05877153b961d8 - Basics of Electromagnetics & Transmission Lines - Jagadeeshwar Reddy - ch-1
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Prabahar Raja05877153b961d8 - Basics of Electromagnetics & Transmission Lines - Jagadeeshwar Reddy - ch-1
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Prabahar RajaChapter
Static Electric Fields
1
1.1 Introduction
Electrostatic in the sense static or rest or time in-varying electric fields. Electrostatic field
can be obtained by the distribution of static charges.
The two fundamental laws which describe electrostatic fields are Coulomb’s law and
Gauss’s law:
They are independent laws. i.e., one law does not depend on the other law.
Coulomb’s law can be used to find electric field when the charge distribution is of any
type, but it is easy to use Gauss’s law to find electric field when the charge distribution is
symmetrical.
1.2 Coulomb’s Law
This law is formulated in the year 1785 by Coulomb. It deals with the force a point
charge exerts on another point charge; generally a charge can be expressed in terms of
coulombs.
1 coulomb = 6 × 1018 electrons
1 electron charge = –1.6 × 10–19 Coulombs
Coulomb’s law states that the force between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is along the
line joining between them, directly proportional to the product of two point charges, and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
1
2 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
KQ1Q2
F
R2
where K is proportional constant
In SI, a unit for Q1 and Q2 is coulombs(C), for R meters(m) and for F newtons(N).
1
K
4 0
where 0 = permittivity of free space (or) vacuum
= 8.854 × 10–12 farads/meter
9
= 10 farads/m
36
36 = 9 × 109 m/farads
K
4 10 9
Q1Q2
F …..(1.2.1)
2
4 0 R
Assume that the point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) with
the position vectors r1 and r2 respectively. Let the force on Q2 due to Q1 be F12 which
can be written as
Q1Q2
F12 aR …..(1.2.2)
4 0 R 2 12
where aR12 is unit vector along the vector R12 . Graphical representation of the vectors
in rectangular coordinate system is shown in Fig.1.1
Where a x is the unit vector along X-axis and a y is the
unit vector along Y-axis and az is the unit vector along
Z-axis.
From Fig.1.1, we can write r1 R12 r2
i.e., R12 r2 r1
Fig. 1.1 Graphical
where r1 x1ax y1a y z1az representation of the
vectors
r2 x2 ax y2 a y z2 a z
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 3
Q1Q2 R12
Now F12
4 0 R 2 R12
R12
aR12
R12
Q1Q2 R12
R12 R
4 0 R 2 R
Q1Q2 R12
4 0 R 3
Q1Q2 r2 r1
…..(1.2.3)
4 0 r2 r1 3
and force on Q1 due to Q2 is F21 F12
If we have more than two point charges i.e., Q1, Q2,… QN with the position vectors
r1 , r2 , .... rN respectively, then the force on a point charge Q, whose position vector is
r , can be written as
QQ1 r r1 QQ2 r r2 QQN r rN
F ....
4 0 r r1 3
4 0 r r2 3
4 0 r rN 3
Q N
r rK
4 0
QK r rK
3
…..(1.2.4)
K 1
1.3 Electric Field Intensity
Electric field intensity is defined as force per unit charge in an electric field. The other
name of electric field intensity is electric field strength and it is denoted by E .
F
E N/C or Volts/meter
Q
QQ Q
i.e., E …..(1.3.1)
Q 4 0 R 2
4 0 R 2
Consider a point charge Q with position vector r , then the electric field intensity E at
some point with position vector r1 due to point charge Q is
4 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Q
E aR …..(1.3.2)
4 0 R 2
where aR is the unit vector along R . Graphical representation of vector is shown in
Fig.1.2
From Fig. 1.2, R r1 r
Q R
E
4 0 R R
2
Q R
4 0 R R
2
Q R Q r1 r Fig. 1.2 Graphical
representation
4 0 R 3
4 0 r1 r 3
If we have more than one point charge i.e., Q1, Q2,… QN with the position vectors
r1 , r2 ,....rN respectively. Then the electric field intensity E at some point with position
vector r can be written as
Q1 r r1 Q2 r r2 Q r rN
E .... N
4 0 r r1 3
4 0 r r2 3
4 0 r rN 3
1 N
r rK
4 0
QK r rK
3
…..(1.3.3)
K 1
Problem 1.1
Point charges 1 mC and –2 mC are located at (3, 2, –1) and (–1, –1, 4) respectively.
Calculate the electric force on a 10 nC charge located at (0, 3, 1) and the electric field
intensity at that point.
Solution
We know
Q 2
r rK
F
4 0
Q
K 1
K
r rK
3
=
10 109
1 103
3ax a y 2az
2 103
ax 4a y 3az
4 0
3 3
9 1 4 1 16 9
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 5
0 8.854 1012 and 3.14
3ax a y 2az 103 2ax 8a y 6az
= 90 103
52.38 132.57
3 2 1 8 2 6
= 90 103 ax ay az
52.38 132.57 52.38 132.57 52.38 132.57
= 90 103 0.0723 ax 0.0413 a y 0.0834 az
= 0.0065 ax 0.0037 a y 0.0075 az N.
F
Also we know E
Q
0.0065 0.037 0.0075
= a
9 x
a
9 y
az
10 10 10 10 10 109
= 650 ax 370 a y 750 az kV/m.
Problem 1.2
Point charges 5 nC and –2 nC are located at 2ax 4az and –3ax 5az respectively.
(a) Determine the force on a 1 nC point charge located at ax 3a y 7 az . (b) Find the
electric field E at ax – 3a y 7az .
Solution
(a) We know
Q 2
r rK
F
4 0
QK r rK
3
K 1
= 10 9 10 10 5
9 9 9
ax 3a y 3az
2 4ax 3a y 2az
3 3
1 9 9 16 9 4
5 8 15 6 15 4
= 9 109 ax ay az
82.81 156.169 82.81 156.169 82.81 156.169
= 9 109 ax 0.112 a y 0.143 az 0.155
= 1.008 ax 1.287 a y 1.395 az nN
6 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
F
(b) E , here Q = 1 nC
Q
E 1.008 ax 1.287 a y 1.395 az V / m
Problem 1.3
Point charges Q1 and Q2 are respectively located at (4, 0, –3) and (2, 0, 1). If Q2 = 4 nC,
Find Q1 such that (a) The E at (5, 0, 6) has no Z-component. (b) The force on a test
charge at (5, 0, 6) has no X-component.
Solution
Q 2
r rK
We have F
4 0
QK r rK
3
K 1
9
F 1 Q1 (5,0,6) (4,0, 3) 4 10 (5,0,6) (2,0,1)
(a) E
Q 4 0
3 3
1 81 9 25
Given E has no Z – component, considering only Z components on both sides
1 Q1 9 4 109 5
0
4 0 82 3 3
34
Q1 9 4 109 5
3 3
82 34
3
20 41
Q1 nC 8.3nC
9 17
(b) Given the force on test charge has no X-component
Q Q1 4 109 3
0
4 0 82 3 3
34
Q1 4 109 3
=
3 3
82 34
3
41
Q1 12 nC 44.95nC
17
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 7
Problem 1.4
Two point charges of equal mass ‘m’, charge ‘Q’ are suspended at a common point by
two threads of negligible mass and length ‘l’. Show that at equilibrium the inclination
angle ‘’ of each thread to the vertical is given by Q2 = 16 0 mgl2 sin2 tan , (or)
tan 3 Q2
,
1 tan 2 16 0 mgl 2
if ‘’ is very small
Q2
Show that 3
16 0 mgl 2
Solution:
Fig. 1.3 Suspended charge particles
When two charges are suspended from a common point with threads of length ‘l’, we
can represent graphically as sown in Fig.1.3, where T is the tension in thread ‘mg’ is the
weight of charge towards ground due to gravitational force and F is force on charge at
‘A’(B) due to charge at ‘B’(A). T cos is the vertical component of ‘T’ which is
upwards and T sin is the horizontal component of ‘T’ which is opposite to F . To form
equilibrium either at ‘A’ or ‘B’
T cos = mg …..(1.3.4)
T sin = F …..(1.3.5)
1.3.4 T sin F
1.3.5 T cos mg
8 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
F
tan
mg
Q2
where F
4 0 r 2
r/2
sin
From Fig.1.3 l
r 2l sin
Q2
tan
4mg 0 r 2
Q2
4mg 0 4l 2 sin 2
Q2
tan
16mgl 2 0 sin 2
Q2
sin 2 tan …..(1.3.6)
16mgl 2 0
Q 2 16 0 mgl 2sin 2 tan …..(1.3.7)
From (1.3.6)
sin 2 Q2
cos 2 tan
cos 2 16 0 mgl 2
tan 3 Q2
sec 2 16 0 mgl 2
tan 3 Q2
1 tan 2 16 0 mgl 2
If is very small, sin = tan =
From (1.3.4) Q2 = 160 mg l2 3
Q2
3
16 0 mg l 2
Q2
3
16 0 mg l 2
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 9
Problem 1.5
Two small identical conducting spheres have charges of 2 × 10–9 and – 0.5 × 10 –9 C
respectively. (a) When they are placed 4 cm apart what is the force between them? (b) If
they are brought into contact and then separated by 4 cm. What is the force between
them?
Solution
(a) We know
Q1 Q2
F
4 0 R 2
1
9 109
4 0
2 109 0.5 109 9 109
F
16 104
= – 5.625 N
(b) When they are brought into contact, charges will be added and again when they are
separated charge will be distributed equally
Q1 = 0.758 × 10 –9 C
Q2 = 0.75 × 10 –9 C
F 3.164 N
Problem 1.6
If the charges in the above problem are separated with the same distance in a kerosene
(r = 2), then find (a) and (b) as in the previous problem.
Solution
5.625
(a) Fk N
2
= – 2.8125 N
3.164
(b) Fk = 1.582 N
2
10 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Problem 1.7
Three equal +Ve charges of 4 × 10 –9 C each are located at 3 corners of a square, side
20 cm. Determine the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the vacant corner
point of the square.
Solution
Fig. 1.4
E1 = Electric field intensity at Q4 due to Q1
Q1
=
4 0 R 2
= 900 V/m
E2 = 450 V/m
E3 = 900 V/m
The electric field intensity at vacant point is
E E2 E1 cos 45o E3 cos 45o
900 900
450
2 2
450 900 2
= 1722.792206 V/m
1.4 Coordinate Systems
The most widely used coordinate systems are Cartesian or rectangular co-ordinate
system, Circular or cylindrical co-ordinate system, and Spherical co-ordinate system.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 11
1.4.1 Cartesian Co-ordinate System
In this system the co-ordinates are X, Y, Z in which three are mutually perpendicular to
each other. This system is shown in Fig. 1.5, where ax , a y & a z are unit vectors along X,
Y and Z respectively. In Cartesian co-ordinate system the dot product of any unit vector
with itself gives ‘1’.
i.e., ax ax = 1 =1 az az = 1
and the dot product of one unit vector with the other
one gives ‘0’.
i.e., ax a y = 0 a y az = 0 az ax = 0
The cross product of one unit vector with the other
unit vector, which is next to the first one in
anticlockwise direction, results the last unit vector in Fig. 1.5 Cartesian co-ordinate
anticlockwise direction. system
i.e., ax a y az a y az ax az ax a y
Consider a general vector A with components Ax, Ay, Az along X, Y, Z respectively,
then it can be represented in Cartesian coordinate system as
A Ax ax Ay a y Az az
Here X ranges from – to , Y from – to , and Z from – to .
Note:
1. Differential displacement or elemental length is
dl dxax dya y dzaz
2. Differential or elemental normal area is dS dy dz ax
dx dz a y
dx dy az
3. Differential or elemental volume is dv = dx dy dz
1.4.2 Cylindrical Co-ordinate System
In this system , and z are coordinates in which all are mutually orthogonal to each
other.
12 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Note: If the given problem is of circular symmetry, then it would be better to use
cylindrical coordinates rather than Cartesian coordinates.
Where is the radial distance from origin, is the
azimuthal angle from X-axis to the radial distance and Z
is same as in Cartesian coordinate system. The
cylindrical coordinate system is shown in Fig. 1.6.
Where a , a and az are unit vectors along radial
axis, azimuthal angle and z-direction respectively.
The dot product of any unit vector with itself gives
‘1’.
Fig. 1.6 Cylindrical coordinate
i.e. a a 1 a a 1 az az 1 system
The dot product of any unit vector with the other unit vector gives ‘0’
i.e. a a 0 a . az 0 az a 0
The cross product of any unit vector with the other unit vector, which is next to the
first one in anticlockwise direction, results last unit vector in the anticlockwise direction.
i.e., a a az a az a az a a
Consider a general vector A with components A, A, Az along the three axes, then it
can be represented as
A A a A a Az az
In this system 0 < , 0 < 2, and – < z <
The relation between Cylindrical and Cartesian coordinate system is shown in Fig.1.7.
The component of on X-axis is cos and the component of on Y-axis is sin .
X = cos , Y = sin , Z=z
Y Y
from Fig.1.7 tan tan 1
X X
X 2 Y 2 2 X 2 Y 2
To find the relation among ax and a , a consider the
Fig.1.8. A component of a on ax is
Fig.1.7 Relation between cylindrical
a cos and the component of a on ax is
and cartesian coordinate system
a sin .
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 13
ax can be written as ax a cos a sin
To find the relation among a y and a , a consider the Fig.1.9.
