Secondary PHYSICS Students’ Book Three (Third Edition) KENYA LITERATURE BUREAU NAIROBICONTENTS Foreword ... Preface Acknowledgements Chapter One Linear Motion... Displacement Measuring Speed, Velocity and Acceleration Equations of Linear Motion ... . Revision Exercise 1. Chapter Two Refraction of Light.. Explanation of Refraction . Laws of Refraction Total Internal Reflection ...... Dispersion of White Light .. Revision Exercise 2 .. Chapter Three Newton's Laws of Motion Newton's First Law Newton’s Second Law . Newton's Third Law Laws of Conservation of Linear Momentum. Friction. Viscosity . Revision Exercise 3.... Chapter Four Work, Energy, Power and Machines... Sources of Energy .. Forms of Energy Transformation and Conservation of Bnerey Work and Energy Conservation of Energy Power .... . Machines. Revision Exercise 4Chapter Five Current Electricity (1) .. Electric Current and Potential Difference Ohm's Law... Resistors... Measurement of Resistance ... Resistor Networks . Electromotive Force and Internal Resistance . Revision Exercise 5. Chapter Six Waves (11) Properties of Waves . Rectlinear Propagation... Reflection of straight and Circular Waves Refraction... en Diffraction of Waves. Interference of Waves .... .. 198 .. 198 199 200 203 205 207 212 216 oo 218, 220 Stationary Waves Vibrating Strings ... Vibrating Air Columns Revision Exercise 6... Chapter Seven Electrostatics (II)... Force between Charged Bodies Electric Field Patterns 00-0» Charge Distribution on theSurface of a Conductor Capacitors .. Revision Exercise 7... 222 223 225 230 244 Chapter Eight Heating Effect of Electric Current Energy Changes and Potential Difference Factors determining Heat produced by Electric Current Electrical Energy and Power... 246 246 247 251 Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current. 255 Revision Exercise 8... 258 Chapter Nine Quantity of Heat.. Heat Capacity .. Specific Heat CapacityDetermination of Specific Heat Capacity Change of State Evaporation .. Revision Exercise 9 Gas Laws, Boyle's Law Charles’ Law Pressure Law Equation of State Gas Laws and Kinetic Theory «. Limitations of Gas Law: Revision Exercise 10..Chapter One LINEAR MOTION ‘A moving body can exhibit any of the three common types of motion, namely; @__ linear (or translational) motion. (i) circular (or rotational) motion. oscillatory (or vibrational) motion. Arolling wheel is an example of a body moving with translational and rotational motion. This chapter deals with linear motion (motion in a straight line) only. ‘The study of motion is divided into two branches, kinematic and dynamics. In kinematics, the forces causing the motion are disregarded. ‘Kinematics’ comes from the Greek word kinema, ‘meaning motion. Dynamics deals with the motion of objects and the forces acting on them, Some of the terms used in linear motion include displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration. These quantities are derived from length and time, which were discussed in book one. Displacement Displacement is the distance moved by a body in a specified direction. It is denoted by letter ‘s’.Ithas both magnitude and direction, hence itis a vector quantity. The SI unit of displacement is the metre. The distance covered by a body is not the same as its displacement. To appreciate this, consider a body moving from O to $ through P, Q and R, as shown in figure 1.1. R ° Fig. 1.1: Distance and displacement The distance covered by the body is the length of the path OPQRS. Its displacement, however, is represented by the line OS. The magnitude of the displacement is the length of line OS. The length of line OS is shorter than the length of the path OPQRS. Thus, the magnitude of the displacement of the body is much smaller than the distance covered by the body. Ifa body moves due east followed by a movement due north, as in figure 1.2, the distance covered is AB + BC. However, the magnitude ofits displacement is AC.2 SECONDARY PHYSICS ic 2) ° Fig, 12: Vectors Figure 1.3 (a) shows the path followed by a mail van in a town. The van moves from A to B, to ‘Cand finally to D. The overall displacement, s, is AD. (a) Fig. 13: Addition of vectors Figure 1.3 (b) shows that any number of vectors may be added by the head to tail method. R is the sum of the vectors A, B, C, D and E. Speed ‘Speed is defined as the distance covered per unit time. Thus; = distance covered speed = “time taken” Speed is a scalar quantity. The above definition applies to a body moving uniformly over a period of time. However, this is not always the case. Itis therefore better to consider the total distance covered over the total time taken. This gives the average speed of the body. = total distance covered Thus, average speed = {otal distance cove The SI unit of speed is metres per second (ms). Speed may also be expressed in kmi'. To convert from ms“to kb, multiply the value given by 2608 38).LINEAR MOTION, 3 1.000 To convert from kmh to ms“, multiply the value given by 4000 Example 1 {a) Express each of the following in ms": (18 kmh", (i) 72 kmh, (b) Express each of the following in kmbr': @ 30.ms*, Gi) 10 ms". Solution i) = 10 (@) (kmh! = 18x 0 = Sms (i) 72 kmh" nx B = 20mst (©) @ 30mst = 30x 36 = 108 kmh ii) 10ms" = 36 (ii) 10ms* = 10x 36 = 36 kmh! Example 2 A body covers a distance of 10 m in 4 seconds. It rests for 10 seconds and finally covers a distance of 90 m in 6 seconds, Calculate its average speed. Solution Total distance covered = 10 + 90 =10m Total time taken = 4+ 10+6 = 20s o. Average speed = OT = Sms Example 3 Calculate the distance in metres covered by a body moving with a uniform speed of 180 kmh in 30 seconds. Solution Distance covered = speed x time But speed = 180 kmh!4 SECONDARY PHYSICS = 180x100 3.600 = 50 mst Hence, distance covered = 50 x 30 = 1500m Example 4 Calculate the time in seconds taken by a body moving with a uniform speed of 360 kmh! to cover a distance of 3 000 km. Solution Speed = 360 kmh! 10 360 x 36 = 100ms" Distance = 3 000km = 3000x 1000m = 3.0x 10m Time = distance covered speed 4 = 30x10° 100 = 30x 10's Velocity Velocity is defined as the change of displacement per unit time. Velocity is also speed in a specified direction. Thus, itis a vector quantity. change of displacement time The SI unit of velocity is metres per second (ms). However, it may also be measured in kmh, If the displacement of a body is the same at equal intervals of time no matter how small the intervals are, the body is said to have uniform (constant) velocity. The velocity of a body at a Particular time is referred to as instantaneous velocity. If the velocity of a body is non-uniform, its displacement is given by; displacement = average velocity x time, oF; total displacement total time taken Velocity = average velocity = =s Thus, v= § Example 5 ‘A man runs 800 m due north in 100 s, followed by 400 m due south in 80 s. Calculate: (@) his average speed.LINEAR MOTION (b) his average velocity. (©) his change in velocity, for the whole journey. Solution total distance travelled total time taken 800 + 400 100 +80. (a) Average speed = total displacement Total time = 800-400 180) 400 180 2.22 ms" due north. (©) Change in velocity = final velocity — initial velocity (8-5) ms" ms due north, (6) Average velocity = Example 6 A body moves 3 000 m due east in 40 s then 4.000 m due north in 60 s. Calculate: (a) its average speed. (b) its average velocity for the whole journey. Solution Fig 14 (a) Total distance travelled6 SECONDARY PHYSICS Total time taken = 40 +60 100s : = 1000 + Average speed = 006 = 70 ms" (b) The magnitude of displacement ne W AC Y(aB)? +60)? 