Carbon cycle

The carbon cycle is that part of

the biogeochemical cycle by
which carbon is exchanged
among the biosphere,
pedosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere of
Earth. Other major
biogeochemical cycles include
the nitrogen cycle and the water
cycle. Carbon is the main
component of biological
compounds as well as a major
component of many minerals
such as limestone. The carbon
cycle comprises a sequence of
events that are key to making
Earth capable of sustaining life.
It describes the movement of
carbon as it is recycled and
reused throughout the biosphere,
as well as long-term processes of Fast carbon cycle showing the movement of carbon between land,
carbon sequestration (storage) to atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons (gigatons) per year. Yellow
and release from carbon sinks. numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, and white are
stored carbon. The effects of the slow (or deep) carbon cycle, such as
To describe the dynamics of the volcanic and tectonic activity are not included.[1]
carbon cycle, a distinction can
be made between the fast and
slow carbon cycle. The fast carbon cycle is also referred to as the biological carbon cycle. Fast carbon
cycles can complete within years, moving substances from atmosphere to biosphere, then back to the
atmosphere. Slow or geological cycles (also called deep carbon cycle) can take millions of years to
complete, moving substances through the Earth's crust between rocks, soil, ocean and atmosphere.[2]

Human activities have disturbed the fast carbon cycle for many centuries by modifying land use, and
moreover with the recent industrial-scale mining of fossil carbon (coal, petroleum, and gas extraction, and
cement manufacture) from the geosphere.[1][3] Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere had increased nearly 52%
over pre-industrial levels by 2020, forcing greater atmospheric and Earth surface heating by the Sun.[4][5]
The increased carbon dioxide has also caused a reduction in the ocean's pH value and is fundamentally
altering marine chemistry.[6][7] The majority of fossil carbon has been extracted over just the past half
century, and rates continue to rise rapidly, contributing to human-caused climate change.[8][9]

Main compartments
The carbon cycle was first described by Antoine Lavoisier and Joseph Priestley, and popularised by
Humphry Davy.[10] The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of
carbon (also called carbon pools) interconnected by pathways of exchange:[11]: 5–6
 Atmosphere
Terrestrial biosphere
Ocean, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota
Sediments, including fossil fuels, freshwater systems, and non-living organic material.
Earth's interior (mantle and crust). These carbon stores interact with the other components
through geological processes.

The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical, geological, and
biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth.[12]
The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial ecosystems, and sediments are fairly
balanced; so carbon levels would be roughly stable without human influence.[4][13]

Atmosphere

Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms:

carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these gases absorb and
retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for
0:00
the greenhouse effect.[12] Methane produces a larger
greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide,
but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-
lived than carbon dioxide. Thus, carbon dioxide contributes
Computer model showing a year in the life
of atmospheric carbon dioxide and how it
more to the global greenhouse effect than methane.[15]
travels around the globe [14]
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere primarily
through photosynthesis and enters the terrestrial and oceanic
biospheres. Carbon dioxide also dissolves directly from the
atmosphere into bodies of water (ocean, lakes, etc.), as well as dissolving in precipitation as raindrops fall
through the atmosphere. When dissolved in water, carbon dioxide reacts with water molecules and forms
carbonic acid, which contributes to ocean acidity. It can then be absorbed by rocks through weathering. It
also can acidify other surfaces it touches or be washed into the ocean.[16]

Human activities over the past two centuries have

increased the amount of carbon in the atmosphere by
nearly 50% as of year 2020, mainly in the form of
carbon dioxide, both by modifying ecosystems' ability
to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by
emitting it directly, e.g., by burning fossil fuels and
manufacturing concrete.[5][12]