The component of a on a y is a sin and the component of a
on a y is a cos .
a y a sin a cos
The unit vector a z of Cartesian coordinate system and cylindrical Fig. 1.8
coordinate system is same az = az
We know that in Cartesian co-ordinate system
A Ax ax Ay a y Az az .
Substituting unit vectors,
A Ax a cos a sin Ay a sin a cos Az az
A Ax cos Ay sin a Ay cos Ax sin a Az az Fig. 1.9
A A a A a Az az
where
A = Ax cos + Ay sin
A = – Ax sin + Ay cos
A z = Az
i.e., in matrix form
A cos sin 0 Ax
A sin cos 0
Ay
Az 0 0 1 Az
The above matrix in terms of unit vectors is given by
A a a x a a y a az Ax
A a a a a y a a z
A
x y
Az a z a x az a y a z a z Az
14 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Ax ax a ax a ax az A
or
A a a a y a
a y az A
y y
Az az a az a az az Az
Note:
1. Differential displacement or elemental length is
dl d a d a dz az
2. Differential or elemental normal area is dS d dz a
d dz a
d d az
3. Differential or elemental volume is dv = d d dz
1.4.3 Spherical Coordinate System
When the given problem is of spherical symmetry, it is better to use spherical coordinate
system to solve the problem instead of either Cartesian or cylindrical coordinate system.
In this system r, , are coordinates in which all are mutually orthogonal to each
other. Where ‘r’ is the distance from origin to the point (where the vector is located). is
the co-latitude angle which is taken from z axis to the radial distance and is same as in
cylindrical coordinate system.
The spherical coordinate system is shown in Fig.1.10. Where ar is the unit vector
along r, a is the unit vector in increasing direction of and a is the unit vector in
increasing direction of .
The dot product of any unit vector with itself gives
unity
i.e., ar ar 1 a a 1 a a 1
The dot product of any unit vector with the other unit
vector gives ‘0’
Fig. 1.10 Spherical
i.e., ar a 0 a a 0 a ar 0 coordinate system
The cross product of unit vectors is: ar a a ,
a a ar , a ar a
Here 0 r < , 0 , and 0 2.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 15
To convert from Cartesian to cylindrical or spherical co-ordinate system consider
Fig. 1.11.
The component of r on z-axis is r cos , and the component of r on is r sin.
z = r cos
= r sin and
we know x = cos & y = sin
From Cartesian to cylindrical, the conversion is
x = cos, y = sin, and z = z
To get conversion from Cartesian to spherical
co-ordinate system, substitute = r sin in the above
equations.
Fig. 1.11
x = r sin cos,
y = r sin sin, and
z = r cos
From the above equations r x 2 y 2 z 2
y
From Fig.1.11 tan 1
x
x2 y 2
and tan
z z
x2 y 2
tan 1
z
relation between unit vectors of Cartesian and spherical co-ordinate systems is as follows:
ax = sin cos ar + cos cos a – sin a
a y = sin sin ar + cos sin a + cos a
az = cos ar – sin a
Note:
1. Differential displacement or elemental length is
dl dr ar rd a r sin d a
16 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
2. Differential or elemental normal area is
dS r 2 sin d d ar
r sin drd a
rdrd a
3. Differential or elemental volume is dv = r2 sin drdd
1.5 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions
So far we have discussed the electric field or force due to point charges. Let us see the
electric field due to continuous charge distribution along a line, on a surface and in a
volume. If the charge is distributed along a line the distribution can be represented with
the line charge density L(C/m), which is shown in Fig.1.12(a). If the charge is distributed
on a surface it’s distribution can be represented with the surface charge density s(C/m2),
which is shown in Fig. 1.12(b). If the charge is distributed in a volume it’s distribution
can be represented with the volume charge density v(C/m3), which is shown in
Fig. 1.12(c).
Fig.1.12 Charge distribution
The elemental charge dQ along a line can be written as
dQ = ldl, where dl is the elemental length.
So Q l dl
l
Electric field intensity due to line charge distribution is
l dl
E a
2 R
l 4 0 R …..(1.5.1)
The elemental charge dQ on a surface can be written as dQ = sds
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 17
Q= s ds
S
Electric field intensity due to surface charge distribution is
s ds
E a
2 R
…..(1.5.2)
s 4 0 R
The elemental charge dQ in a volume can be written as dQ = vdv
Q= v dv
v
Electric field intensity due to volume charge distribution is
v dv
E a
2 R
v 4 0 R …..(1.5.3)
1.5.1 Line Charge Distribution
Consider a line charge distribution from A to B along Z-axis as shown in Fig.1.13.
Fig.1.13 Finding E due to line charge distribution
Let us find the electric field at point (x, y, z) due to line charge distribution along
Z- axis. We know electric field intensity due to line charge distribution as
l dl
E aR
l 4 0 R 2
R
where aR , dl = d z ,
R
18 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Since the charge distribution has cylindrical symmetry, we use cylindrical coordinate
system to obtain Electric field intensity.
From the Fig. 1.13
R a z z a z
L dz R
E
l 4 0 R 2 R
L dz R dz a z z az
L
4 0 R
4 0 2 z z 2 3/ 2
3
l l
L dz a z z az
l
4 0 2 z z 2 3/2
From the Fig. 1.13
z z
tan z z tan
2
cos R sec 2 z z ' sec
R
z = OT – z – z = OT – tan
d z = 0 – sec2 d
L sec d a tan az
2
4 0 l
E
3 sec3
L
2
sec2 d sec a cos az sin
4 0 3 sec3
1
L 2
4 0
(cos a sin az ) d
1
L
sin a 2 cos a z 2
4 0 1 1
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 19
L
sin 2 sin 1 a cos 2 cos 1 az
4 0
which is electric field at point (x, y, z) due to line charge distribution from ‘A’ to ‘B’
along Z-axis. If ‘A’ is tending to – then 1 becomes /2 and ‘B’ is tending to then
2 becomes –/2.
L
E sin sin a cos cos az
4 0 2 2 2 2
2a L
4 0
L
E a
2 0 …..(1.5.4)
which is the electric field at point (x, y, z) due to infinite line charge distribution along
Z-axis.
1.5.2 Surface Charge Distribution
Consider an infinite sheet lying on XY plane which is perpendicular to Z-axis as shown in
the Fig. 1.14.
Fig. 1.14 Finding E due to infinite sheet of charge
Assume that the elemental surfaces are located on the sheet at ‘1’ and ‘2’ .
Then the elemental charge dQ on elemental surface ds is dQ = s ds.
The elemental electric field at point (0, 0, h) due to the elemental surface ds is
20 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
dQ
dE aR
4 0 R 2
where
R
dQ s ds and aR
R
Since the surface is infinite it has circular symmetry, hence we can use cylindrical
coordinate system to obtain electric field intensity.
Here ds lies on and axises, Hence ds d d
From Fig.1.14
a R haz
R haz a
dQ R
dE
4 0 R 3
dQ a haz
4 0 2 h 2 3/2
Since the sheet is symmetry with respect to origin on XY plane, for every electric field
due to elemental surface (for example elemental surface located at ‘1’) there will be an
equal and opposite electric field due to the elemental surface on the other side(for
example elemental surface located at ‘2’) in the direction of ‘ ’ (radial length), so finally
when we add up the electric fields due to all the elemental surfaces on the sheet the
electric field in the ‘’ direction will get cancelled. We will have only the electric field
perpendicular to the sheet i.e., along Z-direction.
Q haz
By integrating the above equation, E
4 0 2 h 2
3/2
Where Q s d d
2
haz 1
E s d d
0 0 2
h
2 3/ 2 4 0
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 21
s 2 h
E d d az
4 0 0
3/ 2
0 h
2 2
s h
1
3/ 2
2 h2
2 d 2 az
4 0 0
2
2 3
s h 1
h 2 2 1
az
3
2 0 2 1
2 0
2 1/2
s h 1 h a
E
2 0 2 1 / 2
z
s
E az …..(1.5.5)
2 0
If we observe the above equation, the electric field is independent of the height ‘h’ i.e.,
the point can be considered at anywhere on the Z-axis.
The above equation can be generalized as
s
E an …..(1.5.6)
2 0
Where an is the unit vector which is perpendicular to the sheet.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor of equal and opposite charge on each plate, the
electric field due to these parallel plates can be written as
s s s
E an an an …..(1.5.7)
2 0 2 0 0
Problem 1.8
A circular ring of radius ‘a’ carries a uniform charge L C/m and is placed on the XY
plane with axis the same as the Z-axis.
L ah
(a) Show that E 0,0, h a .
3/ 2 z
2 0 h 2 a 2
(b) What values of h gives the maximum value of E
(c) If the total charge on the ring is Q. Find E as ‘a’ tends to zero.
22 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution
(a) Here dl = a d
dQ = L dl
= L ad
dQ
dE ar
4 0 R 2
Fig. 1.15
a R
a r R ; r2 3
R R R
dQ a a ha z
dE
4 0 a 2 h 2 3/2
dQ = L a d
Q L a d
when we add up electric fields, the electric field in direction gets cancelled.
dQ haz
E
4 0 a 2 h 2
3/2
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 23
L a d ha z
4 0 a 2 h 2 3 / 2
2
a ha z L ah
L
4 0 a h 2 3 / 2
2 d 2 a
0
2
h2
3/ 2
az
0
dE
(b) 0
dh
a 3
2 3/2
h2 .1 h (a 2 h 2 )1/2 2h
La 2
az 0
2 0
3
a h2
2
(a2 + h2) – 3h2 = 0
a2 – 2h2 = 0
2h2 = a2
a
h
2
(c) When ‘a’ tends to zero, it becomes a point charge ‘Q’ located at origin and we
have to find electric field at (0, 0, h) due to point charge ‘Q’ located at origin.
Q
E az
4 0 h 2
Problem 1.9
Derive an expression for the electric field strength due to a circular ring of radius ‘a’ and
uniform charge density L C/m. Obtain the value of height ‘h’ along Z-axis at which the
net electric field becomes zero. Assume the ring to be placed in X-Y plane.
Solution
Derivation is as in Problem. 1.8.
L ah
E az
3/2
2 0 a 2 h 2
Which can be written as
24 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
La
E 3/2
az
a2
2 0 h 2 2 1
h
From the above equation we can say that for h = , the net electric field becomes zero.
Problem 1.10
A circular ring of radius ‘a’ carries uniform charge L C/m and is in XY-plane. Find the
Electric field at point (0, 0, 2) along its axis.
Solution
Replacing ‘h’ in problem.1.8 with ‘2’ and solving, we get
La2
E a
3/2 z
2 0 a 2 4
1.5.3 Volume Charge Distribution
Consider a sphere of radius ‘a’ as shown in the Fig.1.16.
Assume elemental volume dv is placed at point (r , , ) . The elemental charge dQ
due to the elemental volume dv, whose volume charge density v is
dQ = vdv
Q v dv
v
4
v a 3
3
Fig. 1.16 Finding E due to volume charge distribution
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 25
The elemental electric field dE due to elemental volume dv is
dQ
dE aR
4 0 R 2
v dv
aR
4 0 R 2
where aR cos az sin a
Due to symmetry, the electric field in ‘’ direction will be zero. Finally total electric
field will be in Z-direction.
v dv
Ez E az cos
v 4 0 R
2
In spherical coordinate system
dv dr r d r sin d
dv (r ) 2 sin dr d d
v r sin dr d d cos
2
Ez
v 4 0 R 2
By applying cosine rule in the Fig.1.16
(r ) 2 z 2 R 2 2 zR cos
r z 2 R 2
2
cos
2 zR
Similarly
R 2 z 2 ( r ) 2 2 zr cos
z 2 r R2
2
cos …..(1.5.8)
2 zr
On differentiating equation (1.5.8), we get
2 R
sin d dR
2 zr
R
sin d dR
zr
26 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Here as varies from 0 to , R changes from z r to z r respectively
Substituting cos and sin d in Ez equation, we get
v 2 a zr
2 RdR z 2 R 2 r 2 1
4 0 0
Ez d r dr
r 0 R z r
zr 2 zR R2
v 2 a z r z 2 r 2
8 0 z 2 r 0 R z r
Ez r 1 2 dR dr
R
z r
v a
z 2 r 2
4 0 z 2 r 0
Ez r R dr
R z r
a
v
4 0 z 2 r 0
Ez 4r 2 dr
v a3 v 4 3
Ez a
0 z 2
3 4 0 z 3 2
Q
E az …..(1.5.9)
4 0 z 2
The electric field due to a sphere of radius ‘a’ with volume charge density v is similar
to the electric field due to a point charge which is placed at origin.
Problem 1.11
A circular disk of radius ‘a’ is uniformly charged with s C/m2. If the disk lies on the
Z = 0 plane with it’s axis along the Z-axis
h
(a) Show that at point (0, 0, h), E s 1 a
2 0 2 1/ 2
z
2
h a
(b) From this derive the E due to an infinite sheet of charge on the Z = 0 plane.