13 000)7 + (4 000)* 0 = 500m i ity = 5.000 The magnitude of velocity = 500 = 50ms The direction of velocity should be calculated as below: From figure 1.4; = 4000 tan 0 = F000 = 1.3333 28 = 53.13? The average velocity of the body is therefore 50 ms“ on a bearing of 036.87°. Thus, the direction of the velocity is 36.87° east of north. Example 7 A tennis ball hits a vertical wall at a velocity of 10 ms“ and bounces off at the same velocity. Determine the change in velocity Solution 10 ms-1 10 ms ~! Fig. 5 Since velocity is a vector quantity; initial velocity u=—10 ms? final velocity v = +10 ms* -. Change in velocity = final velocity ~ initial velocity = v-(u) = (+10) ~(-10) = 20 ms"LINEAR MOTION, 1 Acceleration ‘Acceleration is defined as change of velocity per unit time. Itis a vector quantity. ‘change in velocity time taken If the initial velocity of a body is u and the velocity after time tis v, then the acceleration a is given by; Acceleration = final velocity ~ initial velocity acceleration = = Time taken u Thus, a= 4 ‘The SI unit of acceleration is metres per square second (ms). From the definition of acceleration, if the velocity does not change with time, then the acceleration of the body is zet0. Thus, the acceleration of a body moving with uniform velocity is zero. Ifthe velocity of a body changes in same magnitude at ‘equal intervals of time no matter how small the intervals are, the body is said to have uniform acceleration or constant acceleration Consider a body whose velocity changes asin table 1.1 Table 1.1 velocity (ms) | 0 | 10 | 20| #1 40 | 50 Time(s) ol2[4{] 6] 8] 0 From the table, itis clear thatthe velocity changes by 10 ms" after every two seconds. Thus, the velocity changes uniformly in equal intervals of time. This gives a uniform acceleration of Sms? Since acceleration isa vector quantity. it changes with change in the magnitude of velocity change in direction of velocity or change in both magnitude and direction of the velocity Note: “The acceleration of a body at any instant is referred to as instantaneous acceleration. Ifthe velocity of a body decreases with time. ie..the body is slowing down, the body is said to have a negative acceleration or deceleration or retardation. Example 8 ‘The velocity of a body increases from 72 kmh to 144 kny" in 10 seconds. Calculate its acceleration. Solution Tnitial velocity = 72 kmh" = 20ms Find velocity = 144 kmh! = 40 mst ‘Therefore, acceleration = sl velocity — initial velocity time taken = 40-20 10 = dims?g SECONDARY PHYSICS Example 9 Acar is brought to rest from 180 kmh! in 20 s, What is its retardation? Solution Initial velocity = 180 kmb-! = 50 mst Final velocity = 0 ms" Acceleration = {itl velocity ~ initia velocity time taken = 0-50 20 = 750 20 = -25 ms? Hence, its retardation is 2.5 ms”. Exercise 1.1 L_ Express each of the following in ms": (a) 216 kmh". (b) 18x 10° kmh", 2. Express each of the following in kmh: (a) 60.ms* (b) 3x 10% ms" 3. Acar ona straight road moves with a speed of 108 kmh! for 30 minutes, then climbs Amescarpment with a speed of 60 kml” for another 30 minutes. Determine the average speed of the car in ms”! 4, A body is made to change its velocity from 20 ms“ to 36 ms" in 0.01 seconds, What is the acceleration produced? 5. A particle moving with a velocity of 2.0 x 10° ms“ is brought to rest in 2x 10 seconds. ‘What is the retardation of the particle? 6. A body moves 30 m due east in 2 seconds, then 40 m due north in 4 seconds. Determine: (@) the total distance moved by the body. (b) the average speed of the body. (©) the displacement of the body. (@) the velocity and the direction of the velocity of the body. MOTION GRAPHS. “The variation of distance, displacement, speed, velocity or acceleration of a body with time an be represented graphically. The common motion graphs are displacement-time and velocity- ‘me graphs. Distance-time graphs may also be used to represent motion.LINEAR MOTION 9 Distance-time Graphs A Stationary Body ‘The distance of a stationary body does not change with time. The graph of distance against time is therefore a horizontal line parallel to the time axis, see figure 1.6. + Distance (m} Time (5) Fig, 1.6: Distance-time graph for a stationary bods A Body moving with Uniform Speed ‘The distance covered by a body moving with uniform speed changes uniformly at equal intervals of time, The graph of distance against time is a straight line. as shown in figure 1.7. Distance (m) Time (s) Fig. 17: Distance-rime graph for a body moving with uniform speed A Body moving with Variable Speed If the change in the distance covered increases for equal time intervals, the distance-time graph is a curve as shown in figure 1.8 Distance (m)} Time (3) Fig. 18: Distance-time graph for a body moving with variable speed10 SECONDARY PHYSICS Speed-time Graphs ‘The speed-time graphs for different kinds of motion are shown in figure 1.9 (a), (b) and (c). 