In the far future (2 to 3 billion years), the rate at which

carbon dioxide is absorbed into the soil via the
carbonate–silicate cycle will likely increase due to
CO2 concentrations over the last 800,000 years as
expected changes in the sun as it ages. The expected
measured from ice cores (blue/green) and directly
increased luminosity of the Sun will likely speed up the (black)
rate of surface weathering.[17] This will eventually
cause most of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to
be squelched into the Earth's crust as carbonate.[18][19] Once the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere falls below approximately 50 parts per million (tolerances vary among species), C3
photosynthesis will no longer be possible.[19] This has been predicted to occur 600 million years from the
present, though models vary.[20]

Once the oceans on the Earth evaporate in about 1.1 billion years from now,[17] plate tectonics will very
likely stop due to the lack of water to lubricate them. The lack of volcanoes pumping out carbon dioxide
will cause the carbon cycle to end between 1 billion and 2 billion years into the future.[21]

Terrestrial biosphere

The terrestrial biosphere includes the organic carbon in

all land-living organisms, both alive and dead, as well
as carbon stored in soils. About 500 gigatons of carbon
are stored above ground in plants and other living
organisms,[4] while soil holds approximately 1,500
gigatons of carbon.[23] Most carbon in the terrestrial
biosphere is organic carbon,[24] while about a third of
soil carbon is stored in inorganic forms, such as Amount of carbon stored in Earth's various
[25]
calcium carbonate. Organic carbon is a major terrestrial ecosystems, in gigatonnes.[22]
component of all organisms living on earth. Autotrophs
extract it from the air in the form of carbon dioxide,
converting it into organic carbon, while heterotrophs receive carbon by consuming other organisms.

Because carbon uptake in the terrestrial biosphere is dependent on biotic factors, it follows a diurnal and
seasonal cycle. In CO2 measurements, this feature is apparent in the Keeling curve. It is strongest in the
northern hemisphere because this hemisphere has more land mass than the southern hemisphere and thus
more room for ecosystems to absorb and emit carbon.

Carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere in several ways and on

different time scales. The combustion or respiration of
organic carbon releases it rapidly into the atmosphere. It can
also be exported into the ocean through rivers or remain
sequestered in soils in the form of inert carbon.[26] Carbon
stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years
before being washed into rivers by erosion or released into
the atmosphere through soil respiration. Between 1989 and
2008 soil respiration increased by about 0.1% per year.[27] In
2008, the global total of CO2 released by soil respiration was
A portable soil respiration system
measuring soil CO2 flux. roughly 98 billion tonnes ref needed , about 3 times more
carbon than humans are now putting into the atmosphere
each year by burning fossil fuel (this does not represent a net
transfer of carbon from soil to atmosphere, as the respiration is largely offset by inputs to soil carbon).ref
needed There are a few plausible explanations for this trend, but the most likely explanation is that
increasing temperatures have increased rates of decomposition of soil organic matter, which has increased
the flow of CO2 . The length of carbon sequestering in soil is dependent on local climatic conditions and
thus changes in the course of climate change.[28]
Ocean
Size of major carbon pools on the Earth (year
2000 estimates)[12]
The ocean can be conceptually divided into a surface layer
within which water makes frequent (daily to annual) contact Pool
Quantity
with the atmosphere, and a deep layer below the typical (gigatons)
mixed layer depth of a few hundred meters or less, within Atmosphere 720
which the time between consecutive contacts may be
centuries. The dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the Ocean (total) 38,400
surface layer is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere, Total inorganic 37,400
maintaining equilibrium. Partly because its concentration of
DIC is about 15% higher[29] but mainly due to its larger Total organic 1,000
volume, the deep ocean contains far more carbon—it is the Surface layer 670
largest pool of actively cycled carbon in the world,
Deep layer 36,730
containing 50 times more than the atmosphere[12]—but the
timescale to reach equilibrium with the atmosphere is Lithosphere
hundreds of years: the exchange of carbon between the two
Sedimentary carbonates > 60,000,000
layers, driven by thermohaline circulation, is slow.[12]
Kerogens 15,000,000
Carbon enters the ocean mainly through the dissolution of
atmospheric carbon dioxide, a small fraction of which is Terrestrial biosphere (total) 2,000
converted into carbonate. It can also enter the ocean through Living biomass 600 – 1,000
rivers as dissolved organic carbon. It is converted by
organisms into organic carbon through photosynthesis and Dead biomass 1,200
can either be exchanged throughout the food chain or Aquatic biosphere 1–2
precipitated into the oceans' deeper, more carbon-rich layers
as dead soft tissue or in shells as calcium carbonate. It Fossil fuels (total) 4,130
circulates in this layer for long periods of time before either Coal 3,510
being deposited as sediment or, eventually, returned to the
Oil 230
surface waters through thermohaline circulation.[4]
Gas 140
Oceans are basic (with a current pH value of 8.1 to 8.2).
The increase in atmospheric CO2 shifts the pH of the ocean Other (peat) 250