(c) If a << h, Show that E is similar to the field due to a point charge.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 27
Solution
Fig. 1.17
dQ
(a) dE ar
4 0 R 2
dQ = s ds; ds = d. d,
= s d d
a R haz
R haz a
s d d haz a
E
4 0
32
s h2 2
2 a
s h
E az d d
4 0 0
3/2
0 h
2 2
a
s 1
3/2
az 2 h h 2 2 d 2
4 0 0
2
28 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
a
2 3
s h 1
az
h 2 2 1
3
2 0 2 1
2 0
4 0
s h
a z 2 h 2 a 2
1/ 2
h2
1/2
s h az 1 1
2 0
h 2
a2 h
s h a
E 1
2 0 2 1/ 2
z
2
h a
(b) a ;
s
E az
2 0
(c) when a<< h, the volume charge density becomes a point charge located at origin,
Q
E az
4 0 h 2
Problem 1.12
The finite sheet 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1 on the Z = 0 plane has a charge density
s= xy (x2 + y2 + 25)3/2 nC/m2.
Find
(a) the total charge on the sheet
(b) the electric field at (0, 0, 5)
(c) the force experienced by a – 1 nC charge located at (0, 0, 5)
Solution
(a) dQ = s ds
Q= s ds
s
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 29
1 1
3/2
= xy x 2 y 2 25 n dx dy
x 0 y 0
1 1
x
2 3/2 1
= n x y 2 25 d ( y 2 ) dx
x 0 y 0
2
1
5/2 1
= n x x 2 y 2 25 2 1 dx
x 0
0 5 2
1
n 2
1 d ( x2 )
5/2 5/2
5 x0
= x 26 x 2 25
2
7/2 1
n 2
1
7/2
= x 26 x 2 25
5 0 7
n
=
27 7/2 2 26 7/2 257/ 2
35
n
= 102275.868136 179240.733942 78125
35
Q = 33.15 nC
(b) Electric field at (0, 0, 5)
s ds
dE aR ; on Z-plane point is (x, y, 0)
4 0 R 2
R 0,0,5 x, y,0 xa x ya y 5a z
aR R xa x ya y 5az
2 3 3
R R x 2 y 2 25
ds R
E s
s 4 0 R
3
3/2
1 1 xy x 2 y 2 25 109 xax ya y 5az
3
dx dy
x 0 y 0
4 0
x 2 y 2 25
30 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
1 1
1
4 0 x 2 yax xy 2 a y 5 xyaz dx dy 109
x 0 y 0
1 1 1
1
1
y2 y3 y2
4 0 x 2 ax x a y 5 x az dx 109
2 0 3 0 2 0
x 0
1
1 x2 x 5
4 0
2
ax a y xaz dx 109
3 2
x 0
1 x 3 1 x2
1
5 x2
1
ax a y az 109
4 0 6 0 6 0 2 2 0
1 1 1 5 9
6 ax 6 a y 4 az 10
4 0
1 1 5
9 109 ax a y az 109
6 6 4
1.5 ax 1.5 a y 11.25 az V/m
(c) F = qE
1 nC 1.5 ax 1.5 a y 11.25 az
= 1.5 ax 1.5 a y 11.25 az nN
Problem 1.13
A square plane described by –2 < x < 2, –2 < y < 2, z = 0 carries a charge density
12|y| mC/m2. Find the total charge on the plate and the electric field intensity at (0, 0, 10)
Solution
dQ = s ds
Q= s ds
s
2 2
= 12 | y | 103 dxdy
x 2 y 2
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 31
2 0 2
= 103 12 y dy 12 y dy dx
x 2 y 2 y 0
0 2
y2 2
y2
= 10 12 12 dx
3
x 2 2 2 2 0
2
= 103 12 2 12 2 dx
x 2
2
= 48 103 dx 48 103 4 192 mC
x 2
s ds
dE aR ; R 0, 0, 10 x, y,0 xax ya y 10az
4 0 R 2
s ds R
dE
4 0 R 3
s ds R
E
s
4 0 R 3
12 | y | 103 xax ya y 10az
2 2
3
dx dy
x 2 y 2
4 0
x 2 y 2 100
0
2
xyax y 2 a y 10 yaz 2 xya y 2 a 10 ya
dy dx
6 x y z
9 10 12 dy
3/2 3/2
x 2 y 2 2 2
x y 100 y 0 2 2
x y 100
Replacing y with –y in the first integral and simplifying
2 2
2 xyax 20 yaz
E 108 10 6
dy dx
2 2 3/2
x 2 y 0 x y 100
32 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
2 2 2
3/2 3/2
108 106 x 2 yax x 2 y 2 100
y 0
dy 10 2 yaz x 2 y 2 100 dy dx
x 2 y 0
2 2 2
az x y 100
3/2 3/2
108 106 ax x y 100
2 2
x d ( y 2 ) 10 2 2
d ( y 2 ) dx
x 2 y 0 y 0
2 2 2
x 2 y 2 100
2 1/2 1/2
x y 100
2
a 10
a dx
108 10 x
6
1/ 2 x 1/ 2 z
x 2
0 0
2
2 x x 2 104
a 20 x 2 104
a dx
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
108 106
2 x x 2 100
x
x 2 100
z
x 2
1/2 1/2
x x 2 104 & x x 2 100 are odd functions
x 104 x 100
2 1/2 2 1/ 2
and & are even functions
a
0 if f is odd
a
f ( x)dx 2 f ( x)dx if f is even
a
0
2
1 1
E = –20 × 108 × 10 × 2
6
az dx
2
x 0 x 2 104 x 2 102
2
x 1 x
40 108 106 sinh 1 sinh 10 az
104 0
2 1 1
40 108 106 sinh 1 sinh 5 az
104
40 108 106 0.19488 0.19869 az
E = 16.46 az MV/m.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 33
1.6 Electric Flux Density or Displacement Density
It is also called Electric displacement and to understand the concept of Electric flux
density, one needs to know about line integral, surface integral and electric flux, which
are explained as follows.
1.6.1 Line Integral
If a vector A is passing through a line as shown in the Fig.1.18.
The line integral can be defined as the tangential component of
vector A along the line, which can be written as
A cos dL A.dL
L L
If a line is closed curve then the above integral can be
written as A. dl which is called as contour line integral. Fig. 1.18 Evaluation of
L
line integral
1.6.2 Surface Integral
Similarly, if a vector A is passing through a surface as shown in Fig. 1.19
The flux () of a vector A or surface integral can be written as
A cos ds
s
= A. ds …..(1.6.2.1)
s
If it is closed surface then the above integral can be be
written as A. ds which is called as contour surface integral. Fig. 1.19 Evaluation of
s surface integral
1.6.3 Electric Flux
We know that electric field intensity depends upon the medium in which it passes. Let us
define a new vector D such that it is independent of medium i.e.,
D 0 E . Then the flux of D , i.e., D .ds , where is the electric flux. Which
S
can be defined according to SI units as one line of flux originates from +1 Coloumb and
terminates at –1 Coloumb. So the unit of Electric flux is also Coloumb and D is the
electric flux density whose unit is columb/m2.
34 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
The formulae for D can be obtained by multiplying the formulae of E with 0.
Electric flux density due to a point charge DQ Q aR …..(1.6.1)
4 R 2
and Electric flux density due to an infinite line with line chare density
L
L is DL a
2 (1.6.2)
Problem 1.14
Determine D at (4, 0, 3) if there is a point charge –5 mC at (4, 0, 0) and a line charge
3 mC/m along the Y-axis
Solution
Q aR
DQ
4 R 2
where, R 4,0,3 4,0,0 0,0,3
5 3az 103
4 9 3 2
5 3az 103 5az 103
0.139az 103 C/m2
4 27 36
Fig. 1.20
a
4,0,3 0,0,0 4ax 3az
L
DL a
2
3 4a 3a z
103 x
2 25
= 0.24ax 0.18az mC/m2
D DQ DL 240ax 42az μC/m 2
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 35
1.7 Divergence of a Vector
Divergence: The divergence of a vector A at a given point is the outward flux in a
volume as volume shrinks about the point. It can be represented as
A ds
div A A lim S
…..(1.7.1)
v 0 v
Where is the del operator or gradient operator. can be operated on a vector or
scalar. It has got different meanings when it is operating on a vector and scalar. If it is
operating on a scalar V then it can be written as V which is called as scalar gradient. If
it is operating on a vector A with dot product then it is . A and it is called as divergence
of vector A and If it is operating on a vector A with cross product then it is A and it
is called as curl of vector A .
Fig. 1.21 Flux lines
Physically divergence can be interpreted as the measure of how much field diverges or
emanates from a point. Let us consider the Fig.1.21(a) in which field is reaching to the
point. Divergence at that point is –Ve or it is also called as convergence. In Fig.1.21(b)
the field is going away from the point, therefore divergence is +Ve. In Fig.1.21(c) some
of the flux lines or field lines are reaching to the point and same number of field lines are
leaving from the point hence the divergence is zero.
To determine .A let us consider the volume in
Cartesian co-ordinate systems as shown in the Fig.1.22. In
Cartesian co-ordinate system, the vector A with it’s unit
vectors and components along X, Y, Z is
A Ax ax Ay a y Az az
Assume the elemental volume V = xyz. The flux
of a vector A on Y-axis that enters in to the left side of
the volume is Ayxz. The flux which is leaving from
right side of the volume on Y-axis can be written as
(Ay + Ay) xz. This equation can be modified as Fig. 1.22 Evaluation of . A
36 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Ay Ay
Ay y x z . So the total flux on Y-axis is Ayxz + xyz – Ayxz
y y
Ay
= xyz
y
Similarly on X and Z-axises also.
A Ay Az
The entire flux in all the directions is x xy z . We know
x y z
A ds
s
A ds Ax Ay Az
s
v x y z
Applying Limit on both sides
A ds Ax Ay Az
Lim s
Lim
v 0 v v 0 x y z
Ax Ay Az
A
x y z
Conclusion
The divergence of a vector results a scalar. The divergence of a scalar has no meaning
A B . A . B
VA V . A A V
a a y a z
A x .Ax a x Ay a y Az a z
x y z
Ax Ay Az
x y z
So from the above equation, the gradient operator is
ax a y az
…..(1.7.2)
x y z
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 37
and the scalar gradient is
V V V
V ax ay az
x y z
1.7.1 Divergence Theorem
Statement
This theorem states that the outward flux flows through a closed surface is same as the
volume integral of divergence of a vector.
A ds A dv ….. (1.7.3)
s v
Proof:
Consider a vector A Ax ax Ay a y Az az .
Similarly ds ds x ax ds y a y dsz az and we know that divergence of vector A i.e.,
Ax Ay Az
A
x y z
Assume dv = dx dy dz
consider the volume integral
Ax Ay Az
A dv x
y
dx dy dz
z
v v
The second term in the above integral can be written as
Ay dAy
y dy dy dx dz
dx dy dz Ay ds y
v s s
where dsy = The elemental surface on XZ plane.
Similarly the first and third terms can be written as
Ax dsx
and Az dsz
s s
38 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Adv
( Ax dsx Ay ds y Az dsz )
v s
= Ax ax Ay a y Az az dsx ax ds y a y dsz az
A ds
s s
Hence proved
Formulae for Gradient
in Cartesian co-ordinate system
V V V
V ax ay az …..(1.7.4)
x y z
in cylindrical co-ordinate system
V 1 V V
V a a az …..(1.7.5)
z
in spherical co-ordinate system
V 1 V 1 V
V ar a a …..(1.7.6)
r r r sin
Problem 1.15
Find the gradient of the following scalar fields
(a) V = e–z sin 2x cos hy
(b) U = 2z cos2
(c) W = 10r sin2 cos
Solution
(a) Since given V is in x and y, consider gradient in Cartesian co-ordinate system
V V V
V ax ay az
x y z
= e z cos h y cos2 x 2ax e – z sin2 x sin h y a y sin2 xcos h y e z 1 az
= 2cos2 x cos h y e z ax sin2 x sin h y e z a y sin2 xcos h y e z az
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 39
(b) Since given U is in , z and , consider gradient in cylindrical co-ordinate system
U 1 U U
U a a az
z
Z cos2 2 a z sin2 2 a 2 cos2 az
(c) Since given W is in r, and , consider gradient in spherical co-ordinate system
W 1 W 1 W
W ar a a
r r r sin
10r 1
10sin 2 cos ar 2sin cos cos a 10r sin sin a .
2
r r sin
Formulae for Divergence of a Vector
in Cartesian co-ordinate system
Ax Ay Az
A
x y z …..(1.7.7)
in cylindrical co-ordinate system
1 A 1 A Az
A …..(1.7.8)
z
in spherical co-ordinate system
A
2
1 r Ar
1 sin A
1 A
…..(1.7.9)
r 2
r rsin rsin
Problem 1.16
Determine the divergence of the following vector fields.
(a) P x 2 yz ax x3 zy a y xy 2 z 3 az
(b) Q sin a 2 z a zcos az
1
(c) T cos ar r sin cos a cos a
r2
(d) N r 3 sin ar sin 2 cos 2 a cos r 2 a
Solution
(a) Given P x 2 yz ax x3 zy a y xy 2 z 3 az
40 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Px Py Pz
P
x y z
= 2xyz + x3z + 3xy2z2
(b) Given Q sin a 2 z a z cos az
1 Q 1 Q Qz
Q
z
1 1
2 sin 0 cos
= 2sin + cos
1
(c) Given T cos ar r sin cos a cos a
r2
2
1 r Tr
T 2
1 sin T
1 T
r r r sin r sin
1 1 1
2 0
0 r 2sin cos cos
r r sin r sin
= 2 cos cos
(d) Given N r 3 sin ar sin 2 cos 2 a cos r 2 a
N
2
1 r Nr
1 sin N
1 N
r 2
r r sin r sin
1 4 1 1 sin 3 2 1
5r sin sin cos 0
r 2
r sin 2 3 r sin
1 sin 3
5r 2 sin cos 2 cos 2
2r 6r sin
1.8 Gauss’s Law and Applications
1.8.1 Gauss Law
Gauss law states that the flux flowing through a closed surface is equivalent to the charge
enclosed by that surface.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 41
According to the statement = Qenc …..(1.8.1)
Where is the flux flowing through a closed surface. Qenc is the charge enclosed by the
closed surface.