5 5 i i a aay (a) (bo) (o) Figure 1.9 (a) shows the speed-time graph for a stationary body, whose distance does not cchange with time. Its speed is therefore zero. Figure 1.9 (b) shows the speed-time graph fora body moving with uniform speed. The change in distance is the same for equal time intervals. The speed is therefore constant. Figure 1.9 (c) shows the speed-time graph for a body moving with variable speed. The change in distance is increasing for equal time intervals. The rate of change of speed is constant. Displacement-time Graphs A Stationary Body The displacement for a stationary body does not change with time. However, displacement is a vector quantity and the position of the body may be negative or positive relative to the observer. as shown in figure 1.10. Displacement (m) + é Fig. 10: Displacement-ime graph for a stationary body A Body moving with Uniform Velocity ‘The displacement of a body moving with uniform velocity changes uniformly at equal intervals, of time. The graph of displacement against time is a straight line, as shown in figure 1.11LINEAR MOTION L = : 8 2 é L, te Time (s) Fig. L1ls Displacement-sime graph for a body moving with uniform velocity ‘The slope or gradient of the line passing through A and B is given by a BC _ As _ 827% But Ae= ar oh “Therefore, the slope or gradient of a displacement-time graph gives the velocity ofthe body. and & is the velocity. ‘A Body moving with Variable Velocity Displacement (m) Time (8} Fig. 1.12: Displacemtent-time graph fora bods moving with variable velocity ‘The displacement-time graph in this case is a curve.12 SECONDARY PHYSICS Goh ‘The velocity at point R isthe same as the gradient of the curve at R. This isthe slope of the tangent to the curve at point R. In figure 1.12, the velocity inereases uniformly with time, while in figure 1.13, the velocity decreases uniformly with time. Displacement (m) ty te Time (s) Fg. 13 Velocity-time Graphs A Body moving with its Velocity Changing Uniformly The velocity-time graph fora body moving with uniformly changing velocity isa straight line, see figure 1.14. ps Velocity (ms v & Time (s) Fig. 114: A body moving with uniform accelerationLINEAR MOTION 13 Yao¥4 ine = 4¥ The gradient of the line = 3F = T= Hence, the gradient of velocity-time graph gives acceleration, In the above case, the acceleration is uniform. A Body moving with its Velocity Changing Non-uniformly Velocity (ms) \, te Time (s) Fig. 1.15: Motion of a body with increasing acceleration The velocity-time graph is a curve, see figure 1.15. The curve is steeper at R than at P and the rate of change of velocity with time at Ris higher than that at P. The acceleration thus increases with time. In figure 1.16, acceleration decreases with time. Vatocity (ms~9 Time (5) Fig. 1.16: Motion of a body with decreasing acceleration ‘The curve is steeper at M than at N, ie., fe is greater than SYM4 SECONDARY PHYSICS Figure 1.17 represents the motion of a body with uniform velocity. a i Velocity (ms: Time (8) Fig. L17: Motion of a body with uniform velocity ‘The gradient of the graph is zero, and the acceleration is therefore zero. Area under Velocity-time Graph Consider a body starting from rest and moving with a constant acceleration for time t seconds. ‘The velocity-time graph for the body is shown in figure 1.18. (ms~) Veloci Time (s) ' Fig, 118: Area under velocity-time graph represents displacement If the velocity of the body aftert seconds is v ms", then; distance travelled = average velocity x time = (Oy (932) = ye The area A under the velocity-time graph is therefore the distance covered by the body after t seconds. Example 10 A car decelerates uniformly from a velocity of 10 ms“ to rest in 2's. If it takes 2 s to reverse With uniform acceleration to its original starting point, determine the:LINEAR MOTION 15 (a) displacement of the car. (b) average velocity of the car. (©) distance travelled by the car. (@) average speed of the car Solution y +10, r gs 2 _ Boy Time (s) 3 3 10 Fig. 119 (a) From the velocity-time graph in figure 1.19: area = Ax2x (10+ 4 x2xC10) = (110-10) =0 “Therefore, displacement is 0 m. displacement (b) Average velocity = SSPE -2@ =4 = Ons! © 10) 4] 34 Time (8) 3 | + Fig 12016 SECONDARY PHYSICS From the speed-time graph in figure 1.20; area = 4 x2n(10)+ $x2x(10) = 10+10 = 2 Therefore, distance travelled is 20m. (d) Average speed stance tas led = 20 = Sims? Example It ‘Acar stars from rest and attains a velocity of 72 kmh in 10 seconds. It travels at this velocity for 5's and then decelerates to a stop afier another 6 s. Draw a velocity-time graph for this motion. From the graph: (@) calculate the total distance moved by the car. (b) find the acceleration of the car at each stag> Solution Figure 1.21 is the appropriate graph, -——_ rere erp Velocity ms: 8 16; 5 10 15 21 Time(s) Fig. 121 (@) From the graph; (otal distance travelled = area under the graph = area A+ area B + areaC (5 ¥10%20)+ (520+ (4 6x20) 100+ 100 + 60 260 mLINEAR MOTION 7 Alternatively; total distance travelled = area of trapezium parbh 4a1+5)x20 = 260m (b) Acceleration = gradient of graph Stage C; gradient = 2-20 <. Acceleration = -3.33 ms* Exercise 1.2 1. Sketch the following motion graphs: (a) Distance-time graph for a body falling from a height to the ground. (b)_ Dstance-time graph for a body thrown upwards, (©) Displacement-time graph for a body thrown upwards.18 ‘SECONDARY PHYSICS 2. _Inerpret each of the following graphs: Distance (m) Velocity (ms) Tes) ; z & = i : ° : Time (s) 3. Sketch the following motion graphs: (a) Velocity-time graph for a body moving with uniform acceleration. (b)_Velocity-time graph for a body moving with increasing acceleration. MEASURING SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION Speed and Velocity Method 1 Using a tape measure or a long rope and a metre ruler, measure the perimeter of the school field in metres. Record the time a student takes to run round the field once. Calculate the average speed using the equation; perimeter time taken If the time a student takes to run 100 m from starting point straight to the finishing line is recorded, the average velocity can similarly be determined. average speed = Method 2: Using a Ticker-timer This method is used to determine velocity for short distances. Aticker-timer has an arm which vibrates regularly due to changing current in the mains supply (ac). As the arm vibrates, it makes dots on a moving paper tape. Successive dots are ‘marked at the same interval of time. One type of ticker-timer is shown in figure 1.22LINEAR MOTION. 