towards neutral in a process called ocean acidification.

Oceanic absorption of CO2 is one of the most important forms of carbon sequestering. The projected rate of
pH reduction could slow the biological precipitation of calcium carbonates, thus decreasing the ocean's
capacity to absorb CO2 .[30][31]

Geosphere

The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates slowly in comparison to the other parts of the global
carbon cycle. It is one of the most important determinants of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, and
thus of global temperatures.[32]

Most of the Earth's carbon is stored inertly in the Earth's lithosphere.[12] Much of the carbon stored in the
Earth's mantle was stored there when the Earth formed.[33] Some of it was deposited in the form of organic
carbon from the biosphere.[34] Of the carbon stored in the geosphere, about 80% is limestone and its
derivatives, which form from the sedimentation of calcium carbonate stored in the shells of marine
organisms. The remaining 20% is stored as kerogens formed through the sedimentation and burial of
terrestrial organisms under high heat and pressure. Organic carbon stored in the geosphere can remain there
for millions of years.[32]
 Carbon can leave the geosphere in
several ways. Carbon dioxide is
released during the metamorphism of
carbonate rocks when they are
subducted into the earth's mantle. This
carbon dioxide can be released into the
atmosphere and ocean through
volcanoes and hotspots.[33] It can also
be removed by humans through the
Diagram showing relative sizes (in gigatonnes) of the main storage direct extraction of kerogens in the
pools of carbon on Earth. Cumulative changes (thru year 2014) from form of fossil fuels. After extraction,
land use and emissions of fossil carbon are included for fossil fuels are burned to release energy
comparison.[22] and emit the carbon they store into the
atmosphere.

Types of dynamics
There is a fast and a slow carbon
cycle. The fast cycle operates in the
biosphere and the slow cycle operates
in rocks. The fast or biological cycle
can complete within years, moving
carbon from atmosphere to biosphere,
then back to the atmosphere. The
slow or geological cycle may extend
deep into the mantle and can take
millions of years to complete, moving
carbon through the Earth's crust
between rocks, soil, ocean and
atmosphere.[2]

The fast carbon cycle involves

relatively short-term biogeochemical
processes between the environment
and living organisms in the biosphere The slow (or deep) carbon cycle operates through rocks
(see diagram at start of article). It The fast carbon cycle operates through the biosphere, see diagram at start of
includes movements of carbon article ↑

between the atmosphere and

terrestrial and marine ecosystems, as
well as soils and seafloor sediments. The fast cycle includes annual cycles involving photosynthesis and
decadal cycles involving vegetative growth and decomposition. The reactions of the fast carbon cycle to
human activities will determine many of the more immediate impacts of climate change.[35][36][37][38][39]

The slow (or deep) carbon cycle involves medium to long-term geochemical processes belonging to the
rock cycle (see diagram on the right). The exchange between the ocean and atmosphere can take centuries,
and the weathering of rocks can take millions of years. Carbon in the ocean precipitates to the ocean floor
where it can form sedimentary rock and be subducted into the Earth's mantle. Mountain building processes
result in the return of this geologic carbon to the Earth's surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon
is returned to the atmosphere by degassing and to the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns to the
ocean through the hydrothermal emission of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million
tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly
to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is less than one percent of the carbon
dioxide put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.[2][35][40]

