OBJECT

(OOMD)ORIENTED MODELLING & DESIGN

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design

Dr.Roopa Ravish
Dept of Computer Science and Engineering
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: Ch. 3: Research Design

Contents – Chapter 3

3.1 Meaning of Research Design

3.2 Need for Research Design
3.3 Research Design Breakdown
3.4 Important Concepts Relating to Research Design
3.5 Basic Principles of Experimental Designs
3.6 Important Experimental Designs
i) Informal Experimental Designs
ii) Formal Experimental Designs
MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design is the preparation of the design of the research project.
It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data.
Design decisions revolve around the following questions:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
RESEARCH DESIGN-BREAK DOWN

1. The sampling design

○ Deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study.
2. The observational design
○ Relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be
made.
3. The statistical design
○ Concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed.
4. The operational design
○ Deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

1. It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research

operations.
2. Making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
3. We need a research design or a plan in advance of data
collection and analysis for our research project.
4. Research design stands for
● advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting

the relevant data and

● the techniques to be used in their analysis,

● keeping in view the objective of the research and the

availability of staff, time and money.

 FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

• A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible,

appropriate, efficient, economical and so on.
• Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of
the data collected and analysed is considered a good design.
• The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be
the best design in many investigations.
• A design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.

Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the
research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied. A
design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one
respect or the other in the context of some other research problem. One
single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems.
FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,

usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

(i) the means of obtaining information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) the availability of time and money for the research work
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Dependent and Independent Variables

2. Extraneous Variable
3. Control
4. Confounded Relationship
5. Research Hypothesis
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis- Testing Research
7. Experimental and Control Groups
8. Treatments
9. Experiment
10.Experimental Unit(s)
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Dependent and Independent Variable

Variable: A concept which can take on different quantitative values.
For example, concepts like weight, height, income,
etc.
Continuous variables – phenomena which can take on quantitatively
different values even in decimal points.
For example, age.
Discontinuous or Discrete variables – If some variables can only be
expressed in integer values.
For example, no. of children.

If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it

is termed as dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the
dependent variable is termed as independent variable.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
Dependent and Independent Variable

CONTINUOUS
VARIABLE
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

DISCRETE
VARIABLE

All variables are not continuous.

Only if they are expressed in integer values they are non
continuous variables.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Extraneous variable
Independent variables that are not related to the
purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable are termed as extraneous variables.

Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a

result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described
as „experimental error‟.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a

relationship between student working hours and exam performances. In
this case student working hours is an independent variable and exam
performances is a dependent variable.

Intelligence may as well affect the exam performances, but since it is not
related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be
termed as an extraneous variable.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

CONTROL :

The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study

minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables.
In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to
restrain experimental conditions.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Research Hypothesis

● When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is

termed as „research hypothesis‟.
● The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable.
● Usually, a research hypothesis must contain at least, one independent and one dependent
variable.
● For example, “e-Learning enhances teaching learning experience”. Here, the dependent
variable is “teaching learning experience”, whereas “e-Learning” is the independent
variable.
● Listening to music lowers blood pressure level.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
Experimental and Non-experimental
Hypothesis-Testing Research
● Purpose = Test Research Hypothesis:
1) Experimental Hypothesis-testing Research – independent variable is manipulated
2) Non-experimental Hypothesis-testing Research – independent variable NOT manipulated

Example:
Effectiveness of a training programme on the student‟s performance-level:
● Researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a
course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to
Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25 to Group B, the special studies
programme.
● At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the
effectiveness of the training programme on the student‟s performance-level.
● (Exp Hypothesis testing) Why? The type of training programme is manipulated.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
Experimental and Non-experimental
Hypothesis-Testing Research
● Purpose = Test Research Hypothesis:
1) Experimental Hypothesis-testing Research – independent variable is manipulated
2) Non-experimental Hypothesis-testing Research – independent variable NOT manipulated

Example:

For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects

reading ability for a group.
of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their
intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between
the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research because herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not
manipulated.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
Treatment
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental unit(s):

The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are
known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined)
very carefully.
a physical entity that is the primary unit of interest in a specific research objective.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them

as:

(1) research design in case of exploratory research studies;

(2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic
research studies, and
(3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research
studies.
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

(1) Research design in case of exploratory research studies

Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or
of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view.