We know D ds
S
The charge enclosed within a volume or closed surface whose volume charge density
v is
Q v dv
v
According to Gauss’s law we can write as
D ds v dv …..(1.8.1a)
s v
According to divergence theorem we can write
D ds D dv …..(1.8.1b)
s v
By comparing the volume integrals in equations (1.8.1a) and (1.8.1b) we can write as
v D …..(1.8.2)
which is the Maxwell’s first equation for electrostatics (time in-varying fields)
Consider unsymmetrical distribution as shown in
Fig. 1.23a. The flux flowing through the closed surface
shown in Fig. 1.23a is = 5 – 2 = 3 nC. The charge
enclosed by the surface is Q = 3 nC.
Consider an empty closed surface as shown in Fig. 1.23 Closed surface
Fig. 1.23b. Flux flowing through the closed surface shown
in Fig. 1.23b is = 0 and hence charge enclosed by the closed surface is zero.
Conclusion
Gauss law holds good even if the charge distribution is unsymmetrical as shown in
Figs.1.23a & b. But to find either E or D , the charge distribution must be symmetrical. It
can be rectangular symmetry or cylindrical symmetry or spherical symmetry.
42 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
If the continuous charge distribution depends on either ‘x’ or ‘y’ or ‘z’, then the
distribution will have rectangular symmetry. So to find either E or D , we can use
rectangular co-ordinates.
If the continuous charge distribution depends only on and is independent of and z
then the distribution will have cylindrical symmetry. So, to find either E or D , we can use
cylindrical co-ordinates.
If the continuous charge distribution depends on ‘r’ and is independent of and then
the symmetry it will have is spherical. So to find either E or D , we can use spherical
co-ordinates.
1.8.2 Applications of Gauss’s Law – Point Charge
We need to find D at any point surrounded by Q. Assume that the point charge is located
at origin, then a sphere can be assumed, that surrounds the point charge as shown in
Fig.1.24, which shows the problem has spherical symmetry and spherical coordinate
system can be used to obtain D . Let us find out D at point ‘P’ due to a point charge.
The electric flux density D is normal or perpendicular to the spherical surface.
i.e., D Dr ar .
The elemental surface ds lies on and axises. i.e., ds is normal to r axis.
d s r 2sin d d ar
Flux flowing through the sphere is
D.ds
s
2
Dr ar .r 2 sin d d ar
0 0
2
Dr r 2 sin d d
0 0
Fig. 1.24 Gaussian surface
2
about a point charge
r cos 0 d
2
Dr
0
2 Dr r 2 2
4 r 2 Dr
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 43
The charge enclosed by the sphere is
Qenc Q
According to Gauss’s law
Qenc
Q 4 r 2 Dr
Q
Dr
4 r 2
Q
or D ar
4 r 2
Q
and E ar
4 0 r 2
Which is similar to the formula derived by using Coulomb’s law
1.8.3 Applications of Gauss’s Law - Infinite Line Charge
Let us consider that charge is distributed along Z-axis with the charge density L C/m.
Since the charge distribution is along a line, a cylinder of length ‘l’ can be assumed that
surrounds the line charge distribution as shown in Fig.1.25. Hence it is better to consider
cylindrical coordinate system to find either E or D at a point ‘p’ on the surface of the
cylinder.
Fig. 1.25 Gaussian surface about an infinite line charge
Here D the electric flux density is perpendicular to the surface of the cylinder i.e., it
will be in ‘’ direction in cylindrical co-ordinate systems.
44 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
D D a
The elemental surface ds lies on and Z axises
d s d dz a
Flux flowing through the cylinder can be written as
D ds
S
l 2
D a . d dza
z 0 0
l 2
D dz d
z 0 0
D 2 l …..(1.8.3)
The charge enclosed by the cylinder is
Qenc L l …..(1.8.4)
According to Gauss’s law
Qenc
Substitute and Qenc from equations (1.8.3) and (1.8.4) in the above equation
L l D 2 l
L
D
2
L
D a and
2
D L
E a …..(1.8.5)
0 2 0
Which is similar to the formula derived by using Coulomb’s law.
Problem 1.17
Given D z cos 2 az C/m2. Calculate the charge density at (1, /4, 3) and the total
charge enclosed by the cylinder of radius 1m with –2 < z < 2 m.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 45
Solution
We know
v D
in cylindrical co-ordinate system the divergence can be written as
1 D 1 D Dz
v
z
Dz
v since D has only Z- component
z
v cos 2
v 1, , 3 1 cos2
1
C/m3
4 4 2
change enclosed = Qenc = v dv where dv = d d dz
v
1 2 2
Qenc cos 2 d d dz
0 0 z 2
1 2
2 cos 2 4 d d
0 0
1
1
2 sin 4 d
1
4 2
2 2
0
1
1
3 4
4 2 d 4
3 0 3
C
0
Problem 1.18
If D 2 y 2 z a x 4 xy a y x a z C/m2. Find
(a) the volume charge density at (–1, 0, 3)
(b) the flux through the cube defined by 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1, 0 < z < 1
(c) the total charge enclosed by the cube
46 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution
According to Maxwell’s I equation
v D
Dx Dy Dz
v
x y z
= 0 + 4x +0
= 4x C/m3
(a) v 1,0,3 4 1 4 C/m2
(b) & (c) v dv Q enc
v
1 1 1
4 x dx dy dz
x 0 y 0 z 0
1 1
4 x 1 dx dy
x 0 y 0
1
4 x 1 dx
x 0
1
x2 4
4 2C
2 0 2
Problem 1.19
Given the electric flux density D 0.3r 2 ar nC/m2, in free space. Find
(a) E at point (2, 25o, 90o)
(b) the total charge within the sphere r = 3
(c) the total electric flux leaving the sphere r = 4
Solution
(a) Given D 0.3r 2 ar nC/m2
D 0.3r 2 ar
E
0 8.854 1012
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 47
0.3 4
E 2 , 25o ,90o 8.854 1012 ar 1.355 1011 ar 109 135.5 ar V/m
(b) we know v D
2
1 r Dr
1 sin D
1 D 1
= 2 0.3 4 r 3 n = 1.2r n
r 2
r r sin r sin r
Also known Q v dv where dv = r sin d r d dr
v
= r2 sin d d dr
3 2
Q 1.2r n r 2 sin d d dr
r 0 0 0
3
n 1.2 r
3
sin 2 d dr
r 0 0
r cos 0 dr
2.4 n 3
r 0
3
r4
2.4 n 2 305.4 nC
4 0
4 2
1.2 nr sin d d dr
3
(c) Q
r 0 0 0
Upon simplifying, we get
Q = 965.09 nC
1.8.4 Applications of Gauss’s Law - Infinite Sheet of Charge
Consider an infinite sheet with surface charge density s C/m2 is lying on XY plane as
shown in the Fig.1.26. Since Electric flux density D is always normal to the surface, we
need to find Electric flux density at any point on either side of the sheet. Since the charge
distribution depends on X and Y axeses, rectangular coordinate system can be used to
find D at any point on either side of the sheet.
Hence Consider a rectangular box that is cut symmetrically by the sheet as shown in
the Fig.1.26. As D is perpendicular to the sheet it will have components only in the
Z-direction i.e., components on X and Y-directions are zero. Let us find out D as
48 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Fig.1.26 Gaussian surface about an infinite sheet of charge
Flux flowing through the rectangular box is
D ds
s
Here D Dz az & ds dsaz
The flux due to bottom and top surfaces of rectangular box exists, but the flux due to
the other surfaces of box is zero.
above equation becomes
Dz az dsaz
s
Dz ds ds
top bottom
Assume that the area of the elemental surface as A, then
Dz A A
2 ADz
Charge enclosed by the rectangular box is
Qenc s ds
Qenc s ds
Qenc s A
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 49
According to Gauss’s law
Qenc
s A 2 ADZ
s
Dz
2
s
D az
2
D
and E s az …..(1.8.6)
0 2 0
which is similar to the formula derived by using Coulomb’s law.
1.8.5 Applications of Gauss’s Law - Uniformly Charged Sphere
Case I: (r < a)
Consider a sphere of radius ‘a’, which has uniform charge distribution with volume
charge density v C/m3 as shown in Fig.1.27. Since it is sphere, to find D at any point in
side the sphere, consider a sphere of radius ‘r’ where r < a and is assumed as Gaussian
surface. Hence spherical co-ordinate system can be used to find D .
The charge enclosed by the sphere of radius ‘r’ is
Qenc v dv
v
Qenc v dv
v
2 r
v r sin d d dr
2
Fig. 1.27 Gaussian surface for
0 0 r 0 uniformly charged sphere
4
= v r 3
3
The flux flowing through the spherical surface
D.ds
s
As the flux density is normal to the surface it will have components only in ‘r’
direction.
50 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
2
= Dr r 2 sin d d
0 0
= Dr 4 r2
According to Gauss’s law charge enclosed = flux flowing through the surface
i.e., Qenc =
4
v r3 = Dr 4 r2
3
v
Dr r
3
v
D r ar
3
D
and E v r ar …..(1.8.7)
0 3 0
Case II (r > a)
To find the electric flux density out side the sphere of radius ‘a’, consider a sphere of
radius ‘r’, which is treated as Gaussian surface as shown in Fig.1.28.
Charge enclosed by the sphere of radius ‘r’ is
Qenc v dv
v
Qenc v dv
v
2 a
v r sin d d dr
2
Fig. 1.28 Gaussian surface
0 0 r 0 for uniformly charged sphere
4
= v a3
3
Flux flowing through the surface
2
Dr r 2sin d d
0 0
= Dr 4 r2
Qenc = according to Gauss’s law
4
v a3 = Dr 4 r2
3
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 51
v
Dr a3
3r 2
v a3
D ar
3r 2
v a3
and E ar
3r 2 0
v a 3 4
E ar
3r 2 0 4
Q
E ar
4 0 r 2
…..(1.8.8)
which is similar to the formula derived by using Coulomb’s law.
Problem 1.20
A charge distribution with spherical symmetry has density
r
0 , 0 r R
v R
0, rR
Determine E everywhere
Solution:
Replace ‘a’ with ‘R’ in Fig.1.27, Then
Case I: Inside the sphere of radius ‘R’
The charge enclosed by the sphere of radius ‘r’ is Qenc v dv
v
r
Qenc 0 dv
v
R
2 r
r3
0 R sin d d dr
0 0 r 0
2 r
0
d sin d r dr
3
R 0 0 r 0
52 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
4 r 4 0
4R
0
Qenc r4
R
The flux flowing through the spherical surface
D.ds
s
As the flux density is normal to the surface it will have components only in ‘r’
direction.
2
= Dr r 2 sin d d
0 0
= Dr 4 r2
According to Gauss’s law charge enclosed = flux flowing through the surface i.e.,
Qenc =
0
r 4 Dr 4 r 2
R
0
Dr r2
4R
0
D r 2 ar
4R
D 0 2
and E r ar
0 4 R 0
Case II: Outside the sphere of radius ‘R’
Charge enclosed by the sphere of radius ‘r’ is
Qenc v dv
v
r
Qenc 0 dv
v
R
2 R
0
r sin d d dr
3
R 0 0 r 0
= 0 R 3
Flux flowing through the surface
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 53
2
Dr r 2 sin d d
0 0
= Dr 4 r2
Qenc = according to Gauss’s law
0 R3 = Dr 4 r2
0 R 3
Dr
4r 2
R3
D 0 2 ar
4r
R3
and E 02 ar
4r 0
Problem 1.21
A sphere of radius ‘a’ is filled with a uniform charge density of v C/m3. Determine the
electric field inside and outside the sphere.
Solution
The answer is as derived in section 1.8.5 case-I(inside the sphere) and case-II(outside the
sphere).
Problem 1.22
A charge distribution in free space has v = 2r nC/m3 for 0 < r < 10 m and ‘0’ otherwise.
Determine E at r = 2 m and r = 12 m
Solution
Replace ‘a’ with ’10 m’ in Fig.1.27, Then
At r = 2 m
The charge enclosed by the sphere of radius ‘2m’ is Qenc v dv
v
Qenc 2rndv
v
2 2
r sin d d dr
3
2n
0 0 r 0
= 32 nC
54 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
The flux flowing through the spherical surface
D.ds
s
As the flux density is normal to the surface it will have components only in ‘r’
direction.
2
= Dr r 2 sin d d
0 0
= Dr 16
According to Gauss’s law charge enclosed = flux flowing through the surface i.e.,
Qenc =
32 n = Dr 16
Dr 2n
D 2n ar and
D
E 226ar V m
0
At r = 12 m
Charge enclosed by the sphere of radius ’12 m’ is
Qenc v dv
v
Qenc 2rndv
v
2 10
r sin d d dr
3
2n
0 0 r 0
= 20 C
Flux flowing through the surface
2
Dr r 2 sin d d
0 0
= Dr 4 122
Qenc = according to Gauss’s law
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 55
20 = Dr 4 122
Dr 0.0347
D 0.0347 ar and
E 3.92 ar k V m
1.9 Electric Potential
To find electric field intensity E , so far we have used Coulomb’s law if the charge
distribution is of any type and Gauss’s law if the charge distribution has symmetry.