Sub-processes within fast carbon cycle

Terrestrial carbon in the water cycle

The movement of terrestrial

carbon in the water cycle is
shown in the diagram on the
right and explained below: [41]

1. Atmospheric particles act

as cloud condensation
nuclei, promoting cloud
formation.[42][43]
2. Raindrops absorb
organic and inorganic
carbon through particle
scavenging and
adsorption of organic
vapors while falling
toward Earth.[44][45]
3. Burning and volcanic
eruptions produce highly
condensed polycyclic
aromatic molecules (i.e.
black carbon) that is
returned to the
atmosphere along with
greenhouse gases such Where terrestrial carbon goes when water flows [41]
as CO2.[46][47]
4. Terrestrial plants fix atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, returning a fraction back to
the atmosphere through respiration.[48] Lignin and celluloses represent as much as 80% of
the organic carbon in forests and 60% in pastures.[49][50]
5. Litterfall and root organic carbon mix with sedimentary material to form organic soils where
plant-derived and petrogenic organic carbon is both stored and transformed by microbial
and fungal activity.[51][52][53]
6. Water absorbs plant and settled aerosol-derived dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and
dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) as it passes over forest canopies (i.e. throughfall) and
along plant trunks/stems (i.e. stemflow).[54] Biogeochemical transformations take place as
water soaks into soil solution and groundwater reservoirs[55][56] and overland flow occurs
when soils are completely saturated,[57] or rainfall occurs more rapidly than saturation into
soils.[58]
7. Organic carbon derived from the terrestrial biosphere and in situ primary production is
decomposed by microbial communities in rivers and streams along with physical
decomposition (i.e. photo-oxidation), resulting in a flux of CO2 from rivers to the atmosphere
that are the same order of magnitude as the amount of carbon sequestered annually by the
 terrestrial biosphere.[59][60][61] Terrestrially-derived macromolecules such as lignin [62] and
black carbon [63] are decomposed into smaller components and monomers, ultimately being
converted to CO2, metabolic intermediates, or biomass.
8. Lakes, reservoirs, and floodplains typically store large amounts of organic carbon and
sediments, but also experience net heterotrophy in the water column, resulting in a net flux
of CO2 to the atmosphere that is roughly one order of magnitude less than rivers.[64][61]
Methane production is also typically high in the anoxic sediments of floodplains, lakes, and
reservoirs.[65]
9. Primary production is typically enhanced in river plumes due to the export of fluvial
nutrients.[66][67] Nevertheless, estuarine waters are a source of CO2 to the atmosphere,
globally.[68]
10. Coastal marshes both store and export blue carbon.[69][70][71] Marshes and wetlands are
suggested to have an equivalent flux of CO2 to the atmosphere as rivers, globally.[72]
11. Continental shelves and the open ocean typically absorb CO2 from the atmosphere.[68]
12. The marine biological pump sequesters a small but significant fraction of the absorbed CO2
as organic carbon in marine sediments (see below).[73][41]