19 Hoceshoe Tape gue Carbon paper disc supply t2V a0) Fig, 122: Ticker-timer A stylus at the free end of the steel arm strikes a carbon paper disc as the arm vibrates. Thus, it ‘makes dots on the paper tape pulled under the carbon paper disc. Most tcker-timers operate at 2 frequency of 50 hertz (50 Hz), ie. $0 cycles per second. Such ticker-timers make 50 dots every second. ‘The time interval between two consecutive dts fora 50 Hztickersimer is 5 $= 002s. This time interval is called a tick. The distance between two adjacent dots is thus the distance moved by the paper tape in 0.02 s. Since this distance is usually very small, itis necessary 10 measure distances moved in ten-tick intervals. The time taken to cover this distance is; 0.,02x 10=0.2s Tt will be noted thatthe dots on the paper pulled at constant velocity are equally spaced ‘hile those on the tape pulled with changing velocity are not equally spaced, see figure I-23. a tee pate intr ) eee eo wee a etic apa ‘Tape pulled with ) [eeoee ce eo increasing speed 7 y 004 Tape pulled with © oo eee ree aed Fig. 1.23 Ticker tapes with different mations When the dots are close together. the tape is moving slowly and when they are far apart, itis moving fast, see figure 1.24.20 SECONDARY PHYSICS Uniform velocity, ‘Accelerating body Fig, 1.24: Dot seperation depends on motion ‘When the distance between consecutive dots increases uniformly, the tape is accelerating and ‘when this distance decreases uniformly, then the tape is decelerating. EXPERIMENT 1.1: To make a tape chart from a ticker tape Apparatus Ticker-timer, paper tape, trolley, cellotape. Tape Trolley Pull Ticker-timer Fig, 1.25: Production of tickertape chart Procedure Connect the paper tape to the trolley using cellotape as in figure 1.25. Thread the tape through the guides ofa tcker-timer such thatthe trolley i close to the tickertimer. ‘Switch on the timer and pull the trolley at a uniform speed. Remove the tape and cut it into lengths cach ten spaces long, i.e, ten-ticks, labelling each tentck. Paste each section of the tape you have cut in order on a sheet of paper. Repeat the experiment, this time pulling the trolley with higher speed Observation ‘The resulting patterns known as tape charts are as below. 0) Fig. 1.26: Tape chartLINEAR MOTION EXPERIMENT 1.2: To determine speed / velocity using a ticker-timer ‘Apparatus Ticker-timer, ticker tape. trolley. runway. cellotape. Runway Fig, 127: Determining speed using ticker simer Procedure + Set up the runway such that when the trolley is given a small push it runs down with constant speed, Such a runway is said to be friction-compensated. see figure 1.2 Attach a paper tape to Ure trolley using cellotape und thread it through the ticker-timer. Hold the trolley at the higher end of the runway and switch on the ticker-timer, Give the trolley a small push so as to make it move. Stop it at the end of the runway, Remove the paper tape from the trolley. Ignoring the first few dots. draw lines through every tenth dot. i.e. I ten-tick,s Repeat the experiment with the angle of inclination of the runway increased. pe 1.28. Results and Calculations On drawing lines through every tenth dot, the following is obtained: T= Ten-tick =| Tt tentick —|-— 1 ten-tick 1 Fig. 1.28 Velocity is determined using the expression: length of | ten-tick (10 intervals) average velocity = Se Consider the following tapes obtained in similar experiments Case 1 f — Sem——-— Sem——s-— Som ——4 Fig 12922 SECONDARY PHYSICS S———__________SEconbary pHysics Length of tape = 5 cm Time taken for I tenstick = J5 x 10 = 020s ve = ‘Therefore, average velocity = 55 = 25ems? ‘The velocity is uniform, Case 2 pte sen At 1 cd 1D . 15cm. fig 0 In this case; y Thus, the trolley is moving with non-uniform velocity. Case 3 = 10 om —__-}. 2m —1 4 al q Fig 131 In this case; Vy = 4G = S0ems? Mac = py = Wems"! Veo = Gy = 30ems" ‘The velocity also is non-uniform, but unlike in case 2, it is decreasing since the separation of dots is reducingLINEAR MOTION 23 Example 12 ‘A tape is pulled through a ticker-timer which makes one dot every second. If it makes three Gots and the distance between the first and the third dot is 16 em. find the velocity of the tape. Solution Frequency of the ticker-timer is 1 Hz ‘Therefore, time between consecutive dots = 1 s Distance between 1* and 3° dots = 16 em. Hence, average velocity = 7s = 8cms" Example 13 ‘Atape is pulled steadily through a ticker-timer of frequency 50 Hz. Given the outcome shown in figure 1.32, calculate the velocity with which the tape is pulled. cr (Drawn to scale) Fig. 1.32 Solution Distance between consecutive dots = 5 em. Frequency of the ticker-timer = 50 Hz. Time between consecutive dot Therefore, velocity of tape = 250cms* EXPERIMENT 1.3: To determine acceleration using a ticker-timer Apparatus Ticker-timer, ticker tape, trolley, runway. cellotape Fig, 1.33; Determination of acceleration24 SECONDARY PHYSICS Procedure * Sethe runway such that when the trolley is released at the top, it accelerates rapidly, see figure 1.33, * Attach a paper tape long enough to the trolley and thread it through the ticker-timer. + Switch on the icker-timer and release the trolley. Record the frequency of the ticker-timer. * Stop the trolley at the end of the runway and remove the tape, Results and Calculations To calculate the acceleration of the trolley, determine: (i) _ the initial velocity of the trolley. (ii) the final velocity of the trolley. Figure 1.34 is a typical tape from the trolley. A Ee s ian Fig, 126 Velocity at B is the final velocity, v= ~2 = 100 ems Time for 10 ticks = 0.02 x 10 Therefore, acceleration = Y=¥ = 277.8 ems* Note: ‘The velocities u and v are average velocities and correspond to midpoints at A and B, ie., 0.01 s and 0.19 s, Hence change in time = 0,19 -0.01 = 0.18 s. Altematively; time at end of pat B time atend of partA = 020-002 18s wo Example 14 The tape in figure 1.35 was produced by a ticker acceleration of the object which was pulling the tape. ‘35em ion” + with a frequency of 100 Hz. Find the Fig 1.35LINEAR MOTION 25 Solution Time between consecutive dots = ib =001s Initial velocity u = cms" <. Acceleration 250 — 50 0.04 5.000 cms? Use of Tape Charts to calculate Acceleration Consider the tape chart in figure 1.36. The frequency of the ticker-timer is 50 Hz S Distance (cm) 2 olf ‘Time Fai® Average velocity u of the first Average velocity v of the last tape = Change in velocity = 60 cms" — 10 ems" s0cms" Time taken for velocity to change = (6-1) x0.2 10s26 SECONDARY PHYSICS __ change in velocity .. Acceleration time taken = S0ems"! TOs = 50ems? Exercise 1.3 1. Atape attached to a trolley is made to run through a ticker-timer which makes $0 dots per second. A section of the tape is as shown in the following diagram, 1 om 24 1.5 ome 20m o__ 250m (a) From the section of the tape. estimate the velocity at the instant the middle dot was made. (b)_ Estimate the acceleration of the trolley. 