Another method to find electric field intensity is by using electric potential which is a
scalar. So obviously this method is easier when compared with the other two methods.
If we move a point charge from A to B in an electric field having electric field
intensity E as shown in Fig.1.29.
Fig. 1.29 Displacement of point charge in an electrostatic field
The elemental work done to move a point charge by an elemental distance dL is
dW F dL
The total work done in moving a point charge from A to B is
B
W F dL
A
-ve sign indicates work is being done by an external agent
We have F QE
B
then W QE dL
A
56 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
B
W Q E dL
A
B
W
E dL
Q A
which is work done per unit charge and it is also called potential difference VAB.
Q
We know that electric field intensity E due to a point charge is ar
4 0 r 2
and elemental length dL drar
rB
Q
then VAB 4 0 r 2 ar dr ar
rA
Where rA and rB are position vectors of point A and point B from origin
Q 1 1
VAB
4 0 rB rA
Q Q
VB V A …..(1.9.1)
4 0 rB 4 0 rA
Where VB and VA are absolute potentials at point B and A respectively. From the
above equation VAB is the potential at B with reference to the potential at A.
If A is at then VA = 0.
The above equation can be generalized for a potential (V) at any point having distance
‘r’ as
Q
V (Here Q is located at origin) …..(1.9.2)
4 0 r
If the point charge is placed at a distance r , then the electric potential at point ‘r’ can
be written as
Q
V …..(1.9.3)
4 0 r r
If we have ‘n’ number of point charges Q1, Q2, …,Qn with position vectors r1, r2, ….,
rn respectively, then the potential at ‘r’ is
Q1 Q2 Qn
V .... …..(1.9.4)
4 0 r r1 4 0 r r2 4 0 r rn
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 57
For line charge distribution with charge density L, in the above equation Q can be
replaced by L dL .
For surface charge distribution with charge density s, in equation (1.9.4), Q can be
replaced by s ds .
Similarly Q can be replaced by v dv , For volume charge distribution with charge
density v .
Problem 1.23
Two point charges – 4 C and 5 C are located at (2, –1, 3) and (0, 4, –2) respectively.
Find the potential at (1, 0, 1). Assuming ‘0’ potential at infinity.
Solution
Q1 Q2
V
4 0 r r1 4 0 r r2
4 106 5 106
V
4 0 (1,0,1) (2, 1,3) 4 0 (1,0,1) (0, 4, 2)
Simplifying, we get
V = –5.872 kV
Problem: 1.24
A point charge 3 C is located at the origin in addition to the two charges of previous
problem. Find the potential at (–1, 5, 2). Assuming V() = 0.
Solution:
r – r1 = 1 25 4 = 5.478
r – r2 = 9 36 1 = 6.782
r – r3 = 16 1 1 = 4.243
3 103 4 103 5 103
V 9
5.478 6.782 4.243
= 10.23 kV
Problem 1.25
A point charge of 5 nC is located at the origin if V = 2 V at (0, 6, –8) find
58 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
(a) the potential at A (–3, 2, 6)
(b) the potential at B (1, 5, 7)
(c) the potential difference VAB
Solution
Q 1 1
(a) VA V
4 0 rA r
rA = (–3, 2, 6) – (0, 0, 0) = 32 22 62 7
r = (0, 6, –8) – (0, 0, 0) = 0 62 82 10
5 109 1 1
VA 2
109 7 10
4
36
VA = 3.929 V
Q 1 1
(b) VB V
4 0 rB r
rB = (1, 5, 7) – (0, 0, 0) = 1 52 7 2 = 75
5 109 1 1
VB 2 9
10 75 10
4
36
VB = 2.696 V.
(c) VAB = VB – VA = –1.233 V
*Problem 1.26
A point of 5 nC is located at (–3, 4, 0), while line y = 1, z = 1 carries uniform charge
2 nC/m.
(a) If V = 0 V at O(0, 0, 0), find V at A(5, 0, 1).
(b) If V= 100 V at B(1, 2, 1), find V at C(–2, 5, 3).
(c) If V = – 5 V at O, find VBC.
Solution:
Let the potential at any point be
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 59
V = VQ +VL
Where VQ is potential due to point charge
Q
i.e., VQ
4 0 r
by neglecting constant of integration
and VL is potential due to line charge distribution,
for infinite line, we have
L
E a
2 0
L
VL E .dl a .d a
2 0
L
VL ln
2 0
by neglecting constant of integration.
Here ρ is the perpendicular distance from the line y = 1, z = 1(which is parallel to the
x-axis) to the field point.
Let the field point be (x, y, z), then
( x, y, z ) ( x, 1, 1) ( y 1) 2 ( z 1) 2
L Q
V ln
2 0 4 0 r
by neglecting constant of integration.
(a) O (0, 0, 0) (0,1,1) 2
A (5,0,1) (5,1,1) 1
rO (0,0,0) (3, 4,0) 5
rA (5,0,1) (3, 4,0) 9
L Q Q
VO VA ln O L ln A
2 0 2 0 4 0 rO 4 0 rA
L Q 1 1
VO VA ln O
2 0 A 4 0 rO rA
60 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
2 109 2 5 109 1 1
0 VA ln
109 1 109 5 9
2 4
36 36
1 1
VA 36ln 2 45
5 9
VA 36ln 2 4 8.477 V
(b) B (1, 2,1) (1,1,1) 1
C (2,5,3) (2,1,1) 20
rB (1, 2,1) (3, 4,0) 21
rC (2,5,3) (3, 4,0) 11
L Q 1 1
VC VB ln C
2 0 B 4 0 rC rB
21 1 1
VC 100 36ln 45
1 11 21
VC 100 51.052
VC 48.94 V
(c) VBC VC VB 48.94 100 51.052 V
1.10 Conservative and Non-Conservative Fields
1.10.1 Conservative Field
If the field is parallel to a straight line as shown in Fig. 1.30. Let A be a vector field.
Choose a path P to Q as shown in Fig.1.30. A.dL in moving from P to Q will be ‘M’
(scalar) and A.dL in moving from Q to P is (–M).
The A.dL M M 0. Chosen path may be of any
shape, the contour line integral of A.dL becomes ‘0’. The field
whose contour line integral gives ‘zero’ is called conservative
(or) irrotational field.
Fig. 1.30 Evaluation of
conservative field
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 61
1.10.2 Non Conservative Field
In the conservative field, the filed vector is parallel to a
straight line. Let us consider a field in circular fashion as
shown in Fig.1.31(a). In this case A.dL in moving from P
to P along the field will not be ‘zero’ because A is always in
the direction of dL . These types of fields whose contour
line integral of A.dL 0 are called non conservative or
rotational fields. The shape of the field need not be circular Fig. 1.31 Evaluation of non-
but it can be of any shape as shown in Fig. 1.31(b). conservative field
1.10.3 Concept of Curl
We know that in non-conservative fields as shown in Fig. 1.30 the contour line integral of
A.dL gives some finite value. This finite value is called circulation.
circulation = A.dL . This circulation depends upon the area chosen in the non
conservative field. Let the area be S. Then the ratio of A.dL to S can be considered
as one unit. As the field is normal to this unit we can write the above expression as
A.dL a .
n
S
In general will be from point to point. This can be denoted by taking Limit S0
which gives curl of vector A i.e.,
A lim
A dL a …..(1.10.1)
n
S 0 S
The curl of vector A gives circulation that exists on the chosen closed surface.
As A or curl of a vector A is a vector. It can be
represented with three components in a rectangular
co-ordinate system i.e., [curl A ]1, [curl A ]2, [curl A ]3 along
X, Y & Z axises with ax , a y & az as unit vectors respectively.
A = [curl A ]1 + [curl A ]2 + [curl A ]3
To find [curl A ]1 consider the elemental surface y and
z which is normal to x-axis as shown in Fig. 1.32.
Fig. 1.32 Evaluation of curl
62 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
[curl A ] = lim
A dL a
x
yz 0 yz
Let the components of vector A at P be (Ax, Ay, Az)
Q
The line integral from P to Q is A dL .
P
PQ is parallel to Y-axis, A can be taken as the Y component of A and the
elemental length dl can be taken as y .
The above integral becomes Ayy. At Q we have moved a distance by y . To find
line integral from Q to R consider the Z component at Q (because QR is parallel to Z-
axis)
A
The ‘Z’ component at Q is Az z y
y
R
Az
The line integral i.e., A dL Az y
y z
Q
At ‘R’ we have moved by a distance z. As RS line is parallel to Y-axis, consider the
Ay
Y-component at ‘R’ as Ay z
z
S
Ay
A dL Ay z y
R
z
P
At ‘S’ to find A dL consider the ‘z’ component at ‘S’ which is Az
S
P
A dL Az z
S
Q R S P
A dL P A dL Q A dL R A dL S A dL
Az Ay
= Ay y Az z y z Ay y z y Az z
y z
A Ay
= z z y
y z
Substitute the above equation in [Curl A ]1 equation
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 63
A Ay
z z y
y
z
A Ay
[Curl A ]1 = ax = z ax
zy
y z
Similarly we can also construct equations for [Curl A ]2 by considering the elemental
surface on ZX plane which is perpendicular to Y-axis
A A
[Curl A ]2 = a y x z
z x
and for [Curl A ]3 we have to consider the elemental surface on XY plane which is
perpendicular to Z-axis
Ay Ax
[Curl A ]3 = az
x y
Curl A = [Curl A ]1+ [Curl A ]2+ [Curl A ]3
A Ay Ax Az Ay Ax
A ax z ay az x y
y z z x
Which can be written in matrix form as
Cartesian co-ordinate system:
ax ay az
A
x y z
Ax Ay Az
Cylindrical co-ordinate system:
a a az
1
A
z
A A Az
Spherical co-ordinate system:
ar ra r sin a
1
A 2
r sin r
Ar rA r sin A
64 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Stoke’s Theorem
Stoke’s theorem gives the relation between the line integral and surface integral as
A ds A dL …..(1.10.2)
S L
where A is the field vector. According to above equation finding curl of a vector at
every point in a chosen surface and adding all those values will be equal to the contour
line integral of the boundary of the chosen surface.
Proof:
Let us consider a rotational field and choose a surface on it as shown in Fig.1.33.
Fig. 1.33 Rotational field to explain Stoke’s Theorem
We know that
A lim
A dL a
n
s 0 S
The above equation can be written as
A ds A dL
S L
Which can be proved as
Choose a sub-surface s1 (ABCDA). Then above equation becomes
B C D A
A ds1 A dL A dL A dL A dL
S A B C D
choose one more sub-surface s2 adjacent to s1 which is (ADEFA)
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 65
D E F A
A ds2 A dL A dL A dL A dL
S A D E F
Let s = s1 +s2
A ds A ds1 A ds2
S S S
B C D A A E F A
= A dL A dL A dL A dL A dL A dL A dL A dL
A B C D D D E F
B C D E F A
= A dL A dL A dL A dL A dL A dL
A B C D E F
From the above equation by finding curl of a vector A at all the points in a chosen
surface and adding up all the values will be equal to the contour line integral of the
chosen boundary surface. Adding up all the curls is nothing but integrating the curl of a
vector w.r.t. chosen surface.
A ds A dL
S L
1.11 Relation Between E and V
B
We know that the potential difference between points A and B is VAB = E dL .
A
B
Similarly the potential difference from B to A is VBA = E dL
A
The total potential from moving A to B and back to A is
B
VAB + VBA = E dL + E dL 0 E dL
B
…..(1.11.1)
A
A L
The total work done in moving a point charge from A to B and back to A is ‘0’.
From equation (1.11.1) we can say that the electrostatic fields are conservative fields
or irrotational fields.
According to Stoke’s theorem E ds
E dL
S L
66 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
E ds 0 or E 0 …..(1.11.2)
S
Equation (1.11.1) is a Maxwell’s second equation which is in integral form. Equation
(1.11.2) is also a Maxwell’s second equation which is in differential form
We know the potential difference V E dL
dv E dL
As E and dL are vectors they can be represented in rectangular co-ordinate system as
E Ex ax E y a y Ez az
dL dxa x dya y dzaz
dv Ex dx E y dy Ez dz …..(1.11.3)
In calculus dv can be represented as
v v v
dv dx dy dz …..(1.11.4)
x y z
from (1.11.3) & (1.11.4)
v v v
Ex , Ey and Ez
x y z
v v v
E ax a y az
x y z
v v v
E ax a y az
x y z
E V
Which is the relation between E and V.