Terrestrial runoff to the ocean

Terrestrial and marine

ecosystems are chiefly
connected through riverine
transport, which acts as the main
channel through which erosive
terrestrially derived substances
enter into oceanic systems.
Material and energy exchanges
between the terrestrial biosphere
and the lithosphere as well as
organic carbon fixation and
oxidation processes together
regulate ecosystem carbon and
How carbon moves from inland waters to the ocean
dioxygen (O2 ) pools.[74] Carbon dioxide exchange, photosynthetic production and respiration of
terrestrial vegetation, rock weathering, and sedimentation occur in
Riverine transport, being the terrestrial ecosystems. Carbon transports to the ocean through the land-
main connective channel of river-estuary continuum in the form of organic carbon and inorganic carbon.
these pools, will act to transport Carbon exchange at the air-water interface, transportation, transformation
net primary productivity and sedimentation occur in oceanic ecosystems.[74]
(primarily in the form of
dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
and particulate organic carbon (POC)) from terrestrial to oceanic systems.[75] During transport, part of
DOC will rapidly return to the atmosphere through redox reactions, causing "carbon degassing" to occur
between land-atmosphere storage layers.[76][77] The remaining DOC and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC)
are also exported to the ocean.[78][79][80] In 2015, inorganic and organic carbon export fluxes from global
rivers were assessed as 0.50–0.70 Pg C y−1 and 0.15–0.35 Pg C y−1 respectively.[79] On the other hand,
POC can remain buried in sediment over an extensive period, and the annual global terrestrial to oceanic
POC flux has been estimated at 0.20 (+0.13,-0.07) Gg C y−1 .[81][74]

Biological pump in the ocean

The ocean biological pump is

the ocean's biologically driven
sequestration of carbon from the
atmosphere and land runoff to
the deep ocean interior and
seafloor sediments.[82] The
biological pump is not so much
the result of a single process, but
rather the sum of a number of
processes each of which can
influence biological pumping.
The pump transfers about 11
billion tonnes of carbon every
year into the ocean's interior. An
ocean without the biological
pump would result in
atmospheric CO2 levels about
400 ppm higher than the present
day.[83][84][85]
Flow of carbon through the open ocean
Most carbon incorporated in
organic and inorganic biological
matter is formed at the sea surface where it can then start sinking to the ocean floor. The deep ocean gets
most of its nutrients from the higher water column when they sink down in the form of marine snow. This
is made up of dead or dying animals and microbes, fecal matter, sand and other inorganic material.[86]

The biological pump is responsible for transforming dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) into organic biomass
and pumping it in particulate or dissolved form into the deep ocean. Inorganic nutrients and carbon dioxide
are fixed during photosynthesis by phytoplankton, which both release dissolved organic matter (DOM) and
are consumed by herbivorous zooplankton. Larger zooplankton - such as copepods, egest fecal pellets -
which can be reingested, and sink or collect with other organic detritus into larger, more-rapidly-sinking
aggregates. DOM is partially consumed by bacteria and respired; the remaining refractory DOM is
advected and mixed into the deep sea. DOM and aggregates exported into the deep water are consumed
and respired, thus returning organic carbon into the enormous deep ocean reservoir of DIC.[87]

A single phytoplankton cell has a sinking rate around one metre per day. Given that the average depth of
the ocean is about four kilometres, it can take over ten years for these cells to reach the ocean floor.
However, through processes such as coagulation and expulsion in predator fecal pellets, these cells form
aggregates. These aggregates have sinking rates orders of magnitude greater than individual cells and
complete their journey to the deep in a matter of days.[88]

About 1% of the particles leaving the surface ocean reach the seabed and are consumed, respired, or buried
in the sediments. The net effect of these processes is to remove carbon in organic form from the surface and
return it to DIC at greater depths, maintaining a surface-to-deep ocean gradient of DIC. Thermohaline
circulation returns deep-ocean DIC to the atmosphere on millennial timescales. The carbon buried in the
sediments can be subducted into the earth's mantle and stored for millions of years as part of the slow
carbon cycle (see next section).[87]

Sub-processes within slow carbon cycle

Slow or deep carbon cycling is an
important process, though it is not as
well-understood as the relatively fast
carbon movement through the
atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere,
ocean, and geosphere. [89] The deep
carbon cycle is intimately connected to
the movement of carbon in the Earth's
surface and atmosphere. If the process
did not exist, carbon would remain in
the atmosphere, where it would
accumulate to extremely high levels
over long periods of time.[90] Movement of oceanic plates—which carry carbon compounds—
Therefore, by allowing carbon to through the mantle
return to the Earth, the deep carbon
cycle plays a critical role in
maintaining the terrestrial conditions necessary for life to exist.

