Biogeochemical cycle

A biogeochemical cycle, or more generally a cycle of matter,[1] is the movement and transformation of
chemical elements and compounds between living organisms, the atmosphere, and the Earth's crust. Major
biogeochemical cycles include the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. In each cycle, the
chemical element or molecule is transformed and cycled by living organisms and through various
geological forms and reservoirs, including the atmosphere, the soil and the oceans. It can be thought of as
the pathway by which a chemical substance cycles (is turned over or moves through) the biotic
compartment and the abiotic compartments of Earth. The biotic compartment is the biosphere and the
abiotic compartments are the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.

For example, in the carbon cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants through
photosynthesis, which converts it into organic compounds that are used by organisms for energy and
growth. Carbon is then released back into the atmosphere through respiration and decomposition.
Additionally, carbon is stored in fossil fuels and is released into the atmosphere through human activities
such as burning fossil fuels. In the nitrogen cycle, atmospheric nitrogen gas is converted by plants into
usable forms such as ammonia and nitrates through the process of nitrogen fixation. These compounds can
be used by other organisms, and nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere through denitrification and other
processes. In the water cycle, the universal solvent water evaporates from land and oceans to form clouds in
the atmosphere, and then precipitates back to different parts of the planet. Precipitation can seep into the
ground and become part of groundwater systems used by plants and other organisms, or can runoff the
surface to form lakes and rivers. Subterranean water can then seep into the ocean along with river
discharges, rich with dissolved and particulate organic matter and other nutrients.

There are biogeochemical cycles for many other elements, such as for oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus,
calcium, iron, sulfur, mercury and selenium. There are also cycles for molecules, such as water and silica.
In addition there are macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle, and human-induced cycles for synthetic
compounds such as for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In some cycles there are geological reservoirs
where substances can remain or be sequestered for long periods of time.

Biogeochemical cycles involve the interaction of biological, geological, and chemical processes. Biological
processes include the influence of microorganisms, which are critical drivers of biogeochemical cycling.
Microorganisms have the ability to carry out wide ranges of metabolic processes essential for the cycling of
nutrients and chemicals throughout global ecosystems. Without microorganisms many of these processes
would not occur, with significant impact on the functioning of land and ocean ecosystems and the planet's
biogeochemical cycles as a whole. Changes to cycles can impact human health. The cycles are
interconnected and play important roles regulating climate, supporting the growth of plants, phytoplankton
and other organisms, and maintaining the health of ecosystems generally. Human activities such as burning
fossil fuels and using large amounts of fertilizer can disrupt cycles, contributing to climate change,
pollution, and other environmental problems.

Overview
Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic molecules for
chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during the many transfers between trophic levels. However, the
matter that makes up living organisms is conserved and recycled. The six most common elements
associated with organic molecules — carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur — take a
variety of chemical forms and may exist for long periods in the atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath
the Earth's surface. Geologic processes, such as weathering,
erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of the continental
plates, all play a role in this recycling of materials. Because
geology and chemistry have major roles in the study of this
process, the recycling of inorganic matter between living
organisms and their environment is called a biogeochemical
cycle.[3]

The six aforementioned elements are used by organisms in a

variety of ways. Hydrogen and oxygen are found in water
and organic molecules, both of which are essential to life.
Carbon is found in all organic molecules, whereas nitrogen is
an important component of nucleic acids and proteins.
Phosphorus is used to make nucleic acids and the
phospholipids that comprise biological membranes. Sulfur is
critical to the three-dimensional shape of proteins. The
cycling of these elements is interconnected. For example, the
movement of water is critical for leaching sulfur and Generalized biogeochemical cycle[2]
phosphorus into rivers which can then flow into oceans.
Minerals cycle through the biosphere between the biotic and
abiotic components and from one organism to another.[4]

Ecological systems (ecosystems) have many biogeochemical

cycles operating as a part of the system, for example, the
water cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, etc. All
chemical elements occurring in organisms are part of
biogeochemical cycles. In addition to being a part of living
organisms, these chemical elements also cycle through abiotic
factors of ecosystems such as water (hydrosphere), land
(lithosphere), and/or the air (atmosphere).[5] Simplified version of the nitrogen cycle

The living factors of the planet can be referred to collectively

as the biosphere. All the nutrients — such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur — used in
ecosystems by living organisms are a part of a closed system; therefore, these chemicals are recycled instead
of being lost and replenished constantly such as in an open system.[5]

The major parts of the biosphere are connected by the flow of chemical elements and compounds in
biogeochemical cycles. In many of these cycles, the biota plays an important role. Matter from the Earth's
interior is released by volcanoes. The atmosphere exchanges some compounds and elements rapidly with
the biota and oceans. Exchanges of materials between rocks, soils, and the oceans are generally slower by
comparison.[2]

The flow of energy in an ecosystem is an open system; the Sun constantly gives the planet energy in the
form of light while it is eventually used and lost in the form of heat throughout the trophic levels of a food
web. Carbon is used to make carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, the major sources of food energy. These
compounds are oxidized to release carbon dioxide, which can be captured by plants to make organic
compounds. The chemical reaction is powered by the light energy of sunshine.