2. The tapes below are drawn to the same scale, and are produced by a ticker-timer ‘operating at the same frequency. Pull A Pull —— Describe the motion represented by each tape. EQUATIONS OF LINEAR MOTION Consider a body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration a, so that its velocity increases from an initial value u toa final value v in ime t. Figure 1.37 isthe graph representing the motion of the body. Velocity (ms) "Time (s) igs 1.37: Uniformly accelerated bodyLINEAR MOTION 27 From the graph, the acceleration a is equal to the gradient of the line representing the motion. That is acceleration = gradient final velocit nitial velocity ime Thus, a= So, ¥=u+at..... ‘The displacement s of the body is given by; displacement = average velocity x time = (Hp) But, v=u+at Therefore, s = (Y#E*A) xe )xe 2u sat area under the graph area A+ area B = utd Hv-wxt But v -usat. Hence. s=ut+ Lat xt 4, displacement s is given by; uP + 2as . seconnenennin() Thus. fora body moving with uniform acceleration, any of the three equations below may be ‘used. depending on the quantities given:28 SECONDARY PHYSICS a utat wa dat iy (iii), visu? + 2as, Note: For retardation, a is negative and thus changes the positive sign in any of the equations. ‘xample 16 ‘A body is uniformly accelerated from rest to final velocity of 100 ms* in 10's. Calculate the distance covered. v= 100 mstand t= 10s. = Ox toj+ Lx 1-0 5x GO x tox 0 x 10x 10x10 500m ‘The distance covered iy 500 m. Example 17 A body whose initial velocity is 30 ms* moves with a constant retardation of | ms, Caleutate the time taken for the body to come to rest Solution veutal 0=30-3xt BL = 30 tls ‘The time taken to come to rest is 10s. Example 18 ‘A body moving with uniform acceleration of 10 ms* covers a distance of 320 m. If its initial velocity was 60 ms", calculate its final velocity. Seluion woos ub+ as. (60F #2 x 10x 320 3.600 + 6 400 10.000 110000 100 ms" The final velocity is 100 ms“ 4LINEAR MOTION 29 Motion under Gravity Free Fall All bodies on or near the surface of the earth experience a force of attraction towards the centre of the earth known as gravitational force. This force causes bodies to accelerate towards the centre of the earth. This is the acceleration of free fall due to gravity, denoted by ‘g’. The numerical value of “g" is approximately 9.8 ms”. Free fall can only occur in vacuum. but if air resistance is ignored, all bodies fall with this constant acceleration of 9.8 ms”. In a vacuum, a feather and a stone released from the same height will land on the ground at the same time. Tt should be noted thatthe three equations of motion of a body under constant acceleration ccan be applied in free fall because the acceleration is also constant. Thus, the three equations become: vsutgt a s =usler. setnansene 2) seonesnene B) ‘The motion graph for free fall is shown in figure 1.38. E i r Time (8) Fog: 1.28: Displacemen-time sraph fora feel falling body ‘The graph shows that the displacement of the body changes increasingly for equal intervals of time. The velocity of a body released from a height h increases every second by about 10 ms“ ‘The velocity-time graph for such a body is a straight line passing through the origin, see figure 139.30. SECONDARY PHYSICS, Velocity (ms) Fig, 1.39: Velocity-time graph fora freely falling body Example 19 A stone is released from the top of a cliff 180 m high. Calculate: (a) the time it takes to hit the water. (b) the velocity with which it hits the water. (Take g = 10 ms) Solution =ut+ dpe (@) s=ut+ 7st 180 =Oxt+ bx loxe sP=6s 1=36 ‘The stone hits the water after 6 s, (b) v=utet v=0+10x6 =60ms* The stone hits the water at a velocity of 60 ms“. Vertical Projection When a body is projected vertically upwards, it undergoes a uniform retardation due to the gravitational pull. The body thus slows down, comes to rest and then starts falling with an increasing velocity. The sign of ‘g’ is therefore negative when the body is rising and positive when it is falling. Hence, for a body projected vertically upwards, the following equations hold: (1) ~ (2) (3)LINEAR MOTION 31 ‘The three equations are useful in deriving expressions for the following: Time Taken to reach Maximum Height At maximum height, the final velocity v = 0. From equation (1) above, 0 = u~ gt. vtet his is the time taken to reach the maximum height. Time of Flight This is the time taken by the body (projectile) to fall back to its point of projection. At the end of the flight, the displacement of the projectile is zero. Using equation (2) above; Ou ge =) 0= 2ut—gt Hence, gt? 2 t(gt~2u)=0 =Oort= 2 corresponds to the start of projection. while t= ? is the time of flight. Note: ‘The time of flight is twice the time taken to attain the maximum height. Maximum Height Reached The maximum height (H,,,) is attained when the final velocity, v = 0. Thus, v's ut 2gs reduces to: =u 2H, ‘Therefore, 23H, =u? Hence, H.,, = a where H,_ is the maximum height attained. Velocity of Return to Point of Projection AC the instant the projectile retams to its point of projection, its total displacement is zero. Thus, v? =u’ —2gs reduces to: tu +u1is the velocity of projection while -u is the velocity of the body falling back. ‘The projectile hits the poimt of projection with a velocity equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the one with which it was projected. Example 20 A stone is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 30 ms“! from the ground, Calculate: (a) the time it takes to reach the maximum height. (b) the time of flight.32. SECONDARY PHYSICS (c) the maximum height reached. (d) the velocity with which it lands on the ground. (Take g = 10 ms) Solution (a) Time taken to reach maximum height is given by; u g = 30 10 =3s (b) Time of flight is given by; T= 2t =2x3 = 6s Alternatively: Time of flight = 2 = 2x30 = 0 = 6s (©) Maximum height reached is given by: ow Bay = 2g = 30x30 2x10 = 45m (A) Velocity of retun is given by; ?— 2gs Buts = 0 = 30x30 Hence, v = ¥30%30 =30ms" EXPERIMENT 1.4: To determine the acceleration due to gravity Using a Ticker-timer Apparatus Ticker-timer. ticker tapes, stand and clamp, mass, power source, paper tape.LINEAR MOTION 33, Camp Ticker tape Mass Fig. 140: Determination of '¢" using « ticker mer Procedure + Fix aticker-timer a a igh pame wsing a clamp. see figure 1.40. + Pass a paper through the timer and aach a small mass on the tape. + Switch on the ticker-timer and fet the mass fall freely + Remove the paper tape. cat I tick strips and make a strip chart. Repeat this many times. Reaults and Calculations Determine the initial and final welociry. Using the expression: final velocity — initial velociey ~~ time taken ~ Using a Simple Pendulum Apparatus Pendulum bob, thin thread. stand amd clamp. metre rule. stopwatch. _ desexmine the value of “2” Fig. 1: Determining the accelerasion of « bots wndervoine fre fall34 SECONDARY PHYSICS. Procedure + Set the apparatus as shown in figure 1.41 (a). * Starting with a length of 50 cm, set the pendulum bob swinging through an angle of about 10°, see figure 1.41 (b). Note: The length of the pendulum is length of thread plus the radius of the bob. Time 20 oscillations. Repeat the experiment and obtain the average time for the 20 oscillations. Determine the periodic time T. Repeat the