Furthermore, the process is also significant simply due to the massive quantities of carbon it transports
through the planet. In fact, studying the composition of basaltic magma and measuring carbon dioxide flux
out of volcanoes reveals that the amount of carbon in the mantle is actually greater than that on the Earth's
surface by a factor of one thousand.[91] Drilling down and physically observing deep-Earth carbon
processes is evidently extremely difficult, as the lower mantle and core extend from 660 to 2,891 km and
2,891 to 6,371 km deep into the Earth respectively. Accordingly, not much is conclusively known
regarding the role of carbon in the deep Earth. Nonetheless, several pieces of evidence—many of which
come from laboratory simulations of deep Earth conditions—have indicated mechanisms for the element's
movement down into the lower mantle, as well as the forms that carbon takes at the extreme temperatures
and pressures of said layer. Furthermore, techniques like seismology have led to a greater understanding of
the potential presence of carbon in the Earth's core.

Carbon in the lower mantle

Carbon principally enters the mantle in

the form of carbonate-rich sediments
on tectonic plates of ocean crust, which
pull the carbon into the mantle upon
undergoing subduction. Not much is
known about carbon circulation in the
mantle, especially in the deep Earth,
Carbon outgassing through various processes [92]
but many studies have attempted to
augment our understanding of the
element's movement and forms within the region. For instance, a 2011 study demonstrated that carbon
cycling extends all the way to the lower mantle. The study analyzed rare, super-deep diamonds at a site in
Juina, Brazil, determining that the bulk composition of some of the diamonds' inclusions matched the
expected result of basalt melting and crystallisation under lower mantle temperatures and pressures.[93]
Thus, the investigation's findings indicate that pieces of basaltic oceanic lithosphere act as the principle
transport mechanism for carbon to Earth's deep interior. These subducted carbonates can interact with lower
mantle silicates, eventually forming super-deep diamonds like the one found.[94]

However, carbonates descending to the lower mantle encounter other fates in addition to forming
diamonds. In 2011, carbonates were subjected to an environment similar to that of 1800 km deep into the
Earth, well within the lower mantle. Doing so resulted in the formations of magnesite, siderite, and
numerous varieties of graphite.[95] Other experiments—as well as petrologic observations—support this
claim, indicating that magnesite is actually the most stable carbonate phase in most part of the mantle. This
is largely a result of its higher melting temperature.[96] Consequently, scientists have concluded that
carbonates undergo reduction as they descend into the mantle before being stabilised at depth by low
oxygen fugacity (https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-642-27833-4_4021-3.pdfOxgyen+fu
gacity) environments. Magnesium, iron, and other metallic compounds act as buffers throughout the
process.[97] The presence of reduced, elemental forms of carbon like graphite would indicate that carbon
compounds are reduced as they descend into the mantle.

Polymorphism alters carbonate compounds' stability at different depths

within the Earth. To illustrate, laboratory simulations and density
functional theory calculations suggest that tetrahedrally coordinated
carbonates are most stable at depths approaching the core–mantle
boundary.[98][95] A 2015 study indicates that the lower mantle's high
pressure causes carbon bonds to transition from sp2 to sp3 hybridised
orbitals, resulting in carbon tetrahedrally bonding to oxygen.[99] CO3
trigonal groups cannot form polymerisable networks, while tetrahedral
CO4 can, signifying an increase in carbon's coordination number, and
Carbon is tetrahedrally therefore drastic changes in carbonate compounds' properties in the lower
bonded to oxygen mantle. As an example, preliminary theoretical studies suggest that high
pressure causes carbonate melt viscosity to increase; the melts' lower
mobility as a result of its increased viscosity causes large deposits of
carbon deep into the mantle.[100]