The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. The research
design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study.

Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly
defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies,
which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data.
Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies
are talked about:
(a) the survey of concerning literature; (b) the experience survey and (c) the analysis of
‘insight-stimulating’ examples.
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

(2) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research

studies

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something
else.
The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic
research studies.
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research

studies

The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention
on the following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it
being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data
will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time
period should the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research

studies
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

(3) Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:

Hypothesis-testing research studies are those where the researcher tests the
hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.

Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality.

Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of research

design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments.
Basic Principles of Experimental Design

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental

designs:

1. Principle of Replication
2. Principle of Randomization
3. Principle of Local Control
Basic Principles of Experimental Design
Basic Principles of Experimental Design
Basic Principles of Experimental Design
Basic Principles of Experimental Design
Basic Principles of Experimental Design
Basic Principles of Experimental Design
Important Experimental Design
Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and
as such there are several experimental designs.

We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories :-

Informal Experimental Designs:
1. Before-and-after without control design.
2. After-only with control design.
3. Before-and-after with control design

Formal Experimental Designs:

1. Completely Randomized Design (C. R. Design)
2. Randomized Block Design (R. B. Design)
3. Latin Square Design (L. S. Design)
4. Factorial Designs
Important Experimental Designs
Important Experimental Design
Important Experimental Design
Important Experimental Design
Important Experimental Design

Completely randomized design (C.R. design):

• Involves only two principles viz., the principle of replication and the principle of
randomization.
• It is the simplest possible design and its procedure of analysis is also easier.
• The essential characteristic of the design is that subjects are randomly assigned to
experimental treatments (or vice-versa).
Example
10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5 under treatment B, the
randomization process gives every possible group of 5 subjects selected from a set
of 10 an equal opportunity of being assigned to treatment A and treatment B.

• It provides maximum number of degrees of freedom to the error.

• Such a design is generally used when experimental areas happen to be
homogeneous.
Important Experimental Design
Completely Randomized Design
(1) Two Group Simple Randomized Design
Important Experimental Design
[A] Completely Randomized Design
Important Experimental Design
Completely Randomized Design: Random Replications Design
Important Experimental Design
[B] Randomized Block Design
Important Experimental Design
[B] Randomized Block Design
Important Experimental Design
[C] Latin Square Design
Important Experimental Design
[D] Factorial Designs

[D] FACTORIAL DESIGNS

฀ Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying
more than one factor are to be determined. They are specially
important in several economic and social phenomena where usually a
large number of factors affect a particular problem.
฀ Factorial designs can be of two types:
i) simple factorial designs
ii) complex factorial designs
Important Experimental Design
[D] Factorial Designs

Simple Factorial Design

฀ In case of simple factorial designs, we consider the effects

of varying two factors on the dependent variable, but when
an experiment is done with more than two factors, we use
complex factorial designs.
฀ Simple factorial design is also termed as a ‘two-factor-
factorial design’, whereas complex factorial design is
known as ‘multifactor-factorial design.’
Important Experimental Design
[D] Factorial Designs

Simple Factorial Design

Important Experimental Design
[D] Factorial Designs
Complex Factorial Design
฀ Experiments with more than two factors at a time involve the use
of complex factorial designs. A design which considers three or
more independent variables simultaneously is called a complex
factorial design.
฀ In case of three factors with one experimental variable having
two treatments and two control variables, each one of which
having two levels, the design used will be termed 2 × 2 × 2
complex factorial design which will contain a total of eight cells.
Important Experimental Design
[D] Factorial Designs
Complex Factorial Design
Important Experimental Design

