide
lasting protection for part or all of the coral reef and related ecosystems
within its boundaries.
Coral spawning: The release of coral gametes (eggs or sperm) into the
water for external fertilization.
Crown of Thorns starfish: A starfish that eats living reef corals.
Crustaceans: Animals with a segmented body and an external skeleton or
shell made of calcium carbonate (crab, lobster, shrimp, barnacles).
Cup/flower coral: A form of soft, ahermatypic coral that is commonly found
in caves or overhangs where hard, hermatypic corals are rare.
Cyanide fishing: The process of using cyanide to poison and stun fish for
capture on a coral reef; commonly used to catch live fish for restaurants or
the aquarium trade.
Detritivores: Organisms that feed on dead plants and animals and their
wastes (sea cucumbers, bristle worms, certain starfish).
Digitate: A type of coral growth form also known as finger or columnar;
commonly found in calm or deep waters, below the reach of normal wave
action.
Disturbance: An event that brings about biological or physical change to an
ecosystem.

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Appendix

Glossary
Dynamite or “blast” fishing: The process of using dynamite or other
explosions to capture fish from a coral reef or other marine environment.
Echinoderms: Sea animals with a radially symmetric body, a water-vascular
system, and tube feet (sea stars, urchins, sand dollars).
Ecology: The study of the interactions among and between organisms and
their environment, and of the abundance and distribution of those organisms.
Ecosystem: The combination of biotic (living) organisms - fish, algae,
zooplankton - and abiotic (non-living) conditions - rain, salinity, sunlight - that
make up a particular environment, and make it unique.
Effluent: Something that flows into waterways or into the ocean, including
outflow from sewers or discharge of liquid waste.
Elkhorn: A type of coral growth form that has large, sturdy, and flattened
branches; often found in calm waters.
Encrusting: A type of coral growth form that is generally flat, spread out
and grows in a thin layer on a hard surface; commonly found in areas of very
high-wave energy or very poor sunlight.
Erosion: The process of wearing away or gradually destroying.
Eutrophication: Pollution caused by an increase in plant nutrients in coastal
marine environments.
Filter feeder: Feeders that filter food particles from the water column
(corals, sponges).
Foliose: A type of coral growth form with wide flattened plates.
Fragmentation: A form of sexual reproduction. Coral broken off into pieces
as a result of wave action or storm surges may still have living tissue and can
re-attach and eventually begin to grow again as living coral colonies.
Fringing reef: A type of coral reef that develops as a narrow structure close
to the shoreline. They usually parallel the coastline and at their narrowest
point can reach the water’s surface.
Gamete: A type of reproductive cell (eggs, sperm) that develops into a new
individual after its union with another gamete.
Ghost nets: Nets that have inadvertently or purposefully been discarded
from fishing or other vessels. Theses nets are known to drift around the
ocean for several years and in many cases lead to the death of marine
animals that become entangled or coral reefs that they wash up onto.
Global warming: An increase in the natural phenomenon known as the
“greenhouse effect” as a result of an increase of carbon dioxide and other
gases in the atmosphere.
Gorgonians: Anthozoans with a skeleton made of protein (sea fans, sea
whips).

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Appendix

Glossary
Greenhouse gases: Various types of gases in the earth’s atmosphere that
contribute to a natural warming of the planet through the greenhouse effect.
Habitat: The specific location where a plant or animal lives.
Hermaphrodite: An organism that has both male and female sexual organs.
Hermatypic (reef-building) coral: A coral that builds reefs through the
deposition of calcium carbonate, usually contains zooxanthellae.
Intertidal communities: The community of organisms found in the zone
between the high and low tide.
Invasive/Exotic or “non-indigenous” species: A foreign species
introduced into a new environment by humans.
Invertebrates: Animals lacking a backbone.
Lagoon: A shallow and generally sheltered body of water separated from the
open sea by coral reefs, and/or barrier islands.
Land reclamation: Modification of land in order to make it suitable for
cultivation or development.
“Live rock”: Dead coral and other calcium carbonate deposits on a reef that
provide habitat for numerous reef dwelling organisms.
Locally marine managed area (LMMA): A community designated and
managed area that protects coral reefs and other marine resources.
Mangroves: Shrubs and trees that live along the seashore in tropical and
sub-tropical regions and have a high tolerance for the chemical composition of
saltwater.
Marine protected areas (MPAs): An area of coastal land and water that is
specifically designated to protect natural resources and ecosystems.
Marine reserve: A type of marine protected area that prohibits fishing and
other extractive resource use.
Massive: A type of coral growth form that is ball-shaped or boulder-like.
Massive corals tend to be found in areas of high wave action; can be as small
as an egg or large as a house.
Mollusks: Invertebrates with a soft, unsegmented body, a muscular foot,
and sometimes a shell (bivalves, squids, octopuses, snails).
Muro Ami: A method of fishing where free divers collectively bang a reef
with rocks, sticks and other objects in order to lure fish into nets.
Mushroom: A type of coral growth form that is not attached to the reef, and
resembles the tops of mushrooms.
Mutualism: A symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit.
Natural threat: A natural occurrence that can threaten living ecosystems,
such as storms, El Nino cycles, or geological events such as earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.