experiment for different lengths of the pendulum and record the results in table 1.2 Table 1.2 Time for 20 oscillations Length (I) of (seconds) Period T(s) pendulum (cm) | t, | y | 1 20 30 Ts!) 70 80. + Plot graph of T? against / (in metres). Results and Calculations Fora simple pendulum oscillating witha small amplitude, T= 2x 4[Z, where Tis the period, 1 the length of the pendulum and g the acceleration due to gravity, 1 aan Thus, = dn? =Ki, where k= ae Alternatively, k = z, where k is a constant and is the gradient of the graph. Thus, a graph of T? against / is a straight line whose gradient is equal to ae =v Hence, g = Find the slope of your graph and use it to calculate g.Projection exaunples of horizontal projection are water jets from a pipe held horizontally, motion of {whan it ols over a table and a bullet fired from 2 gun held horizontally. LO: A prajecnad bal emerpsing new mosions right angles a beady projected horizontally with initial velocity u from 0, see figure 1.42. The echacity a eamains wackamged throughour the flight. However, the body alsoexperiences fal dee to the pall of pravity, describing the curved paths as shown in figure 1.43. The path followed by the body (projectile) is called the trajectory. The distance R is as the ramgp of the project. It is the maximum horizontal distance covered. Fe LG tajeoy ‘Whe vertical scerdexation is the acceleration doe to gravity g, while the acceleration in the Serizoatal deectiom is 270. lnitial velocity im vertical direction is zero while the initial velocity nthe bored deci s ‘The horizontal desplacement R at time t is given by; svat lee ‘Faking u =u and a=0: R= wis the horizoenal displacement. (For the vertical displacement h at time t: ‘Taking u =O and a=p, ‘The time of flight is the same as the time for free fall.36 SECONDARY PHYSICS Example 22 A ball is thrown from the top of a cliff 20 m high with a horizontal velocity of 10 ms“, Calculate: (a) the time taken by the ball to strike the ground, (b) the distance from the foot of the cliff to where the ball strikes the ground. (©) The vertical velocity at the time it strikes the ground, (Take g = 10 ms) Solution (a) w= 10 mst, g= 10 ms, y=20m Example 23 A stone is thrown horizontally from a building that is 45 m high above a horizontal ground. The stone hits the ground at point which is 60 m from the foot of the building. Calculate the initial velocity of the stone. (Take g = 10 ms~) Solution Let the initial velocity for the vertical motion be u. Using s = ut + Lat? for vertical motion gives; s= Ft (since u = 0) Buts =45 Therefore, 45 = 4x 10x0° Sess “ 9 t=3s Using s= ut + Lat’ for horizontally motion gives; 8 = ut (since a =0) ‘Therefore, 60 = utLINEAR MOTION, 37 But=3s, ‘Therefore, 3u = 60 u=20 Hence, initial velocity is 20 ms“. Revision Exercise 1 Where necessary, take g = 10 ms* J. Describe the motions represented by each of the following motion graphs: E gE 8 g i = : : i . Tame (s) Time (8) : @ . ) £ E i i i i ‘Tune (3) Time (s) z © = ® 8 z : 3 é a Time \ Vy ime (8) ee o38 SECONDARY PHYSICS. Et = ; i $ 5 4 Tat Time (s) : (9) » = E i i g g é a 2. The table below shows the distances covered by a body in motion at different times. \Time (s) oO} 5 to | 1s | 20 | 25 | 30 [Distance (m) | 0 | 30 | 100 | 140 | 180 | 220 | 220 (a) Plota distance-time graph for the motion. (b) What is the average speed during the first 10 seconds? (c) What is the average speed between 10 s and 25 s? (4) What is happening between the 25¢ second and the 30 second? 3. A pendulum takes 4 s to make one complete swing. A man walks 100 m ina straight line while the pendulum makes 20 complete swings. What is the average velocity of the man? 4. A boy runs ata constant speed of 6 ms“ (a) How long does he take to cover 800 m? (b) What distance does he cover after 4 minutes? 5. Drawa graph of velocity against time for a car which starts with an initial velocity of 10 ms" and accelerates uniformly at 2 ms" for 5 s, then slows down to rest in 10 seconds. (a) How far does the car travel? (b) What is the maximum velocity attained by the car? (c)_ What is the retardation of the car as it comes to rest? 6. Accarstarts from rest with uniform acceleration of 5 ms". How long does it take tocover, a distance of 400 m?= LINEAR MOTION 39 7. A cor stats free vet aad accelerates umiformls at 2 ms" for 5 s. It then travels at the velncity staimed for the mext 3 s before accelerating again at 2.5 ms” for 2s. The car is (deen boumpie to est in another 7 < Draw a velocity-time graph for this motion, Calculate the ted Bectmee comeed from yoer sraph. The weheets of a. cor was ecamded after every second for |(s and the following readings ‘wor obtamed: fo Dw 6 ww oT 80 | 5S ty 0, EG? fs 4 5 6 LT 8 (a) lst the welocay-sime graph. (What was the xccckecatice: @ inte fs here ck? @ betwee de Hand the 5 second” (& between the Fad the 10" sexed” 9 @) Achitd dows a ball mpw ards sh 2x initial velocity of 10 ms"'. The ball rises and ies a cele 5 mbigh How ices dies the bul! take to reach the ceiling? (0) On moving ont of the howse. be Solution real depth “"s apparent depth Therefore, apparent depth = 2! depth a5 = 12x2 3 =8om Vertical displacement = 12-8 =4 Example 17 A beaker placed over a coin contains a block of glass of thickness I2 cm. Over this block is water of depth 20 cm. Calculate the vertical displacement of the coin and hence its apparent depth ifit is viewed normally. Assume the boundaries of the media are parallel and take refractive indices of water and glass to be 4 and 3 respectively. Solution ‘Since boundaries are parallel, the total displacement of the coin will be given by d = 4, +d, where d, is the displacement due to glass and d displacement due to water. Fig. 231 2 Forthe glass,d, = 12- (3 x 12)REFRACTION OF LIGHT 65 For water. d, = 20- (3 x20) = 20-15 Sem 445 = Sem Apparent depth = real depth ~ vertical displacement (12 +20)-9 32-9 23cm ‘Therefore, d EXPERIMENT 2,3: To determine refracti Using a Travelling Microscope Apparatus Travelling microscope, white paper, chalk dust, glass block. index by real and apparent depth method Fig, 2.32: Determining refractive index using a travelling microscope Procedure Place the glass block on one of its largest faces on the plain white paper. Place coloured chalk dust on top of the glass block. Focus the travelling microscope on the dust, as shown in figure 2.32. Record the reading, a, of the travelling microscope when the chalk is in focus. Remove the dust from the top surface of the glass block and put some on the white paper. Place back the glass block on top of the dust on the paper. Focus the travelling microscope on the chalk when the glass block is on the