CONCLUSION
There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance of
collection and analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more
appropriate for his research project. He must give due weight to various points
such as the type of universe and its nature, the objective of his study, the
resource list or the sampling frame, desired standard of accuracy and the like
when taking a decision in respect of the design for his research project.
OBJECT
(OOMD)ORIENTED MODELLING & DESIGN

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sampling Design

Priya Badarinath & Raghu B. A & Roopa Ravish

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Ch. 4: Sampling Design

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

CONTENTS

1) Introduction
2) Census survey
3) Sample survey
4) Population to Sample
5) Sample Design
6) Steps in Sample Design
7) Procedure – Sampling Technique
8) Sampling Error
9) Types of Sample Designs
a)Probability Sampling
i. Simple Random Sampling Design
ii.Complex Random Sampling Designs
b)Non probability Sampling
INTRODUCTION

● Items in field of inquiry – Universe / Population

● Enumeration of all items in population = Census Survey.
● When all objects are covered -> highest accuracy

● Possible? Cost, Bias?

● Census is impossible in situation where population is infinite.

● Select only few items = Sample
● Procedure for selection = Sampling Technique.

฀A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of

units from a population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)

฀The sampling frame A list of all elements or other units containing

the elements in a population.
POPULATION
The larger group from which individuals are selected to participate
in a study

TARGET POPULATION
A set of elements larger than or different from the population
sampled and to which the researcher would
like to generalize study findings.
POPULATION TO SAMPLE
SAMPLING
Definition: “The process of selecting a number of individuals
for a study in such a way that the individuals represent the
larger group from which they were selected.”

Sample
SAMPLE DESIGN

● Plan for obtaining sample from a population

● Technique / procedure a researcher will adopt in selecting sample.
● Sample design is determined before data are collected.
● There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose.
● Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others.
● Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable
and appropriate for his research study.
MAIN STEPS OF SAMPLING

1) Objective
2) Population
3) Sampling Unit and Frame
4) Size of Sample
5) Parameter of Interest
6) Data Collection
7) Non respondents
8) Selection of proper sampling design
9) Organizing field work
10)Pilot Survey
11)Budgetary Constraints
MAIN STEPS OF SAMPLING

Objective :
● Define the objective of study. It should be in proportion with
money, manpower and time.

Population (or Universe):

● Should be clearly defined.

Sampling Units and Frames:

● Sampling unit – for study
● geographic unit – state, district, state or

● construction unit – flat, house, or

● social unit – house, flat

Source List – Sampling Frame

MAIN STEPS OF SAMPLING

Size of Sample
● Number of units to be selected.
● Size should be neither too large nor too small
● Optimal size –> efficiency, flexibility, reliability.

Parameters of Interest
● Statistical constants of population – parameters.
● Ex - mean population, population proportion
MAIN STEPS OF SAMPLING

Data Collection:
● Only relevant information to be collected.
● Objective to be made clear

Non respondents
● Because of practical difficulties, data may not be collected
for all sampled units.
● Non responses tend to change results
MAIN STEPS OF SAMPLING

Selection of proper Sampling Design :

● Must decide technique in selecting the items for sample.
● Must yield less error

Organizing field work:

● Success depends on reliable field work.
● There should be efficient supervisory staff and trained
personnel for field work.
MAIN STEPS OF SAMPLING

Pilot Survey
● Try research on small scale before going to field.

Budgetary Constraints
● Cost consideration, from practical viewpoint.
● Have major impact upon decision relating to not only size
but also types of sample.

Organizing field work

● Success depends on reliable field work
 CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz., the cost of collecting the data
and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data. Researcher must
keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias and
sampling error.
CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a

biased representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.

2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will

result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the
questionnaire or the interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device
is defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through such a
measuring device.

3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included

in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a
situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a response from an
individual is often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.
CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

4. Indeterminancy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently

when kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed
situations.