Sunlight is required to combine carbon with hydrogen and oxygen into an energy source, but ecosystems in
the deep sea, where no sunlight can penetrate, obtain energy from sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide near
hydrothermal vents can be utilized by organisms such as the giant tube worm. In the sulfur cycle, sulfur can
be forever recycled as a source of energy. Energy can be released through the oxidation and reduction of
sulfur compounds (e.g., oxidizing elemental sulfur to sulfite and then to sulfate).

Examples of major The oceanic whale pump

biogeochemical processes showing how whales cycle
nutrients through the ocean
water column

The implications of shifts in the

global carbon cycle due to
human activity are concerning
scientists.[6]

Although the Earth constantly receives energy from the Sun, its chemical composition is essentially fixed,
as the additional matter is only occasionally added by meteorites. Because this chemical composition is not
replenished like energy, all processes that depend on these chemicals must be recycled. These cycles
include both the living biosphere and the nonliving lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere.

Biogeochemical cycles can be contrasted with geochemical cycles. The latter deals only with crustal and
subcrustal reservoirs even though some process from both overlap.

Compartments

Atmosphere

Hydrosphere
The global ocean covers more than 70% of the
Earth's surface and is remarkably
heterogeneous. Marine productive areas, and
coastal ecosystems comprise a minor fraction
of the ocean in terms of surface area, yet have
an enormous impact on global biogeochemical
cycles carried out by microbial communities,
which represent 90% of the ocean's biomass.[8]
Work in recent years has largely focused on
cycling of carbon and macronutrients such as
nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicate: other
important elements such as sulfur or trace
elements have been less studied, reflecting
associated technical and logistical issues.[9]
Increasingly, these marine areas, and the taxa Beach scene simultaneously showing the atmosphere (air),
that form their ecosystems, are subject to hydrosphere (ocean) and lithosphere (ground)
significant anthropogenic pressure, impacting
marine life and recycling of energy and
nutrients.[10][11][12] A key example is that of
cultural eutrophication, where agricultural
runoff leads to nitrogen and phosphorus
enrichment of coastal ecosystems, greatly
increasing productivity resulting in algal
blooms, deoxygenation of the water column
and seabed, and increased greenhouse gas
emissions,[13] with direct local and global
impacts on nitrogen and carbon cycles.
However, the runoff of organic matter from the
mainland to coastal ecosystems is just one of a
series of pressing threats stressing microbial
communities due to global change. Climate
change has also resulted in changes in the Some roles of marine organisms in biogeochemical cycling
cryosphere, as glaciers and permafrost melt, in the Southern Ocean[7]
resulting in intensified marine stratification,
while shifts of the redox-state in different
biomes are rapidly reshaping microbial assemblages at an unprecedented rate.[14][15][16][17][9]

Global change is, therefore, affecting key processes including primary productivity, CO2 and N2 fixation,
organic matter respiration/remineralization, and the sinking and burial deposition of fixed CO2 .[17] In
addition to this, oceans are experiencing an acidification process, with a change of ~0.1 pH units between
the pre-industrial period and today, affecting carbonate/bicarbonate buffer chemistry. In turn, acidification
has been reported to impact planktonic communities, principally through effects on calcifying taxa.[18]
There is also evidence for shifts in the production of key intermediary volatile products, some of which
have marked greenhouse effects (e.g., N2 O and CH4 , reviewed by Breitburg in 2018,[15] due to the
increase in global temperature, ocean stratification and deoxygenation, driving as much as 25 to 50% of
nitrogen loss from the ocean to the atmosphere in the so-called oxygen minimum zones[19] or anoxic
marine zones,[20] driven by microbial processes. Other products, that are typically toxic for the marine
nekton, including reduced sulfur species such as H2 S, have a negative impact for marine resources like
fisheries and coastal aquaculture. While global change has accelerated, there has been a parallel increase in
awareness of the complexity of marine ecosystems, and especially the fundamental role of microbes as
drivers of ecosystem functioning.[16][9]

Lithosphere

Biosphere

Microorganisms drive much of the biogeochemical cycling in the earth system.[21][22]