dust. Record the new reading, b. Now remove the glass block and focus the travelling microscope on the dust on the paper and record the reading, c. Results and Calculations The real depth = c-a ‘The apparent depth = b—a cua The refractive index ofthe glass, n= €=2 ®66. Using Pins Apparatus Drawing pins, white sheet of paper, glass block. Fig. 2.33: Refractive index using a glass block and pins Procedure ‘The value of refractive index n, of the glass is given by n = Place the glass block on the paper. Trace the outline of the block on the paper. Place a pin P, firmly at one end of the block, With your eye at the opposite end of the block, place pins P, and P, so that they are in line with the image I of P, as shown in figure 2.33. Similarly locate the same image I using pins P, and P, as shown in the diagram. Remove the glass block and produce lines P,P, and P,P, to their point of intersection, which is the position of the image I. ‘Measure the real depth DP, and the apparent depth DI. DP, Note: A and B must be very close to D. Using the method of No-Parallax Apparatus Beaker with some water, pins, cork, clamp, stand, rule. x Rule Virtual image. Object pin Search pin Fig, 2.4: Refractive index by method of no-parallaxREFRACTION OF LIGHT 7 Procedure * Place a pin in a tall parallel-sided beaker and ensure that it touches the side of the beaker, ‘as shown in figure 2.34. + Pour water into the beaker to a convenient height. * Mount a search pin on the sliding cork on glass rod. This will be used to locate the image. + Adjust the position of the search pin by moving it up or down until the image of the object pin and the search pin appear to move together as you move your head sideways. At this point, there is no-parallax between the image of the object pin and the search pin. * — Measure the distance h and the real depth d of the water. + Repeat the experiment for other values of the water depth d. + Plota graph of d against h. + Find the slope of the graph. Results and Calculations d= nh Therefore, a graph of d (y-axis) against h is a straight line through the origin, and of slope n. Example 18 A travelling microscope is focused on coloured chalk dust placed on a plain white paper. A glass block is placed over the chalk dust and the microscope raised by 2.0.cmto refocus on the chalk dust. When the chalk dust is placed on top of the glass block, the microscope is raised by 3.0.em when focused on the chalk dust. Calculate the refractive index of the glass block. Solution Apparent depth = 3.0cm Real depth = 5.0m 0 3.0 = 1.67 Therefore, .n, Example 19 In an experiment to determine the refractive index of a material using real and apparent depth method, the following results were obtained: Real depth (cm) 5 10 15 20 25. 30 Apparent depth (cm) | 28 5.6 83 Wd 13.9 16.7 Calculate the refractive index of the material by plotting a graph of real depth against apparent depth.68 SECONDARY PHYSICS, Solution If dis real depth and h the apparent depth; ‘Therefore, a graph of d against his a straight line through the origin, and of slope n & 3 po des 20 15 10 5 28 0 a te 18 Apparent depth h (om) Fig. 2.35 From the graph, slope n= 125-73 = 0 3.6 = 179 Refractive index of the material is 1.79. TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION In the previous experiments, consideration has been given to a ray of light travelling from air toa medium of interest. By reversing the path of light from, say, glass to air, interesting results emerge EXPERIMENT 2.4: To investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence in glass cand the angle of refraction in air Apparatus Ray box, semi-circular glass block, plain white paper, soft board, drawing pins.REFRACTION OF LIGHT 69 Ray box ‘Semi-citcular glass block Fig. 236 Procedure + Fix the plain paper to the soft board using drawing pins. * Place the semi-circular glass block on the paper and trace its outline. Remove the block. + Identify the centre of the plane surface of the block and draw a normal at that point, as shown in figure 2.36. * Direct a ray of light from a ray box through the block to the centre O of the plane surface of the block (when a ray is directed to the centre O, it meats the curved surface at right angles and passes on without being refracted). * Increase the angle of incidence and observe the change in the angle of refraction. Observation The angle of refraction increases with the angle of incidence until at a certain point when the angle of refraction becomes 90°, as shown in figure 2.37 (a) and (b) ‘Weak 1 Tellected ray Weak - reflected ray Fig. 2.37-Effect of increasing angle of incidence angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction in air is 90" is known as the critical angle, denoted by c.Itis defined as the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the less dense medium is 9°. Since itis not possible to have an angle or refraction greater than 9(P. when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle ¢. there is no refraction and all the light is reflected10 SECONDARY PHYSICS in the denser medium, the laws of refl internally wi being obeyed as in figure 2.38. ‘Strong reflected ray Fig. 238: Total internal reflection At this stage, i= rand i> c, The process is known as total intemal reflection. For total internal reflection to occur: (i) _ light must be travelling from a denser to a less dense medium. (ii) the angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle Total internal reflection cannot occur when light travels froin a less dense to a denser medium like air to water or water to glass. In such cases, refracted rays are always obtained. Relationship between Critical Angle and Refractive Index Consider a ray of light striking a glass-air interface at critical angle c, as shown in figure 2.39. Water Glass Fig. 239 From Snell's law; zl Ths, sine= or EXPERIMENT 2.5: To determine the refractive index of glass using critical angle Apparatus Ray box, semi-circular glass block, sofi board, drawing pins, white sheet of paper.REFRACTION OF LIGHT U1 Refracted ray *> Weak reflected ray N Fig. 2.40: Determining refractive index using critical angle Procedure + Place the semi-circular glass block on the plain white paper fixed to a soft board. Trace the outline. + Find the midpoint O of the plane surface of the block. * Draw anormal at point O, as shown in figure 2.40. = Carefully replace the block back to its outline. © Directa ray froma ray box to 0. Move the ray box along an arc always ensuring that it is directed to O. Do this until the refracted ray emerges along the straight edge of the block. ‘© Mark the position of the incident ray with crosses at P, and P,. © Repeat