For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing them in course of a
work study on the basis of which the average length of time to complete a task will be
determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece work, they generally tend
to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they work if kept unobserved.
Thus, the indeterminancy principle may also be a cause of a systematic bias.
CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

5. Natural bias in the reporting of data:

Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is often the cause of a systematic
bias in many inquiries. There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected
by government taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in the income
data collected by some social organisation. People in general understate their
incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for
social status or their affluence. Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to
give what they think is the ‘correct’ answer rather than revealing their true feelings.
SAMPLING ERROR
● Only a part of population has been used
for estimation and to draw inference.
● Sampling errors are absent in census
survey
● Can be measured for a given size and
sample design = precision of sampling
plan.
● If we increase the sample size, precision
can be improved.
● Also increases cost and systematic bias

NON- SAMPLING ERROR

● Arises at the stage of collection and
preparation of data.
● Present in both sample & census survey
● Can be reduced by defining the sampling
unit, frame and population correctly.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research
study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a
better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
TYPES OF SAMPLING DESIGN
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

● It is the purest form of probability sampling.

● Each member of the finite population has an equal probability and known
chance of being selected.
● Sampling without replacement
● When there are very large populations?
■ it is often difficult
■ impossible to identify every member of the population
■ The pool of available subjects becomes biased.
● Examples :
■ Lottery or Fishbowl
■ Survey of insect population living in woodland
■ Trees no. 1 to 1200. 10 trees are chosen at random
● Random number tables available [by Tippett, Yates, Fisher]
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGNS
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
● It is often used instead of random sampling.
● It is also called an Nth name selection technique.
● After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is
selected from a list of population members.
● Randomness introduced in picking the start point.
● As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling
method is as good as the random sampling method.
● It’s only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity,
easy, cheap. And applicable for large populations.
● Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of
records from a computer file.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Example: to select a sample of 25 dorm rooms in your college hotel, make a
list of all the room numbers in the dorm.
● For example if there are 100 rooms.

● divide the total number of rooms (100) by the number of rooms you want

in the sample (25). The answer is 4.

● This means that you are going to select every fourth dorm room from the

list.
● First of all, we have to determine the random starting point.

● This step can be done by picking any point on the table of room numbers,

and read across or down until you come to a number between 1 and 4.
This is your random starting point.
● For instance, your random starting point is "3". This means you select

dorm room #3 as your first room, and then every fourth room down the
list (3, 7, 11, 15, 19, etc.) until you have 25 rooms selected.
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
● Chosen when sample to be drawn doesn’t constitute homogeneous group.
● Population is divided into sub-populations that are individually
homogeneous - strata
● Stratified Sampling is possible when it makes sense to partition the
population into groups based on a factor that may influence the variable
that is being measured.
● These groups are then called strata. Based on one or more characteristic.
● An individual group is called a stratum. With stratified sampling one
should:
■ partition the population into groups (strata)
■ obtain a simple random sample from each group (stratum)
■ collect data on each sampling unit that was randomly sampled from
each group (stratum)
■ Called Stratified random sampling
● Stratified sampling works best when a heterogeneous population is split
into fairly homogeneous groups.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
● Used when population is divided into groups or clusters
● Samples are selected from groups rather than individuals which is
employed into large scale survey.

Advantages:
● Very useful when population is spread over large geographic area.
● Convenient and expedient
● Does not need names of everyone in population.
● Reduced cost

Disadvantages:
● Representation is likely to become an issue
● Less precise than random sampling.

If clusters (or groups/subdivisions) are geographic areas, then this is called

Area Sampling.
CLUSTER SAMPLING
 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
● Selects samples using more than 1 sampling technique.
● Complex - Hence rarely used.
● Requires lot of effort, time & cost.
SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING

● Complex Sample design

● Size is not fixed in advance.
● Adopted in case of acceptance sampling.
■ When a particular lot to be accepted / rejected on basis of single
sample - single sampling
■ When decision taken on basis of 2 samples - double sampling
● When number of samples are more than two, but neither certain nor decided in
advance - Sequential Sampling
 QUOTA SAMPLING
● This is a type of non probability sampling.
● Population is divided into mutually exclusive sub groups as in stratified
sampling.
● Judgement is used to select the subject or unit from each segment based
on specified portion.
● Quota sampling is judgement samples rather than random samples.
QUOTA SAMPLING
THANK YOU