Problem 1.27
10
Given the potential V sin cos
r2
(a) Find the electric flux density D at (2 , / 2 ,0)
(b) Calculate the work done in moving a 10 mC charge from point A(1, 30o, 120o) to
B(4, 90o, 60o)
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 67
Solution
(a) We have
E V
Since V is given in spherical co-ordinate system, consider V in spherical co-
ordinate system
v 1 v 1 v
E ar a a
r r r sin
1 10cos cos 1 10sin sin
= 10 2r 3 sin cos ar
r r2
a
r sin r2
a
1 10cos cos 1 10sin sin
= 10 2r 3 sin cos ar
r r2
a
r sin r2
a
20sin cos 10cos cos 10sin
= 3
ar 3
a a
r r r3
10
=
r3
2sin cos ar cos cos a sin a
D E 0
8.825 1011
= 2sin cos ar cos cos a sin a
r3
8.825 1011
= 2.1.1ar 0 0
r3
D (2,
, 0) = 22.1 a pC/m2
r
2
B
(b) Work done = Q E dL Q VAB
A
= Q (VB – VA)
10 1
VB 1. 0.3125 V
16 2
10 1
VA 0.5 5 0.5 2.5 V
1 2
VB – VA = 2.8125 V
W = 10–3 × 10 × (VB – VA) = 28.125 mJ
68 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Problem 1.28
Given that E 3 x 2 y ax xa y k V m . Find the work done in moving a –2 C charge
from (0, 5, 0) to (2, –1, 0) by taking the path
(a) (0, 5, 0) (2, 5, 0) (2, –1, 0)
(b) y = 5 – 3x
Solution
(a) Line equation for (0, 5, 0) to (2, 5, 0) is
x x1 y y1 z z1
x1 x2 y1 y2 z1 z2
x0 y 5 z 0
02 55 00
y=5 z=0
dy = 0 dz = 0
2 ,5 ,0
3x y ax xa y dx ax dya y dzaz
2
W1 QK
0 , 5, 0
2 , 5 , 0
3x y dx xdy
2
QK
0 , 5, 0
2
3x
3 2
2 10 5 dx 0
0
x3 2
2 10 3 5 2
3
3 0
= 36 mJ
Line equation for (2, 5, 0) to (2, –1, 0)
Z=0 dz = 0
x2 y 5 z 0
2 2 5 1 0 0
x=2 dx = 0
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 69
2 , 1, 0
3x y dx xdy
2
W2 QK
2 , 5, 0
1
W2 QK 2dy 2QK 1 5 24 mJ
5
W = W1 + W2 = 12 mJ
(b) Line equation for (0, 5, 0) to (2, 5, 0) is y = 5 – 3x
dy = –3dx
2 , 1, 0
3x y dx xdy
2
W QK
0 , 5, 0
2
W 2 103 3 x 2 5 3 x dx 3x dx =12 mJ
0
1.12 Electric Dipole and Flux Lines
Electric dipole is formed by separating two point charges of equal magnitude but opposite
in sign by a small distance.
Consider an electric dipole along Z-axis separated by a small distance ‘d’ as shown in
Fig. 1.34.
Fig. 1.34 Electric dipole to find potential
70 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Let us find potential at P ( r, , ) due to electric dipole. We know the potential at ‘P’
Q Q
due to a point charge +Q is VQ and potential at ‘P’ due to –Q is VQ
4 0 r1 4 0 r2
Potential at ‘P’ due to electric dipole is
Q Q
V
4 0 r1 4 0 r2
Q 1 1
4 0 r1 r2
x d
from Fig.1.34 cos x cos
d 2 2
r1 r x
d
r1 cos r
2
y d
cos y cos
d /2 2
r r2 y
d
r2 r cos
2
Q 1 1
V
4 0 r d cos r d cos
2 2
Q d cos
4 0 2 d
2
r cos
2
if r >>d
Q d cos
V …..(1.12.1)
4 0 r 2
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 71
1
V due to dipole
r2
d .ar = d cos and here define electric dipole moment p Q d whose unit is C-m.
V
Q d ar p ar
1
p.
r
…..(1.12.2)
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2
r
If the electric dipole center is other than origin, let it be at r then the above equation
can be generalized as
1 r r' p.( r r ')
V p. …..(1.12.3)
4 0 r r '
2
r r ' 4 0 r r ' 3
The electric field due to dipole with center at the origin can be obtained as
E V
Since V in equation (1.12.1) is in terms of r and consider V in spherical co-ordinate
system, then
v 1 v
E ar a
r r
1 1 Qd
E 2 r 3 cos ar sin 2 a
rr 4 0
Qd 3 sin
2r cos ar 3 a
4 0 r
Qd
2 cos ar sin a
4 0 r 3
p
2cos ar sin a …..(1.12.4)
4 0 r 3
Problem 1.29
An electric dipole located at the origin in free space has a moment
p 3ax 2a y az n Cm
(a) Find V at PA (2, 3, 4)
(b) Find V at r = 2.5, = 30o, = 40o
72 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Solution
(a) We have
1 r r'
V p.
4 0 r r '
2
r r'
r ' = (0, 0, 0)
r r' 4 9 16 29
(3ax 2a y az ) (2ax 3a y 4az )
V 9 109 109
29 29
9 4
= 0.235 V
29 3/ 2
(b) r = 2.5 = 30o = 40o
x = r sin cos = 0.958
y = r sin sin = 0.8035
z = r cos = 2.165
upon simplifying we get
V = 1.97 V
Electric Flux Line
Electric flux line is an imaginary path or line drawn such that it’s direction at any point is
the direction of electric field intensity.
Equipotential Surface
Any surface which has same potential at all points is called as an equipotential surface.
Equipotential Line
The intersection line of equipotential surface with the plane is called as equipotential line.
The work done to move a point charge from one point to other point along equipotential
line is ‘0’.
The example for equipotential surface for a point charge is shown in Fig.1.35
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 73
Fig. 1.35 Equipotential surface
Energy Density of Electrostatic Field
To find energy in the assembly of charges. Let us find the work required to assemble the
charges. Consider a free surface and three point charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 which are at
infinity. The work required to move Q4 from infinity to P1 is W1= 0.
( initially the surface has no charge i.e., E 0 W1 = Q1 E QL 0 )
The work required to move Q2 from to P2
which is shown in Fig.1.36 is W2 = Q2 V21 where
V21 is potential at P2 due to Q1. The work required
to move Q3 from to P3 is W3 = Q3(V32 + V31).
Where V32 is potential at P3 due to Q2, V31 is
potential at P3 due to Q1. Fig. 1.36 Assembling of charges
WE = W1 + W2 + W3
= Q2V21 +Q3 (V32+ V31) …..(1.12.5)
Suppose if we move initially Q3 from to a free surface at P3. The work required is
W3 = 0. Then work required to move Q2 from to P2 is W2 = Q2 V23. Work required to
move Q1 from to P1 is W1 = Q1(V12 +V13)
Total work done WE = W1 + W2 + W3
= 0 + Q2V23 + Q1(V12+V13) …..(1.12.6)
Add (1.12.5) and (1.12.6)
2WE = Q1 (V12 + V13 ) + Q2 (V21 + V23) + Q3 (V32 + V31 )
= Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3
1
WE = (Q1V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3) …..(1.12.7)
2
74 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Where V1 is potential at P1 due to Q2 & Q3, V2 is potential at P2 due to Q1 & Q3 and V3
is potential at P3 due to Q1 & Q2.
If we have ‘n’ number of charges the work required to bring them from to a surface
which has initially zero charge is
1 n
WE QkVk
2 k 1
…..(1.12.8)
If the surface is having continuous charge distribution then the above equation becomes
1
2 L
WE LV dL for line charge distribution …..(1.12.9)
1
2 S
WE sV dS for surface charge distribution …..(1.12.10)
1
2 v
WE V V dv for volume charge distribution …..(1.12.11)
According to Maxwell’s first equation v D
1
WE
2 v
D V dv …..(1.12.12)
We know AV A V V A where A a general vector and V is a scalar
A V AV A V
i.e., D V DV D V
1
from (1.12.12) WE
2 v
DV D V dv
1 1
WE
2v DV dv D V dv
2v
According to divergence theorem, first integral can be written as
1 1
2 S
WE DV . dS D V dv
2v
1 1
For point charges the potential V , E 2
r r
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 75
1 1
For dipoles the potential V 2
,E 3
r r
Surface ds r2
1
If we consider the point charges the product of V and E and product of
r3
1
DV and dS . For very large surface the first integral will become zero.
r
1
2 v
WE D V dv
1 1
2v D.( E )dv D.E dv
2v
D 0 E
1
2 v
Energy = WE 0 E E dv Joules …..(1.12.13)
dWE 1
The energy density J/m3 is 0 E 2 wE J/m 3 …..(1.12.14)
dv 2
Problem 1.30
Three point charges –1 nC, 4 nC and 3 nC are located at (0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1) and (1, 0, 0)
respectively. Find the energy in the system.
Solution
WE = W1 + W2 + W3
= 0 + Q2V21+ Q3(V31+V32)
Q1 Q3 Q1 Q2
Q2 .
4 0 r2 r1 4 0 r3 r1 r3 r2
1 QQ
Q1Q2 Q1Q3 2 3
4 0 2
1 12 18
9
4 3 .10
10 2
4 .
36
76 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
12
9 7 nJ 13.37 nJ
2
Problem 1.31
Point charges Q1 = 1 nC, Q2 = – 2 nC, Q3 = 3 nC and Q4 = – 4 nC are positioned one at a
time and in that order at (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (0, 0, –1) and (0, 0, 1) respectively. Calculate
the energy in the system after each charge is positioned.
Solution
Energy after Q1 is positioned is W1 = 0
Q1 2 1 1018
W2 = Q2V21 Q2 . = –18 nJ
4 0 r2 r1 109
4 . (1,0,0) (0,0,0)
36
Energy after Q2 is positioned W = W1+ W2 = –18 nJ
2
Energy after Q3 is positioned
W3 = W2 +Q3(V32+V31)
3 109 2 109 1 109
18 nJ
109 (0,0, 1) (1,0,0) (0,0, 1) (0,0,0)
4 .
36
= – 29.18 nJ
Energy after Q4 is positioned
W4 = W3 + Q4(V43+V42+V41) = –68.27 nJ.
1.13 Convection and Conduction Currents
We know that materials are classified into conductors and non conductors based on
conductivity (siemens/m or S/m). If > 1, the materials are called conductors and if
< 1, the materials are called non conductors. The materials whose conductivity lies
between these two materials are called semiconductors. Technically conductors and non
conductors are called metals and insulators respectively. The basic difference between
conductors and dielectrics (insulators) is: Conductors posses more number of free
electrons to flow current through it, Where as dielectrics contain less number of free
electrons to flow current through it.
If >>1, the conductors are called super conductors.
Current ‘i’ can be defined as charge flowing through a surface per unit time
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 77
dQ
i
dt
Current Density
The current i flowing through a surface s is denoted as Jn = i/S A/m2.
i = Jn S
If current density Jn is perpendicular to the surface S
i = Jn S
If Jn is not perpendicular to S, then i J S
The total current flowing through surface is I J ds .
S
Based on how the current I is produced, the current densities are classified in to
(i) convection current density (ii) conduction current density and (iii) displacement
current density.
Convection Current Density
Conductors are not involved for flowing current in case of convection current. Hence it
will not satisfy ohm’s law. The current flowing through an insulating material like liquid
or vacuum is convection current. A beam of electrons through a vacuum tube is an
example of convection current.
Consider a filament which is having volume charge density v as shown in Fig.1.37
Consider an elemental volume V = SL and
assume that the current is flowing in y-direction with
velocity Uy.
We know that
Fig.1.37 Current in a filament
Q = v V = v s l
Dividing with t
Q l
v S
t t
Q l
I v SU y I and Uy
t t
I
the current density J vU y
S
78 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
In general current density J v U …..(1.13.1)
which is convection current density and I is convection current.
Conduction Current Density
Conductors are involved in case of conduction current density. If we apply on electric
field E to a conductor the force applied on electron which is having charge ‘– e’ is
F eE …..(1.13.2)
If an electron having mass ‘m’ is moving with a drift velocity U , according to
Newton’s law the average change in the momentum of electron is equal to the force
applied on it.
mU
Average change in momentum is = …..(1.13.3)
Equations (1.13.2) = (1.13.3)
mU
i.e., eE
eE
U
m
Where = average time interval
m = mass of electron
If we have ‘n’ number of electrons in the considered conductor the volume charge
density
v ne
We know that current density
J vU
eE
Conduction current density J ne
m
J ne 2 E …..(1.13.4a)
m
J E
where
= conductivity of the conductor = ne 2 …..(1.13.4b)
m
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 79
Problem 1.32
1
If J 2cos ar sin a A/m2. Calculate the current passing through
r3
(a) Hemispherical shell of radius 20 cm.
(b) A spherical shell of radius 20 cm.
Solution
I J .ds
Since it is sphere ds r 2 sin d d ar
(a) = 0 to 2, = 0 to /2 and r = 0.2 m for hemispherical shell
2 / 2
1
3
I= 2cos ar sin a r 2 sin d d ar a
0 0 r
2 / 2
1
r 0 0
= 2cos sin d d
2 2
1
r 0 0
= sin 2 d d
2 /2
1 cos 2
= d
r 0 2 0
1 2
= 1 1 2 10 31.4 A
2r 0.2
(b) = 0 to 2, = 0 to and r = 0.2 m for spherical shell
2
1
I sin 2 d d
r 0 0
2
1 cos 2
r 0 2 0
d
2
1
1 1 d 0 A
2r 0
80 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Problem 1.33
For the current density J 10 z sin 2 a A/m2. Find the current through the cylindrical
surface = 2, 1< z < 5 m.
Solution
Since it is cylinder ds d dz a
We have
I J ds
5 2
10 z sin d dz
2
z 1 0
5
10 z (1 cos )
z 1
= 754 A
*Problem 1.34
In a cylindrical conductor of radius 2 mm, the current density varies with distance from
the axis according to J 103 e 400 r A/m2. Find the total current I.