Accordingly, carbon can remain in the lower mantle for long periods of time, but large concentrations of
carbon frequently find their way back to the lithosphere. This process, called carbon outgassing, is the
result of carbonated mantle undergoing decompression melting, as well as mantle plumes carrying carbon
compounds up towards the crust.[101] Carbon is oxidised upon its ascent towards volcanic hotspots, where
it is then released as CO2 . This occurs so that the carbon atom matches the oxidation state of the basalts
erupting in such areas.[102]

Carbon in the core

Although the presence of carbon in the Earth's core is well-

constrained, recent studies suggest large inventories of carbon could
be stored in this region. Shear (S) waves moving through the inner
core travel at about fifty percent of the velocity expected for most
iron-rich alloys.[103] Because the core's composition is believed to
be an alloy of crystalline iron and a small amount of nickel, this
Knowledge about carbon in the core
seismic anomaly indicates the presence of light elements, including can be gained by analysing shear
carbon, in the core. In fact, studies using diamond anvil cells to wave velocities
replicate the conditions in the Earth's core indicate that iron carbide
(Fe7 C3 ) matches the inner core's wave speed and density. Therefore, the iron carbide model could serve as
an evidence that the core holds as much as 67% of the Earth's carbon.[104] Furthermore, another study
found that in the pressure and temperature condition of the Earth's inner core, carbon dissolved in iron and
formed a stable phase with the same Fe7 C3 composition—albeit with a different structure from the one
previously mentioned.[105] In summary, although the amount of carbon potentially stored in the Earth's core
is not known, recent studies indicate that the presence of iron carbides can explain some of the geophysical
observations.

Human influence on fast carbon cycle

Carbon dioxide emissions and partitioning

Emissions of CO2 have been caused by Partitioning of CO2 emissions show that
different sources ramping up one after the other most emissions are being absorbed by
(Global Carbon Project) carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil
uptake, and ocean uptake (Global Carbon
Project)

Since the industrial revolution, and

especially since the end of WWII, human
activity has substantially disturbed the
global carbon cycle by redistributing
massive amounts of carbon from the
geosphere.[1] Humans have also continued
to shift the natural component functions of
the terrestrial biosphere with changes to
vegetation and other land use.[12] Man-
made (synthetic) carbon compounds have
been designed and mass-manufactured that
will persist for decades to millennia in air,
water, and sediments as pollutants.[106][107] Schematic representation of the overall perturbation of the
Climate change is amplifying and forcing global carbon cycle caused by anthropogenic activities,
further indirect human changes to the averaged from 2010 to 2019.
carbon cycle as a consequence various
positive and negative feedbacks.[28]

Climate change
Current trends in climate change
lead to higher ocean
temperatures and acidity, thus
modifying marine
ecosystems. [109] Also, acid rain
and polluted runoff from
agriculture and industry change
the ocean's chemical
composition. Such changes can
have dramatic effects on highly Climate–carbon cycle feedbacks and state variables
sensitive ecosystems such as as represented in a stylised model
Carbon stored on land in vegetation and soils is aggregated into a single
coral reefs,[110] thus limiting the
stock ct. Ocean mixed layer carbon, cm, is the only explicitly modelled
ocean's ability to absorb carbon
ocean stock of carbon; though to estimate carbon cycle feedbacks the
from the atmosphere on a
regional scale and reducing total ocean carbon is also calculated.[108]
oceanic biodiversity globally.

The exchanges of carbon between the atmosphere and other components of the Earth system, collectively
known as the carbon cycle, currently constitute important negative (dampening) feedbacks on the effect of
anthropogenic carbon emissions on climate change. Carbon sinks in the land and the ocean each currently
take up about one-quarter of anthropogenic carbon emissions each year.[111][108]

These feedbacks are expected to weaken in the future, amplifying the effect of anthropogenic carbon
emissions on climate change.[112] The degree to which they will weaken, however, is highly uncertain,
with Earth system models predicting a wide range of land and ocean carbon uptakes even under identical
atmospheric concentration or emission scenarios.[113][108][114] Arctic methane emissions indirectly caused
by anthropogenic global warming also affect the carbon cycle and contribute to further warming.