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Methods of Data Collection

Dr.Roopa Ravish
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Ch. 6: Methods of Data Collection

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

CONTENTS

1) Introduction
2) Collection of Primary Data
3) Types of Collection of Primary Data
a)Observation Method
b)Interview Method
c)Through Questionnaires
d)Through Schedules
◆Differences
a) Collection of Secondary Data
b) Selection Criteria
DATA COLLECTION
Primary data Collection :

● Fresh
● First Time
● Original in Character

Secondary data Collection :

● Already collected by some one
● Already passed through statistical process
SURVEY Vs EXPERIMENT

We collect primary data during the course of doing

experiments in an experimental research but in case we
do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys,
whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can
obtain primary data either through observation or through
direct communication with respondents in one form or
another or through personal interview
SURVEY Vs EXPERIMENT
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

1. Observation Method
2. Interview Method
a. Personal Interview
b. Telephonic Interview
3. Questionnaires
4. Schedules
5. Other methods
OBSERVATION Method
● Related to Behavioral Sciences
● Non scientific method – To observe things around us
● Scientific tool -
● systematically planned and recorded,
● subjected to checks and
● Controls on validity and reliability.
● Information is sought by way of investigators own direct observation w/o
asking respondents

Advantages :
1. Subjective bias is eliminated ; if observation done accurately.
2. Relates to current happenings
3. Independent of respondents
Limitations:
1. Expensive method
2. Limited information is provided.
3. Unforeseen factors interfere
4. People may not be accessible
OBSERVATION

While using this method researcher should keep following in mind

● What should be observed?
● How should observation be recorded?
● How can accuracy be ensured?

Few Terminologies
● Structured Observation
● Units, style, standardised conditions, pertinent data selection
● Descriptive studies
● Unstructured Observation
Exploratory studies when observation
is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance,
● Participant Observation
● Non Participant Observation (Disguised Observation)
● Controlled and Non Controlled Observation.
OBSERVATION

● Participant Observation and Non Participant Observation (Disguised

Observation)

If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the

group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the
group experience, the observation is called as the participant observation. But
when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on
his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of
this type is often termed as non-participant observation.
OBSERVATION

There are several merits of the participant type of observation:

(i) The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group.
(ii) The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be
obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion.
(iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants
in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.

Demerits of this type of observation :

The observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally;
Problem of observation-control is not solved;
It may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.
OBSERVATION

● Controlled and Non Controlled Observation.

If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as

uncontrolled observation.
When observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving
experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation.
In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments.
The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and
persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behaviour,
allowing sufficient time for observing it.
But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids
to accuracy and standardisation. Such observation has a tendency to supply
formalised data upon which generalisations can be built with some degree of
assurance.
OBSERVATION

● Controlled and Non Controlled Observation.

The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of subjective

interpretation. There is also the danger of having the feeling that we know
more about the observed phenomena than we actually do.
Generally, controlled observation takes place in various experiments that are
carried out in a laboratory or under controlled conditions, whereas uncontrolled
observation is resorted to in case of exploratory researches.
INTERVIEW METHOD

Presentation of Oral Verbal Stimuli and reply in oral verbal

responses.

2 types
● Personal Interview

● Telephonic Interview
PERSONAL INTERVIEW METHOD

● Face to Face contact with person / persons.

● Direct personal investigation or indirect oral investigation
● DPI- Interviewer collect information personally from sources concerned.
● He has to be on spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be
collected.
Structured Interview:
● Method of collecting information through personal interview usually done is structured way.
● Predetermined set of questions.
● Rigid procedure asking the questions in form and order prescribed.