the procedure on the other side of normal ON. Record ycur results in a table and find the average value of the critical angle ¢ Results and Calculations Table 2.3: Readings of critical angle Critical angle c (degrees) Ist reading 2nd reading Average c,, ate S % ‘Sebstitute this value of c in the formula n= ak and calculate the refractive index of glass. Example 20 Calculate the critical angle of diamond, given that its refractive index is 2.42.2 SECONDARY PHYSICS Example 21 The critical angle for water is 48.6°. Calculate the refractive index of water. Solution Example 22 A ray of light travels through air into a medium as shown in figure 2.41. Fig.22 Calculate the critical angle for the medium. Solution sinc = 0,5008 ©=30.2 Example 23 Calculate the critical angle for glass-water interface (refractive indices of glass and water are Band 4 i 3 and $ respectively)REFRACTION OF LIGHT B Solution if cis the critical angle, a ray travelling from glass to water would be refracted as shown in figure 2.42. | Water | Glass A Fig. 2.42 Using n sin 8 = constant; ¢ = sin" (0.8889) 26? t Effects of Total Internal Reflection Mirage ‘On a hot day, the ground gets heated up and in turn heats up the air above it. The heated air ‘expands and becomes less dense. Denser air has the higher refractive index than the less dense air. This means that physically denser air is optically denser than the physically less dense ai. ‘Thus, on a hot day, the refractive index increases gradually from the ground upwards. A ray of light travelling in air from the sky towards the ground passes from the colder to ‘warmer air of less refractive index and is bent gradually away from the normal. This is called continuous refraction. The ray is refracted as shown in figure 2.43. Direct ray travelling through ait of same temperature Fig. 2.43: Mirage “Fo the observer at E, the ray seems to come from a point I. the image of O . This gives an ‘optical illusion of an inverted image in a pool of water. This phenomenon is called mirage. “Two theories have been advanced to explain formation ofthe mirage. One theory advocates ‘total internal reflection while the other advocates continuous and progressive refraction.14 SECONDARY PHYSICS Mirages are also witnessed in very cold regions, but this time the light curves in the opposite direction to the one in hot areas. Thus, apolar bear, for example, appears tobe upside down in the sky, see figure 2.44. Fig, 244: Mirage in very cold regions Atmospheric Refraction ‘The sun is seen after it has set due to refraction in the earth’s atmosphere. Light rays from the sun are refracted towards the earth as shown in figure 2.45. ‘Apparent position of the sun eal position of the sun Fig. 245 ‘Similarly, the sun is seen before it rises. Total Internal Reflection Prisms Right-angled isosceles glass or perspex prism (angles of 90°, 45° and 45°) are very important devices for reflecting light. To turn a Ray of Light through 99° Consider a ray of light incident to face AB of a right-angled isosceles prism normally, as shown in figure 2.46, R lis® Fig 246 Taming ary hough 0PREFRACTION OF LIGHT. 5 “The ray passes on unrefracted and meets face AC at point O, where it makes an angle 45° with the normal. This angle is greater than the critical angle for glass (42°), hence the ray is totally internally reflected, obeying the laws of reflection. The reflected ray meets face BC normally and passes on undeviated. To turn a Ray through 180° Fig. 2.47: Tarning a ray through 18 ‘The ray meets the hypotenuse AB normally and passes on undeviated, as shown in figure 2.47, Itmakes an angle of 45° with the normal at O and is totally internally reflected. The reflected ray strikes face BC at 0’ and is again totally internally reflected as the angle of incidence is 45°. The ray traverses face AB normally and passes on undeviated. “Thus, the ray is deviated through 90° by face AC, then face BC deviates ita further 90°. Hence, the ray undergoes a total deviation of 180 Inversion with Deviation Fig. 248: Inversion with deviation16 SECONDARY PAYSICS Jn figure 2.48, the prism has an inverting effect. It produces an inverted image (the rays are deviated through 180") Inversion without Deviation DOS Fig, 249: Inversion without deviation When the prism is used as shown in figure 2.49, it will have an inverting effect but with no deviation. Ifthe object was upside down the image would be upright. Such a prism can be used as an ‘erecting prism’ Applications of Total Internal Reflection In practice, prisms rather than plane mirrors are used in periscopes and other optical instruments. This is because mirrors have the following disadvantages: {i Mirrors absorb some of the incident light, Gi) The silvering on mirrors can become tarnished and peel off. (iii) Mirrors, especially if they are thick, produce multiple images, see figure 2.50. Main reflected ray Fig. 2.50: Multiple reflection in a thick mirrorREFRACTION OF LIGHT. Periscope Figure 2.51 shows a prism periscope. Fig, 2.51: Periscope Lights deviated through 90° by the first prism before the second prism deviates ita further 90° in the opposite direction. The image formed is erect and virtual. Lateral inversion produced by reflection in the first prism is compensated for by the second reflection in the lower prism. Prism Binoculars Fig. 2.52: Prism binoculars8 SECONDARY PHYSICS Prisms are used in a pair of telescopes to reduce the distance between the eyepiece and the objective, ie., reducing the length ofthe telescopes and also to erect the inverted image. Such an arrangement is called prism binoculars. Figure 2.52 shows a simple arrangement of the prism binoculars. Pentaprism When light passes a camera lens, the resulting image of an object is inverted. In order to see the object being photographed, a pentaprism is used to give the actual picture in front of the photographer. The pentaprism gives the erect picture through two internal reflections. Figure 2.53 shows the light from a lens passing through the pentaprism. Pentaprisim >—p eve 4 Ray from object through the lens High reflector Fig. 2.53: Pentaprism Optical Fibre ‘An optical fibre isa thin flexible glass rod of small diameter. The diameter can be made very small, inthe order of 10m. The central case of the glass is coated with glass of lower refractive index. This is known as cladding, see figure 2.54. Fig. 2.4: Optical fibre ‘A ray of light entering the fibre undergoes repeated total internal reflections on the boundary of the high and low refractive index glass. Thus, light travels through the entire length of the fibse without any getting lost. This provides an efficient way of transmitting light energy.