Solution
Since it is cylinder ds d dz a
Here r = ρ = 0.02 m,
J 103 e 400 a A m 2
We know the total current I J .ds
s
2 z
10 e
3 400
I d dz
0 z 0
I 2 z103 e 400
I 4 ze0.8 z5.65 A
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 81
Problem 1.35
1
If the current density J (cos ar sin a ) A m 2 , find the current passing through a
r2
sphere of radius 1.0 m.
Solution
We know the total current I J .ds
s
Since it is spherical symmetry ds r 2 sin d d ar
r2
J .dS cos sin d d
r2
2
I cos sin d d
0 0
I sin 2 d
0
cos 2
0 A
2 0
1.14 Polarization in Dielectrics
The basic difference between dielectrics and conductors is that dielectrics have less
number of free electrons compared with the conducting material.
Consider a dielectric molecule with +Ve charge +Q (Nucleolus) and –Ve charge –Q
(electron cloud) as shown in Fig. 1.38
To see the effect of electric field on dielectric materials consider
the dielectric molecule as shown in Fig. 1.38. If we apply electric
field E on to dielectric material, the force on positive charge is
F QE which is along the direction of electric field E and the
force on negitive charges is E = –Q E which is in opposite direction
to E . Fig. 1.38 Electron
cloud
After applying electric field E, charge is displaced as shown in
Fig.1.39. The charge displacement is equal to sum of the original charge distribution and
a dipole with dipole moment p Qd as shown in Fig.1.39.
82 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
After applying electric field, basically we get dipoles
and hence the dielectric element is said to be polarized
such dielectric material is said to be nonpolar. Examples
are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and the rare gases.
Other types of molecules such as water, sulfur dioxide
and hydrochloric acid have built-in permanent dipoles
Fig. 1.39 Charge displacement
that are randomly oriented.
after applying E
Polarization
Creation of dipoles by applying electric field to the dielectric material is called
polarization. Suppose ‘N’ numbers of dipoles are formed within ‘V’ volume then the
total number of dipole moments can be written as
N
= Q1d1 Q2 d 2 ... Qn d n Qk d k
k 1
Polarization is defined as dipole moment/unit volume of the dielectric whose unit is
(C/m2)
N
Qk d k
k 1
Polarization P lim C/m2 …..(1.14.1)
V 0 V
Polarized(bounded) surface charge density ps P an and polarized (bounded)
volume charge density pv P
Consider a volume which has dielectric material with volume charge density v. Then
the total volume charge density T v pv D
v pv 0 E
v 0 E pv
v 0 E P pv P
v 0 E P
v D
where D 0 E P …..(1.14.2)
The electric flux density D in free space is 0 E i.e., P = 0 in free space.
From the above equation we can say that D is getting increased by P in dielectric
materials.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 83
From the discussion on polarization P is directly related with electric field E
P X E 0 E …..(1.14.3)
Where XE is the electric susceptibility. The value of parameter XE gives how
susceptible the given dielectric material to the applied electric field.
Dielectric constant and strength:
Substitute equation (1.14.2) in equation (1.14.1)
D 0 E X E 0 E
0 1 X E E
0 r E
E
where = 0.r r 1 XE
0
Where is the permittivity of dielectric material and 0 is the permittivity of free
space and r is the dielectric constant or relative permittivity. The dielectric constant
r can be defined as the ratio of to 0 .
If electric field strength is more such that it pulls the electrons from the outer shells of
dielectric molecules, then the dielectric material becomes conducting material and we can
say dielectric material has been broken.
Dielectric strength can be defined as the maximum electric field with which dielectric
material can tolerate or withstand.
1.15 Linear, Isotropic and Homogeneous Dielectrics
Dielectric materials can be classified into
(i) linear dielectrics
(ii) homogeneous dielectrics
(iii) isotropic dielectrics.
Linear Dielectrics: If does not change with electric field then we can say the dielectric
as linear dielectric.
Homogeneous Dielectrics: If does not change from point to point then we can say the
dielectric as homogeneous dielectric.
84 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Isotropic dielectrics: If does not change with the direction then we can say the
dielectric as isotropic dielectric.
Similarly conducting materials are classified as
If ‘’ is independent of E then the conducting material is linear conducting material.
If ‘’ is independent of direction then the conducting material is isotropic conductor.
If ‘’ does not change from point to point then the conducting material is
homogeneous conductor.
1.16 Continuity Equation and Relaxation Time
1.16.1 Continuity Equation
According to conservation of energy the rate of decrease of charge within a volume is
equal to the net outward current flowing through a closed surface
dQ
J ds
I out
dt
S
According to divergence theorem J ds J dv …..(1.16.1a)
S v
dQ dQ d
v dv
dt
can be written as
dt dt
= v dv …..(1.16.1b)
V
t
equations(1.16.1a) = (1.16.1b)
Jdv t v dv
v v
v
J …..(1.16.1c)
t
which is the continuity current equation.
The left side of the equation is the divergence of the Electric Current Density J .
This is a measure of whether current is flowing into a volume (i.e., the divergence of J is
positive if more current leaves the volume than enters).
Recall that current is the flow of electric charge. So if the divergence of J is positive,
then more charge is exiting than entering the specified volume. If charge is exiting, then
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 85
the amount of charge within the volume must be decreasing. This is exactly what the right
side is a measure of how much electric charge is accumulating or leaving in a volume.
Hence, the continuity equation is about continuity - if there is a net electric current is
flowing out of a region, then the charge in that region must be decreasing. If there is more
electric current flowing into a given volume than exiting, then the amount of electric
charge must be increasing.
1.16.2 Relaxation Time
To derive the equation for relaxation time,
consider Maxwell’s first equation i.e.,
D v
E v
v
E …..(1.16.2)
Consider the conduction current equation (point form of ohm’s law)
J E …..(1.16.3)
v
From (1.16.2) E
v
J from (1.16.3)
v
v from continuity equation
t
v
t
v
on integrating
ln v t ln v0
v t
e e
t / /
…..(1.16.4)
v0
v0 = initial volume change density
Tr
86 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Which is relaxation time or rearrangement time.
Let us consider the effect of inserting the charge in the interior point of the material
(Material can be conductor or dielectric).
Due to the insertion of charge in the interior point of the material, the volume charge
density decreases exponentially.
Relaxation time can be defined as the time it takes a charge placed within an interior
point of material to drop to e–1 = 36.8% of its initial value.
Relaxation time is very short for good conductors and high for good dielectrics. When
we place a charge within a conductor within a short period charge disappears and it
appears on the surface of conductor. Similarly when we place a charge within a dielectric
material the charge remains there for a longer time.
1.17 Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations
We can find E or D by using Coloumb’s law or Gauss’s law, (if the distribution is
symmetry) if the charge distribution is known. We can also find out E or D , if the
potential difference is known. But in practical situation charge distribution and potential
difference may not be given, in such cases either charge or potential is known only at
boundary. Such type of situations or problems can be tackled either by using Poisson’s
equation or Laplace’s equation.
We know Maxwell’s first equation D v
Substitute D E in the above equation
E v
we know E V
V v …..(1.17.1a)
which is the Poisson’s equation for in-homogeneous medium.
For charge free medium v = 0
V 0 …..(1.17.1b)
which is the Laplace’s equation for in-homogeneous charge free medium.
For homogeneous medium since is constant
2 v
V …..(1.17.2)
which is the Poisson’s equation for homogeneous medium.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 87
For charge free region v 0
2V 0 …..(1.17.3)
which is the Laplace’s equation for homogeneous charge free medium.
We know
V V V
V ax ay az
x y z
2V 2V 2V
V 2V 0 …..(1.17.4)
x 2 y 2 z 2
Which is Laplace’s equation in rectangular co-ordinate system.
where 2 is Laplacian operator
In cylindrical co-ordinate system is
1 V 1 2V 2V
2V 0 …..(1.17.5)
2 2 z 2
In spherical co-ordinate system
1 V 1 V 1 2V
2V 2 r 2 2 sin 2 2 0 …..(1.17.6)
r r r r sin r sin 2
Problem 1.36
Write Laplace’s equation in rectangular co-ordinates for two parallel planes of infinite
extent in the X and Y directions and separated by a distance ‘d’ in the Z-direction.
Determine the potential distribution and electric field strength in the region between the
planes.
Solution
2V = 0
2V 2V 2V
0
x 2 y 2 z 2
since the potential is constant in X and Y directions
V V 2V 2V
0
x y x 2 y 2
2V Fig. 1.40
0
z 2
88 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
V
A
z
V = Az + B
At Z = 0 V = V1
V1 = 0 +B
At Z = d V = V2
V2 = Ad +B
V2 = Ad+V1
V2 V1
A
d
V2 V1
The Potential distribution is V z V1
d
The Electric field strength is
V V V V V
E V = az 2 1 az 1 2 az
z d d
1.18 Parallel Plate Capacitor, Coaxial Capacitor,
Spherical Capacitor
Capacitor may be obtained by separarting two conductors in some medium, which are
having charges equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, such that the flux leaving from
one surface of the conductor, terminates at the other conductor. Medium can be either
free space or dielectric . Generally these conductors are called plates.
Let us consider two conductors with + Q and – Q
charges and are connected to a voltage or potential
difference ‘V’ as shown in the Fig.1.41.
The potential difference ‘V’ can be written in terms of
2
E as potential difference V = V1 – V2 = E dL
1
The parameter of the capacitor i.e., ‘capacitance’ is Fig. 1.41 Two conductors
connected to V
defined as the ratio of charge on one of the conductors to
the potential difference between two conductors.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 89
Q
D ds E ds
C S
S
…..(1.18.1)
V E dL E dL
1.18.1 Parallel Plate Capacitor
Consider two conductors whose area as ‘A’ and are separated by a distance ‘d’ as shown
in Fig.1.42.
We know the electric field intensity E between
s
parallel plate capacitors in free space as E an
0
s
But from the Fig. 1.41 E (ax )
E will be in opposite direction of x-axis
Q Fig. 1.42 Parallel plate
Q = s. A s
A capacitor
Where A = area of conductor.
Q
E ax
A
We know the potential difference between two conductors which are separated by a
distance ‘d’ as
d
V E .dL
0
where dL dx ax
d
Q
V ax .dx ax
0
A
d
Q Qd
V dx
0
A A
Q A
C …..(1.18.2)
V d
Energy stored in the parallel plate capacitor is
90 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
1
2 v
WE E E dv
1
WE
2v
s a x s a x dv
1 s2
2 v 2
WE dv
1 s2 1 s2 s2 Ad
2 V
WE dv A d
2 2
Q
Replace s by
A
1 Q 2 Ad 1 Q 2 1
WE VQ …..(1.18.3)
2 A2 2 C 2
*Problem 1.37
Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric, mica filled
between plates. r of mica is 6. The plates of the capacitor are square in shape with
0.254 cm side. Separation between the two plates is 0.254 cm.
Solution
A
We have C
d
Here 0r 8.854 1012 6
8.854 1012 6 0.254 0.254 104
C 0.1349 pF
0.254 102
*Problem 1.38
A parallel plate capacitance has 500 mm side plates of square shape separated by 10 mm
distance. A sulphur slab of 6 mm thickness with r 4 is kept on the lower plate find the
capacitance of the set-up. If a voltage of 100 volts is applied across the capacitor,
calculate the voltages at both the regions of the capacitor between the plates.
Solution
Given
Area of parallel plates, A = 500 mm × 500 mm = 500 × 500 × 10–6 m2.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 91
Distance of separation d = 10 mm = 10 × 10–3 m.
Thickness of sulphur slab d2 = 6 mm = 6 × 10–3 m.
Relative permittivity of sulphur slab r 4 .
Voltage applied across the capacitor V = 100 V.
Here the capacitor has two dielectric media,
One medium is the sulphur slab of thickness (d2)6 mm,
since the distance between the plates(d) is 10 mm
The remaining distance is air d1 d d 2 = 4 mm.
The other dielectric medium is air with thickness d1 4 mm.
The capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor with two dielectric media is
0 A
C F
d1 d 2
r r
1 2
Here r1 (air) = 1, r2 = r 4
8.854 1012 500 500 106
C 0.402 nF
4 103 6 103
1 4
The charge Q = CV = 0.402 × 10–9 × 100 = 4.02 × 10–8 C
The value of capacitance (C1) in delectric-1 i.e., air is
A 8.854 1012 500 500 106
C1 0 0.55 nF
d1 4 103
Similarly, The value of capacitance (C2) in delectric-2 i.e., sulphur is
A 4 8.854 1012 500 500 106
C2 1.48 nF
d2 6 103
We have V = V1 + V2
Where V1 is the voltage at the region of the capacitor plate near dielectric-1 i.e., air.
and V2 is the voltage at the region of the capacitor plate near dielectric-2 i.e., sulphur.