Unstructured Interview
● Flexibility approach of questioning.
● Do not follow predetermined questions and standards
● Interviewer allowed much greater freedom to ask, ask supplementary questions, omit certain questions.
● He may change sequence of questions

Focused Interview
Clinical Interview
Non Directive Interview
PERSONAL INTERVIEW METHOD Merits

(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the
respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect
sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to
restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured
interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to
various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of
the missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the
questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired,
group discussions may also be held.
PERSONAL INTERVIEW METHOD Merits

(viii) The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure
the most spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire
is used.

(ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational
level of the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning
questions can be avoided.

(x) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the

respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of great
value in interpreting results.
DEMERITS OF INTERVIEW METHOD

(i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread
geographical sample is taken.

(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of
the respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control
of interviewers.

(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or

people in high income groups may not be easily approachable under this
method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.

(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the

sample is large and recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
DEMERITS OF INTERVIEW METHOD

(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the
respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary
information just to make the interview interesting.

(vi) Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting,
training and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable
problems.

(vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.

(viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that

would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult
requirement.
PREREQUISITES & BASIC TENETS OF INTERVIEW METHOD

● Interviewer should be carefully selected, trained and briefed.

● They should be honest, sincere and hardworking, must
possess technical competence and necessary practical
experience.
● Field checks should be made – to ensure interviewer is neither
cheating nor deviating from instructions given.
TELEPHONIC INTERVIEW
● Method of collecting information contacting respondents over
telephone.
● Not widely used, but plays important role in industry surveys.

Merits:
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining
information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost
per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing
method; the non-response is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents.
TELEPHONIC INTERVIEW
Merits:

7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.

8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise
cannot be contacted for one reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
TELEPHONIC INTERVIEW

Demerits:
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period
is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are
required to various questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.
COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES

● Big enquiries – economic and business surveys.

● Being adopted – private individuals, research workers, private
and public organizations, governments.
● Questions are sent (by post) to persons concerned and required
to answer and return.
● Consists of number of questions printed or typed in definite order
on a form/s.
● Questionnaire is mailed to respondent/s and who is expected to
read and understand the questions and write down their reply in
space meant for the purpose.
QUESTIONNAIRE

Merits
1. Low cost even over large geographic area.
2. Free from bias of interviewer
3. Respondents have adequate time to respond
4. Respondents who are not easily approachable can also be reached
conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of, results can be reliable

Demerits
1. Low rate of return
2. Used when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. Control over questionnaire may be lost when sent.
4. Inbuilt inflexibility – amending approach once dispatched.
5. Difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
6. Slowest of all methods.
7. Incomplete/ambiguous answers – hard to interpret.
QUESTIONNAIRE

Pilot Study may be required to test the questionnaire – rehearsal of main

survey:
● Weakness of questionnaire may be identified

● Omission of questions

● Modification (reordering/rewording/rephrasing) of questions may be

required – wrong interpretation of question by respondent

Main aspects of questionnaire:

a)General form
b)Question sequence
c)Question formulation and wordings
● Very clear in construction – simple, easily understood

● Open ended questions

● Multiple choice questions, True/False

Essentials of a good questionnaire:

Main aspects of a questionnaire:

1. General form:

2. Question sequence:

3. Question formulation and wording:

Essentials of a good questionnaire:

To be successful, questionnaire should be short and simple

i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the
minimum.
Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from
easy to more difficult questions.
Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different
interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire.
Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers),
multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
The latter type of questions are often difficult to analyse and
hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent
possible.
Essentials of a good questionnaire:

There should be some control questions in the questionnaire

which indicate the reliability of the respondent.
For instance, a question designed to determine the consumption
of particular material may be asked first in terms of financial
expenditure and later in terms of weight. The control questions,
thus, introduce a cross-check to see whether the information
collected is correct or not.
Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be
avoided.
Essentials of a good questionnaire:

Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire

to help editing and tabulation.
There should always be provision for indications of uncertainty, e.g.,
“do not know,” “no preference” and so on. Brief directions with regard
to filling up the questionnaire should invariably be given in the
questionnaire itself.
Finally, the physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the
cooperation the researcher receives from the recipients and as such
an attractive looking questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a
plus point for enlisting cooperation.
The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that it
may attract the attention of recipients.
SCHEDULES
● The schedule is another data collection technique containing statements,
questions, and blank spaces to fill up the answers given by the respondents
to the enumerator or interviewer.