Reservoirs
The chemicals are sometimes held for long periods of time in one place. This place is called a reservoir,
which, for example, includes such things as coal deposits that are storing carbon for a long period of
time.[23] When chemicals are held for only short periods of time, they are being held in exchange pools.
Examples of exchange pools include plants and animals.[23]

Plants and animals utilize carbon to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which can then be used to
build their internal structures or to obtain energy. Plants and animals temporarily use carbon in their systems
and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium. Generally, reservoirs are abiotic factors
whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a relatively short time in plants and animals in
comparison to coal deposits. The amount of time that a chemical is held in one place is called its residence
time or turnover time (also called the renewal time or exit age).[23]

Box models
Box models are widely used to model biogeochemical
systems.[24][25] Box models are simplified versions of complex
systems, reducing them to boxes (or storage reservoirs) for chemical
materials, linked by material fluxes (flows). Simple box models
have a small number of boxes with properties, such as volume, that
do not change with time. The boxes are assumed to behave as if
they were mixed homogeneously.[25] These models are often used
to derive analytical formulas describing the dynamics and steady-
state abundance of the chemical species involved.

The diagram at the right shows a basic one-box model. The

reservoir contains the amount of material M under consideration, as
Basic one-box model
defined by chemical, physical or biological properties. The source
Q is the flux of material into the reservoir, and the sink S is the flux
of material out of the reservoir. The budget is the check and balance
of the sources and sinks affecting material turnover in a reservoir. The reservoir is in a steady state if Q = S,
that is, if the sources balance the sinks and there is no change over time.[25]

The residence or turnover time is the average time material spends resident in the reservoir. If the reservoir
is in a steady state, this is the same as the time it takes to fill or drain the reservoir. Thus, if τ is the turnover
time, then τ = M/S.[25] The equation describing the rate of change of content in a reservoir is
When two or more reservoirs are connected, the material can be regarded as cycling between the reservoirs,
and there can be predictable patterns to the cyclic flow.[25] More complex multibox models are usually
solved using numerical techniques.

Measurement units
Global biogeochemical box models usually measure:

reservoir masses in petagrams (Pg)

flow fluxes in petagrams per year (Pg yr−1)

The diagram on the left shows a simplified budget of ocean carbon

flows. It is composed of three simple interconnected box models, one
for the euphotic zone, one for the ocean interior or dark ocean, and one
for ocean sediments. In the euphotic zone, net phytoplankton
production is about 50 Pg C each year. About 10 Pg is exported to the
ocean interior while the other 40 Pg is respired. Organic carbon
degradation occurs as particles (marine snow) settle through the ocean
interior. Only 2 Pg eventually arrives at the seafloor, while the other 8
Pg is respired in the dark ocean. In sediments, the time scale available
Simple three box model. for degradation increases by orders of magnitude with the result that
Simplified budget of ocean 90% of the organic carbon delivered is degraded and only 0.2 Pg C
carbon flows[26] yr−1 is eventually buried and transferred from the biosphere to the
geosphere.[26]

The diagram on the right

shows a more complex
model with many
interacting boxes.
Reservoir masses here
represents carbon stocks,
measured in Pg C. Carbon
exchange fluxes,
measured in Pg C yr−1 ,
occur between the
atmosphere and its two
major sinks, the land and
the ocean. The black
numbers and arrows
indicate the reservoir mass
and exchange fluxes
estimated for the year More complex model with many interacting boxes. Export and burial rates of
1750, just before the terrestrial organic carbon in the ocean[27]
Industrial Revolution. The
red arrows (and associated
numbers) indicate the annual flux changes due to anthropogenic activities, averaged over the 2000–2009
time period. They represent how the carbon cycle has changed since 1750. Red numbers in the reservoirs
represent the cumulative changes in anthropogenic carbon since the start of the Industrial Period, 1750–
2011.[28][29][27]

Fast and slow cycles

There are fast and slow biogeochemical cycles.
Fast cycle operate in the biosphere and slow
cycles operate in rocks. Fast or biological cycles
can complete within years, moving substances
from atmosphere to biosphere, then back to the
atmosphere. Slow or geological cycles can take
millions of years to complete, moving substances
through the Earth's crust between rocks, soil,
ocean and atmosphere.[31]

As an example, the fast carbon cycle is illustrated

in the diagram below on the left. This cycle
involves relatively short-term biogeochemical
processes between the environment and living
organisms in the biosphere. It includes movements
of carbon between the atmosphere and terrestrial The fast cycle operates through the biosphere,
including exchanges between land, atmosphere, and
and marine ecosystems, as well as soils and
oceans. The yellow numbers are natural fluxes of
seafloor sediments. The fast cycle includes annual
carbon in billions of tons (gigatons) per year. Red are
cycles involving photosynthesis and decadal
human contributions and white are stored carbon.[30]
cycles involving vegetative growth and
decomposition. The reactions of the fast carbon
cycle to human activities will determine many of
the more immediate impacts of climate
change.[32][33][34][35]