Q1 Q 4.02 108
V1 73.1 V
C1 C1 0.55 109
V2 = 100 – 73.1 = 26.9 V
92 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
1.18.2 Co-axial Capacitor
Consider two co-axial cables or co-axial cylinders of length ‘L’ where inner cylinder
radius is ‘a’ and outer cylinder radius is ‘b’ as shown in Fig.1.43. The space between two
cylinders is filled up with a homogeneous dielectric material with permittivity . Assume
the charge on inner cylinder as Q and on the outer cylinder as –Q.
we have charge enclosed by the cylinder as
Q D ds where D D a and ds d dz a
2 L
Q D d dz 2 D L 2 E L
0 z 0
Fig. 1.43 Co-axial capacitor
Q Q
i.e., E E a
2 L 2 L
To find the capacitance of co-axial capacitor. We need to find the potential difference
between the two cylinders.
a
V E.dl where dl d a
b
a
V E .d a
b
a
Q
d
b
2 L
Q b
V ln
2 L a
Q 2 L
C …..(1.18.4)
V ln b
a
Which is the expression for Coaxial capacitance.
1.18.3 Spherical Capacitor
Consider two spheres i.e., inner sphere of radius ‘a’ and outer sphere of radius ‘b’ which
are separated by a dielectric medium with permittivity as shown in Fig.1.44. The
charge on the inner sphere is +Q and on the outer sphere is –Q.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 93
We have charge enclosed by the sphere as
D.d s
Q
S
where D D r a r ;
ds r 2 sin d d ar
2
Q d r 2 sin Dr d Fig. 1.44 Spherical capacitor
0 0
Q
Dr
4 r 2
Q
Er
4 r 2
Q
E ar
4 r 2
To find the capacitance of spherical capacitor. We need to find the potential difference
between the two spheres.
a
V E dl
b
where dl dr ar
a
Q 1
4 b r 2
V dr
Q 1 1
4 a b
Q 4
C …..(1.18.5)
V 1 1
a b
Which is the expression for Spherical capacitance.
94 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Review Questions and Answers
1. State stokes theorem.
Ans. The line integral of a vector around a closed path is equal to the surface integral of
the normal component of its curl over any surface bounded by the path.
A ds A dL
S L
2. State coulombs law.
Ans. Coulombs law states that the force between any two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. It is directed along the line joining the two
charges.
Q1Q2
F12 aR
4 0 R 2 12
3. State Gauss law for eelectric fields.
Ans. The total electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by that surface.
4. Define electric flux.
Ans. The lines of electric force is electric flux.
5. Define electric flux density.
Ans. Electric flux density is defined as electric flux per unit area.
6. Define electric field intensity.
Ans. Electric field intensity is defined as the electric force per unit positive charge.
7. Name few applications of Gauss law in electrostatics.
Ans. Gauss law is applied to find the electric field intensity from a closed surface, i.e.,
Electric field can be determined for shell, two concentric shell or cylinders etc.
8. What is a point charge?
Ans. Point charge is one whose maximum dimension is very small in comparison with
any other length.
9. Define linear charge density.
Ans. It is the charge per unit length.
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 95
10. Write poisson’s and laplace’s equations.
Ans. Poisson’s eqn:
v
2V
Laplace’s eqn:
2V 0
11. Define potential difference.
Ans. Potential difference is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge
from one point to another point in an electric field.
12. Define potential.
Ans. Potential at any point is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge
from infinity to that point in an electric field.
13. Give the relation between electric field intensity and electric flux density.
Ans. D E C/m2
14. Give the relationship between potential gradiant and electric field.
Ans. E V
15. What is the physical significance of div D ?
Ans. .D v
The divergence of a vector flux density is electric flux per unit volume leaving a
small volume. This is equal to the volume charge density.
16. Define current density
Ans. Current density is defined as the current per unit area.
I
J= Amp/m2
A
17. Write the point form of continuity equation and explain its significance.
v
Ans. J
t
which is the continuity current equation and it’s significance is:
96 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
The left side of the equation is the divergence of the Electric Current Density J .
This is a measure of whether current is flowing into a volume (i.e., the divergence
of J is positive if more current leaves the volume than enters).
Recall that current is the flow of electric charge. So if the divergence of J is
positive, then more charge is exiting than entering the specified volume. If charge
is exiting, then the amount of charge within the volume must be decreasing. This is
exactly what the right side is a measure of - how much electric charge is
accumulating or leaving in a volume. Hence, the continuity equation is about
continuity - if there is a net electric current is flowing out of a region, then the
charge in that region must be decreasing. If there is more electric current flowing
into a given volume than exiting, then the amount of electric charge must be
increasing.
18. Write the expression for energy density in electrostatic field.
1
Ans. wE E2
2
19. Write down the expression for capacitance between two parallel plates.
A
Ans. C
d
20. What is meant by displacement current?
Ans. Displacement current is the current flowing through the capacitor.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Q1 and Q2 are two point charges, which are at a distance 8 cm apart. The force
acting on Q2 is given by F21 a y 9 1012 N. Now we replace Q2 with a charge of
the same magnitude but opposite polarity, Q3 = – Q2, and we place Q3 at a distance
24 cm away from Q1. What is the vector F31 of the force acting on Q3?
(a) F31 3 1012 a y N (b) F31 3 1012 a y N
(c) F31 1 1012 a y N (d) F31 1 1012 a y N
2. The intensity of the field due to a point charge Q1 at a distance R1 = 1 cm away
from it is E1 = 1 V/m. What is the intensity E2 of the field of a charge Q2 = 4Q1 at a
distance R2 = 2 cm from it?
(a) E2 = 1 V/m (b) E2 = 4 V/m
(c) E2 = 2 V/m (d) E2 = ½ V/m
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 97
3. The intensity of the field due to a line charge pL1 at a distance r1 = 1 cm away from
it is E1 = 1 V/m. What is the intensity E2 of the field of the line charge pL2 = 4 at a
distance r2 = 2 cm from it?
(a) E2 = 1 V/m (b) E2 = 4 V/m
(c) E2 = 2 V/m (d) E2 = ½ V/m
4. Charge Q is uniformly distributed in a sphere of radius a1. How is the charge
density going to change if this same charge is now occupying a sphere of radius
a2 = a1/4 ?
(a) It will increase 4 times (b) It will increase 64 times
(c) It will increase 16 times (d) It will increase 2 times
5. A line charge pL = 5 × 10–3 C/m is located at (x, y) = (0, 0), and is along the z-axis.
Calculate the surface charge density ps (ps > 0) and the location xp (xp > 0) of an
infinite planar charge distributed on the plane at x = xp, so that the total field at the
point P (0. 5 × 10–3, 0) m, is zero.
(a) s 1/(2 ) C/m 2, x p 5 103 m (b) s 1/(2 ) C/m 2 , x p
(c) s 1/ C/m 2, x p 10 103 m (d) s 1/ C/m 2, x p
6. The volume charge density associated with the electric displacement vector in
spherical coordinates sin sin ar cos sin a cos a is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) Not compatible (d) sin
7. The divergence theorem
(a) Relates a line integral to a surface integral
(b) Holds for specific vector fields only
(c) Works only for open surfaces
(d) Relates a surface integral to a volume integral
8. The flux of a vector quantity crossing a closed surface
(a) is always zero
(b) is related to the quantity’s component normal to the surface
(c) is related to the quantity’s component tangential to the surface
(d) is not related in any way to the divergence of that vector quantity
98 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
9. The flux produced by a given set of fixed charges enclosed in a given closed region
is
(a) Dependent on the surface shape of the region, but not the volume
(b) Dependent on the total volume of the region, but not the surface shape
(c) Dependent on the ratio of volume to surface area of the region
(d) Not dependent on any of these as long as the charges are inside the region
10. Consider charges placed inside a closed hemisphere. Consider the flux due to these
charges through the curved regions (Flux A) and through the flat region (Flux B)
(a) Flux A = Flux B
(b) Flux A > Flux B
(c) Flux A < Flux B
(d) Not enough information to decide the relation between Flux A and Flux B
11. An electron (qe = 1.602 × 10–19 C) leaves the cathode of a cathode ray tube (CRT)
and travels in a uniform electrostatic field toward the anode, which is at a potential
Va = 500 V with respect to the cathode. What is the work W done by the
electrostatic field involved in moving the electron from the cathode to the anode?
(a) W 5kJ (b) W 8 1019 J
(c) W 8 1017 J (d) W 5J
12. In the previous question, what is the electric field strength E E if the distance
between the cathode and the anode is 10 cm?
(a) E 5 V/m (b) E 500 V/m
(c) E 50 V/m (d) E 5 kV/m
13. The electrostatic potential due to a point charge Q1 at a distance r1 = 1 cm away
from it is V1 = 1 V. What is the potential V2 of a charge Q2 = 4Q1 at a distance
r2 = 2 cm from it?
(a) V2 0.5 V (b) V2 1 V
(c) V2 4 V (d) V2 2 V
14. The electrostatic potential due to a dipole p1 = p1a2 at a distance r1 = 1 cm away
from it along the z-axis, is V1 = 1 V. What is the potential V2 of a dipole
p2 = 4p1aZ at a distance r2 = 2 cm from it along the z-axis?
(a) V2 0.5 V (b) V2 1 V
(c) V2 4 V (d) V2 2 V
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 99
2 103
15. The electrostatic potential V x V. Where x is measured in meters and
0
0 is the permittivity of vacuum, exists in a region of space (vacuum) in the shape
of a parallelogram of size 10 × 10 × 1 cm. What is the electrostatic energy
WE stored in this region?
(a) WE 2 1010 J (b) WE 1 109 J
(c) WE 4 1010 J (d) WE 3 109 J
16. Which statement is not true?
(a) The static electric field in a conductor is zero
(b) The conductor surface is equipotential
(c) Zero tangential electric field on the surface of a conductor leads to zero
potential difference between points on the surface
(d) The normally directed electrical field on the surface of a conductor is zero
17. The “skin” effect results in
(a) Current flowing in the entire volume as frequency increases
(b) Current flowing only near the surface as frequency increases
(c) Current flowing only near the surface as frequency decreases
(d) Current flowing near the surface at any frequency
18. As frequency increases, skin effect results in
(a) Decreased resistance
(b) Increased resistance
(c) No change in resistance
(d) Increase or decrease depending on material properties.
19. In a parallel-plate capacitor, the charge on the plates is C. What is the electric flux
density magnitude D, if the area of each plate is A = 10–4 m2. Assume uniform field
distribution.
(a) D 105 C/m 2 (b) D 105 /0 C/m 2
(c) D 105 0 C/m 2 (d) D 1013 C/m 2
20. For the capacitor in Previous question, find the voltage between its plates, provided
its capacitance is C = 10 pF.
(a) V 885V (b) V 0 V
(c) V 100 V (d) V 105 V
100 BASICS OF ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
21. The capacitor in above Q no. 19 and 20 uses dielectric of permittivity 0 . The
maximum allowable field intensity (dielectric strength) of this dielectric is
Eds = 3 MV/m. (If E > Eds, the material breaks down.) What is the maximum
voltage Vmax, up to which the capacitor can operate safely (its breakdown voltage)?
(a) Vmax 885V (b) Vmax 1000 V
(c) Vmax 3 106 V (d) Vmax 265V
22. A coaxial capacitor whose cross-section is shown in the figure below has a central
conductor of radius r1 and an outer conductor of radius r3. The region between the
two conductors consists of two regions: (i) the region r1 < p < r2 has a relative
permittivity of r1 2 and (ii) the region r2 < p < r3 has a relative permittivity of
r 2 1 . The radius r2 is such that r2 r1 e2 and r3 r2 e where e 2.71 .
What is the capacitance per unit length?
(a) C1 4 0 (b) C1 0
(c) C1 2 0 (d) C1 0 /2
23. Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations are different in terms of
(a) Definition of potential (b) Presence of non-zero charge
(c) Boundary conditions on potential (d) No difference
Answers
1. (c) 9. (d) 17. (b)
2. (a) 10. (a) 18. (b)
3. (c) 11. (c) 19. (a)
4. (b) 12. (d) 20. (c)
5. (d) 13. (d) 21. (d)
6. (a) 14. (b) 22. (b)
7. (d) 15. (a) 23. (b)
8. (b) 16. (d)
STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS 101
Exercise Questions
1. State the Coulomb’s law in SI units and indicate the parameters used in the equations
with the aid of a diagram.
2. State Gauss’s law. Using divergence theorem and Gauss’s law, relate the density D
to the volume charge density v .
3. Explain the following terms:
(a) Homogeneous and isotropic medium and
(b) Line, surface and volume charge distributions.
4. State and Prove Gauss’s law. List the limitations of Gauss’s law.
5. Express Gauss’s law in both integral and differential forms. Discuss the salient
features of Gauss’s law.
6. Derive Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations starting from Gauss’s law.
7. Using Gauss’s law derive expressions for electric field intensity and electric flux
density due to an infinite sheet of conductor of charge density C/m.
8. Find the force on a charge of –100 mC located at P(2, 0, 5) in free space due to
another charge 300 C located at Q(1, 2, 3).
9. Find the force on a 100 C charge at(0, 0, 3) m, if four like charges of 20 C are
located on X and Y axes at 4 m.
10. Derive an expression for the electric field intensity due to a finite length line charge
along the Z-axis at an arbitrary point Q(x, y, z).
11. A point charge of 15 nC is situated at the origin and another point charge of –12 nC
is located at the point (3, 3, 3) m. Find E and V at the point(0, –3, –3).
12. Obtain the expressions for the field and the potential due to a small Electric dipole
oriented along Z-axis.
13. Define conductivity of a material. Explain the equation of continuity for time
varying fields.
14. As an example of the solution of Laplace’s equation, derive an expression for
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitors.
15. In a certain region J 3r 2 cos ar r 2 sin a A m , find the current crossing the
surface defined by 30o ,0 2 ,0 r 2 m .
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