● A schedule is a structure of a set of questions on a given topic which are

asked by the interviewer or investigator personally. ... It contains direct
questions as well as questions in tabular form. Schedule include open-
ended questions and close-ended questions.

● Schedules are filled by enumerators who are appointed for this purpose.
● These enumerators go to respondents, ask listed questions and record the
replies.
● In few instances schedules may be handed over to respondents and
enumerators may help them in recording answers.
● Enumerators should explain objectives of investigation and remove
difficulty giving appropriate clarifications.
SCHEDULES
● Benefits:
● It is a useful method in case the informants are illiterate.
● The researcher can overcome the problem of non-response as the
enumerators go personally to obtain the information.
● It is very useful in extensive studies and
● Can obtain more reliable data

● Demerits
● Very expensive

● Enumerator selection

● Enumerators to be trained extensively

Differences between Questionnaires and Schedules:
Both questionnaires and schedules are popularly used methods of collecting data in
research surveys. There is much resemblance in the nature of these two methods. From a
practical point of view, the two methods can be taken to be the same. But from a technical
point of view there is difference between the two.

The important points of difference are as under:

Differences between Questionnaires and Schedules:

# Questionnaires Schedules
1 ● Filled out by the respondent. Generally filled out by the research worker or the
enumerator.
2 Relatively cheap and economical; Relatively more expensive;
no field staff required. appointing enumerators and in imparting training to
them; preparing schedules also has costs.
3 Non-response is usually high; Generally Non-response very low;
Bias due to non-response often remains Since filled by enumerators who get answers to all
indeterminate. questions;
Danger of interviewer bias and cheating exists.
4 Not always clear as to who replies, respondent Identity of respondent is known to enumerator.
or someone on his/her behalf.
5 Personal contact is generally not possible. Direct personal contact is established with
respondents by enumerator.
Differences between Questionnaires and Schedules:
# Questionnaires Schedules
6 Personal contact is generally not possible. Direct personal contact is established with
respondents.
7 Can be used only when respondents are Respondents may be illiterate.
literate and cooperative.
8 Wider and more representative Difficulty in sending
distribution of sample enumerators over a relatively wider area.
9 Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong Relatively more accurate;
information is relatively more particularly Generally complete and accurate as
when people are unable to understand enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any.
questions properly.
10 Success lies more on the quality of the Depends upon the honesty and competence of
questionnaire itself. enumerators.
11 Physical appearance of questionnaire Not Applicable.
must be quite attractive.
12 Not possible. Observation method can also be used.
SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION

● Data already available – already collected and analysed by someone

else.
● Researcher should look into sources from where s/he can obtain.
● 2 forms of secondary data:
○ Published
○ Unpublished.
SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION
Published -
a) Publication in form of central, state and local government.
b) Publication of foreign govt and international bodies.
c) Technical and trade journals
d) Books, magazines and newspapers
e) Reports and publications of various business associations,
industries, banks, stock exchanges, etc.
f) Reports prepared by universities, scholars, economists
g) public records and statistics, historical documents,
h) websites - Ex : RBI, NSE, etc.

Unpublished
■ diaries, letters, biographies, autobiographies, also made
available with scholars and workers, trade associations, etc.
SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION
Caution before using secondary data to see following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data:
● Who collected the data?
● What were the sources of data?
● Were they collected using proper methods?
● At what time were they collected?
● Was it achieved?

2. Suitability of data:
● Data suitable for one enquiry may not be suitable for another.
Hence if the data is found unsuitable it should not be used.

3. Adequacy of data:
● If the level of accuracy is found to be inadequate, it should not
be considered for research.
THANK YOU

Priya Badarinath , Raghu B. A, Roopa Ravish

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]