Fossil carbon extraction and burning

The largest and one of the fastest growing human impacts on

the carbon cycle and biosphere is the extraction and burning
of fossil fuels, which directly transfer carbon from the
geosphere into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is also
produced and released during the calcination of limestone for
clinker production.[115] Clinker is an industrial precursor of
cement.

As of 2020, about 450 gigatons of fossil carbon have been

extracted in total; an amount approaching the carbon
contained in all of Earth's living terrestrial biomass.[3] Recent
rates of global emissions directly into the atmosphere have
exceeded the uptake by vegetation and the
oceans. [116][117][118][119] These sinks have been expected
and observed to remove about half of the added atmospheric
Detail of anthropogenic carbon flows,
carbon within about a century.[3][120][121] Nevertheless, showing cumulative mass in gigatons
sinks like the ocean have evolving saturation properties, and during years 1850–2018 (left) and the
annual mass average during 2009–2018
(right).[3]
a substantial fraction (20–35%, based on coupled models) of the added carbon is projected remain in the
atmosphere for centuries to millennia.[122][123]

Halocarbons

Halocarbons are less prolific compounds developed for diverse uses throughout industry; for example as
solvents and refrigerants. Nevertheless, the buildup of relatively small concentrations (parts per trillion) of
chlorofluorocarbon, hydrofluorocarbon, and perfluorocarbon gases in the atmosphere is responsible for
about 10% of the total direct radiative forcing from all long-lived greenhouse gases (year 2019); which
includes forcing from the much larger concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane.[124]
Chlorofluorocarbons also cause stratospheric ozone depletion. International efforts are ongoing under the
Montreal Protocol and Kyoto Protocol to control rapid growth in the industrial manufacturing and use of
these environmentally potent gases. For some applications more benign alternatives such as
hydrofluoroolefins have been developed and are being gradually introduced.[125]

Land use changes

Since the invention of agriculture, humans have directly and gradually influenced the carbon cycle over
century-long timescales by modifying the mixture of vegetation in the terrestrial biosphere.[120] Over the
past several centuries, direct and indirect human-caused land use and land cover change (LUCC) has led to
the loss of biodiversity, which lowers ecosystems' resilience to environmental stresses and decreases their
ability to remove carbon from the atmosphere. More directly, it often leads to the release of carbon from
terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere.

Deforestation for agricultural purposes removes forests, which hold large amounts of carbon, and replaces
them, generally with agricultural or urban areas. Both of these replacement land cover types store
comparatively small amounts of carbon so that the net result of the transition is that more carbon stays in the
atmosphere. However, the effects on the atmosphere and overall carbon cycle can be intentionally and/or
naturally reversed with reforestation.

See also
Biogeochemical cycle – Chemical transfer pathway between Earth's biological and non-
biological parts
Climate change mitigation – Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate
change
Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere – Atmospheric constituent; greenhouse gas
Carbon sequestration – Storing carbon in a carbon pool (natural as well as enhanced or
artificial processes)
Carbonate–silicate cycle – Geochemical transformation of silicate rocks
Ocean acidification – Climate change-induced decline of pH levels in the ocean
Permafrost carbon cycle – Sub-cycle of the larger global carbon cycle

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External links
Carbon Cycle Science Program (https://web.archive.org/web/20040602163557/http://www.c
arboncyclescience.gov/) – an interagency partnership.
NOAA's Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases Group (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/index.
html)
Global Carbon Project – initiative of the Earth System Science Partnership (http://www.globa
lcarbonproject.org/)
UNEP – The present carbon cycle – Climate Change (http://www.grida.no/climate/vital/13.ht
m) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080915231431/http://www.grida.no/climate/vital/
13.htm) 15 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine carbon levels and flows
NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory (http://oco.jpl.nasa.gov/) Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20180909072113/https://oco.jpl.nasa.gov/) 9 September 2018 at the Wayback
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