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Appendix

Glossary
Nematocysts: Small, harpoon-like structures possessed by cnidarians which
contain stinging cells and are used to capture prey.
Non-point source pollution: Pollution whose origin is not easily
identifiable (e.g. runoff from a parking lot or pollution in a river generated
from a variety of sources.)
“No-take zones”: A general description for areas where fishing and
commercial extraction is prohibited.
Organism: Any living thing which is composed of one or more cells.
Overfishing: Fishing an area beyond the capacity for fish stocks to remain
sustainable over time.
Parasitism: A symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits while the
other is harmed.
Patch reefs: Small areas of reef that occur in shallow waters and lagoons.
Phase shift: When a main component of a reef, such as hard corals, die off,
this process takes place in which new organisms, such as algae or soft corals,
fill in the open ecological niches.
Photosynthesis: The chemical process of taking energy from the sun and
producing organic matter.
Phylum: A major division of a biological kingdom, consisting of closely-
related classes (e.g. Cnidaria, Porifera).
Phytoplankton bloom: An excess growth of algal plankton in the marine
environment, often caused by eutrophication.
Planula larva: The young larva of corals.
Point-source pollution: Pollution that enters the environment from an
identifiable source, such as a sewer or pipeline.
Polychaete worms: Invertebrate worms that have a segmented body
form. There are nearly 8,000 species, many of which are found in coral reef
ecosystems.
Polyp: An individual cnidarian or member of a cnidarian colony.
Population: All the members of one species in a habitat.
Porifera: Invertebrates that are commonly known as sponges.
Primary consumer: Organism that feeds on primary producers.
Primary producer: Organism that produces energy from the sun (e.g.
plants).
Reef crest: The shallow and sloping outer edge of a coral reef; often
forming the highest portion of the reef.
Reef flat: The wide and typically shallow upper surface of a coral reef that
extends outwards from the shore.

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Appendix

Glossary
Reef front (fore reef): The outer part of a barrier reef or atoll where the
reef slope falls steeply towards the seabed; typically where the greatest
diversity on the reef is found.
Reef recovery: The process in which a reef recovers to its previous
condition prior to damage incurred from such things as hurricanes, oil spills or
bleaching events.
Secondary consumer: An organism that feeds on primary consumers.
Sedimentation: The build-up of natural material such as earth, rock and
sand that settles to the bottom or stays suspended in the water column.
Sexual reproduction: Reproduction that involves the union of gametes.
Submassive: A type of coral growth form that develops as knobs, columns
or wedges protruding from an encrusting plate.
Substrate: The bottom-type or material on or in which an organism lives.
Shoals: Shallow sand banks or sand bars in the marine environment.
Spur and groove: The section of a reef found seaward from the reef flat
and is made of high ridges of corals (spurs) that are separated by sandy
bottom channels (grooves). Wave and wind dominated regions often lead to
the development of spur and groove formations.
Sustainable tourism: Tourism that uses natural resources in such a way as
to leave them healthy and undamaged for future generations.
Symbiosis: A close relationship between two species that generally benefits
at least one of the organisms; different types include commensalism,
mutualism, and parasitism.
Taxonomy: An ordered scientific classification system that starts with the
broadest set of similarities between living organisms, and progressively moves
towards greater levels of common characteristics.
Tertiary consumer: An organism that feeds on secondary consumers.
Trophic levels: Levels of feeding within an ecosystem.
Table: A type of coral shape that is flat or “table-like” and is often found in
calm, well-lit water and has broad horizontal surfaces with fused branches.
Turbidity: Suspension or stirring up of sediment and foreign particles in
water.
Unsustainable tourism: Tourism that degrades and destroys the natural
resources that support the economy of a region.
Zooplankton: Animal plankton that live within the aquatic realm.
Zooxanthellae: Small algae (or dinoflagellates) that live within the tissues
of reef corals and other marine animals. Zooxanthellae, as photoynthesizers,
provide some corals with the majority of their nutrition.