The slow cycle is illustrated in the diagram above

on the right. It involves medium to long-term
geochemical processes belonging to the rock
cycle. The exchange between the ocean and
atmosphere can take centuries, and the weathering
of rocks can take millions of years. Carbon in the
ocean precipitates to the ocean floor where it can
form sedimentary rock and be subducted into the
Earth's mantle. Mountain building processes result
in the return of this geologic carbon to the Earth's
surface. There the rocks are weathered and carbon The slow cycle operates through rocks, including
is returned to the atmosphere by degassing and to volcanic and tectonic activity
the ocean by rivers. Other geologic carbon returns
to the ocean through the hydrothermal emission of
calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle.
This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide.
However, this is less than one percent of the carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere by burning fossil
fuels.[31][32]

Deep cycles
The terrestrial subsurface is the largest reservoir of carbon on earth, containing 14–135 Pg of carbon[36]
and 2–19% of all biomass.[37] Microorganisms drive organic and inorganic compound transformations in
this environment and thereby control biogeochemical cycles. Current knowledge of the microbial ecology
of the subsurface is primarily based on 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequences. Recent estimates
show that <8% of 16S rRNA sequences in public databases derive from subsurface organisms[38] and only
a small fraction of those are represented by genomes or isolates. Thus, there is remarkably little reliable
information about microbial metabolism in the subsurface. Further, little is known about how organisms in
subsurface ecosystems are metabolically interconnected. Some cultivation-based studies of syntrophic
consortia[39][40][41] and small-scale metagenomic analyses of natural communities[42][43][44] suggest that
organisms are linked via metabolic handoffs: the transfer of redox reaction products of one organism to
another. However, no complex environments have been dissected completely enough to resolve the
metabolic interaction networks that underpin them. This restricts the ability of biogeochemical models to
capture key aspects of the carbon and other nutrient cycles.[45] New approaches such as genome-resolved
metagenomics, an approach that can yield a comprehensive set of draft and even complete genomes for
organisms without the requirement for laboratory isolation[42][46][47] have the potential to provide this
critical level of understanding of biogeochemical processes.[48]

Some examples
Some of the more well-known biogeochemical cycles are shown below:

Carbon cycle Oxygen cycle Nitrogen cycle

Nutrient cycle Phosphorus cycle

 Sulfur cycle Rock cycle Water cycle

Many biogeochemical cycles are currently being studied for the first time. Climate change and human
impacts are drastically changing the speed, intensity, and balance of these relatively unknown cycles, which
include:

the mercury cycle,[49] and

the human-caused cycle of PCBs.[50]

Chloroplasts conduct Kerogen cycle[51][52] Coal is a reservoir of

photosynthesis in plant cells carbon
and other eukaryotic
organisms.

Biogeochemical cycles always involve active equilibrium states: a balance in the cycling of the element
between compartments. However, overall balance may involve compartments distributed on a global scale.

As biogeochemical cycles describe the movements of substances on the entire globe, the study of these is
inherently multidisciplinary. The carbon cycle may be related to research in ecology and atmospheric
sciences.[53] Biochemical dynamics would also be related to the fields of geology and pedology.[54]

See also
Environment
portal
Ecology portal
Earth sciences
portal

Carbonate–silicate cycle
Ecological recycling
Great Acceleration
 Hydrogen cycle
Redox gradient

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Further reading
Schink, Bernhard; "Microbes: Masters of the Global Element Cycles" pp 33–58. "Metals,
Microbes and Minerals: The Biogeochemical Side of Life", pp xiv + 341. Walter de Gruyter,
Berlin. DOI 10.1515/9783110589771-002 (https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110589771-002)
Butcher, Samuel S., ed. (1993). Global biogeochemical cycles. London: Academic Press.
ISBN 9780080954707.
Exley, C (15 September 2003). "A biogeochemical cycle for aluminium?". Journal of
Inorganic Biochemistry. 97 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1016/S0162-0134(03)00274-5 (https://doi.org/10.
1016%2FS0162-0134%2803%2900274-5). PMID 14507454 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/14507454).
 Jacobson, Michael C.; Charlson, Robert J.; Rodhe, Henning; Orians, Gordon H. (2000).
Earth system science from biogeochemical cycles to global change (2nd ed.). San Diego,
Calif.: Academic Press. ISBN 9780080530642.
Palmeri, Luca; Barausse, Alberto; Jorgensen, Sven Erik (2013). "12. Biogeochemical
cycles". Ecological processes handbook. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis.
ISBN 9781466558489.

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