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 Appendix
Appendix

About the Coral Parks Program

What is a coral park? The goal of the Coral Reef Alliance’s (CORAL) Parks Program is to help coral
park managers leverage sustainable tourism to build local investment in the
A coral park is a
protected area that
conservation of coral reef parks. We work to achieve this goal by providing
includes a coral reef training, tools and resources to partners in local coral reef communities,
in its boundaries and including dive operators, conservation groups, and community leaders, and
allows visitors. The through our global partnership with the International Coral Reef Action
coral parks program Network (ICRAN). Our current geographic focus is on the Western Pacific, the
helps tourism and
conservation to work
Caribbean and the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef.
in partnership for
the benefit of coral Training and technical assistance for coral parks: CORAL provides
reefs and the tourism on-site training and technical assistance to communities and businesses that
industry. depend on coral reefs, helping to ensure the success of local coral parks.
Topics include sustainable financing, preventing anchor damage, sustainable
marine tourism, and coral reef ecology. CORAL works with marine recreation
providers, bulk purchasers (such as cruise lines and tour operators), park
managers, and other community members involved in the coral reef tourism
industry. Through the development of partnerships between tourism and
coral parks, CORAL builds cooperation that enhances both environmental and
economic sustainability.

Financial support of park conservation programs: CORAL’s microgrant

program has provided much needed financial support to local conservation
programs around the world. Since 1995, CORAL has provided over $350,000
in microgrants to support grass-roots conservation. Currently, CORAL provides
seed money to local partners participating in CORAL’s training program.
For more information:
Through microgrants we help coral parks pay for mooring buoys to stop anchor
damage, purchase functioning boats to patrol and enforce fishing rules, and
The Coral Reef Alliance publish brochures to educate visitors of park rules. Read more about past
417 Montgomery microgrant recipients on the CORAL website.
Street, Suite 205
San Francisco, CA
94104
Information and Resources: The parks program provides tools and
Tel: 415-834-0900 resources, as well as education and outreach materials (see page 74), to help
Fax: 415-834-0999 park managers and communities to more effectively protect their coral reefs.
Email: [email protected] Visit our website at www.coral.org/ to find information on:
Web: www.coral.org
• Coral Reef Fact Sheets for the general public
• International Directory of Coral Reef Organizations
• Online Coral Reef Education Materials Library
• Coral Reef Photobank

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 Appendix
Appendix

CORAL’s Educational and Outreach Materials

CORAL’s educational The Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL) has developed a broad selection of outreach
and outreach materials: and educational materials to promote the conservation and protection of coral
• Guidelines for good
reefs. Some of our materials include the following:
environmental
practices. Guidelines for Good Environmental Practices - CORAL’s guidelines
reflect the most commonly accepted “good practices” around the world for
• Issue briefs for marine recreation activities and give essential advice on how to protect coral
policy makers and
community leaders.
reefs while enjoying activities in and around them. Guidelines are available in
English, Spanish, Indonesian and Japanese, and address the following topics:
• Handbooks on:
• Diving
Coral Reef Ecology, • Snorkeling
Threats and Solutions. • Whale and Dolphin Watching
• Turtle Watching
Sustainable Tourism
for Marine Recreation • Underwater Cleanup
Providers.
Environmental Issue Briefs - CORAL’s issue briefs discuss some of the
Mooring Buoy most important issues being addressed by CORAL and the partners of the
Installation and International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN), and are designed to assist
Maintenance.
policymakers, business leaders and other influential community members to
make informed decisions on issues that affect the health of coral reefs. Issue
briefs are available in English and Spanish, with topics including:

• Coral Reefs and Global Climate Change

• Coral Reefs and Sustainable Coastal Development
• Watersheds and Healthy Reefs
“Never doubt that a • Exploitive Fishing
small group of thought- • Effective Coral Reef Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
ful, committed citizens • Coral Reef Mining, Harvesting and Trade
can change the world.
Indeed, it is the only
thing that ever has.”
Handbooks - CORAL’s handbooks provide a comprehensive look at the nature
of coral reefs, threats to these marine ecosystems, and practical solutions
-Maragaret Mead to promote and implement conservation. Our handbook series includes the
following publications:

• Introduction to Coral Reef Ecology, Threats and Solutions

• Mooring Buoy Installation and Maintenance.
• Sustainable Tourism for Marine Recreation Providers

For more information on available materials and resources, visit our website at
www.coral.org/ or email us at [email protected]/.

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