GATE & ESE - EE, EC ave up to 30%*with extra months on Plus & Iconic “. © Hurry, offer valid till Jan 13 AnikiTese, Duration eke ates ce . Besa esses ste te tee] Bs ere Corry for 10% off D —Ca EE a a Se a ee a > The plants which can take up the load on the base portion of the load curve of the power system are called as base load power plants. Load factor of such plants is very high. Run-off river plants without pondage and reservoir plants are used as base load power plants. Thermal and Nuclear power plants are also used as base load power plants. Wind Farms are also used as Base Load Plants. > Plants that are used to supply the peak load of the system ie. top portion of the load curve are called as Peak Load Power Plants. Run off river plant with pondage can also be used as Peak Load Power Plant. Peak Load plants have seasonal storage as they store water during off peak periods and supply loads during peak load periods. Diesel Power Plants are also used as Peak Load Power Plants.PO a a Se a a a a > In these plants reservoir is used to supply water to a turbine during the peak load periods and alternator is used as Synchronous Motor to pump the water back into reservoir during the off peak periods. Load Curve Curve between power, aigmanded in kW Vs time of operation in hours.MD: Maximum Demand AD: Average Demand Maximum Demand is the peak point on the Load Curve. Average Demand can be expressed as energy delivered in a given period divided by the number of hours in that period. Area under the Load Curve AverageDi nd = Total Duration Number of units generated/consumed AverageDemand = Total Duration Connected Load is the sum of continuous power rating of all apparatus connected in Power System.ANKITESE ANKT Maximum Demand | ~ Connectaa toad Demand Factor <1 Demand Factor = aK Average Demand _ Area under load curve Load Factor = ee er faclctaves ctOr= Maximum Demand — Rectangular area corresponding toP,,., Practically load factor <1 & Ideally =1 Units generated in a given period Load Factor = —_____Units generated’ in a given period _ ‘octor = amma Demand x Number of Hours in that given periodANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITES! so c should be ox Diversity Factor = Sum of Individual Maximum Demands os possible aL Maximum Demand on Power Station Coincidence Factor = ———!__ Diversity Factor Plant Utilization Factor = Maximum Demand] ; Plant utilzation factor <1 Rated Capacity cas Reserve Capacity = Plant Capacity - Maximum DemandUnits generated in a given period ee Rated Capacity xNumber of hours in same period 2 Plant Factor = Average Demand Rated Capacity = ood factor x plant ukiteation odor Total Energy Generated in operating hour Rated Capacity x Number of Operating Hours ° = ene emerated, max energy thak could be — Plant Factor = << plant caparity fastor Plant Use Factor = Plant use factor >1a ea eT ‘Transmission Lines are used as power carrier or link between two nodes or buses. At voltages up to 230 kV, the insulation level of lines and equipments is dictated by need to protect against lightning. Peak: 345kV On systems where voltages are above 230 KV but less than 700 KV switching operation & lightning are potentially damaging to insulation. For systems having voltages above 700 kV. Switching surges are main determinant of level of insulation. > Voltage Levels > High voltage (HV) - it is 11kV, 33kV ¥ > Extra High voltage (EHV) - 66kV, 132kV, 220kV/ > Modern extra high voltage (MEHV) - 400kV // > Ultra high voltage (UHV) - 765kV or above \/ Transmission at higher voltage reduces the Transmission Losses but also requires more insulation. If current density remains constant, then current rating of the transmission line is decided on the basis of the cross sectional area of the conductor (I A)a a SE a a a ee ee Single Strand Conductor + Hollow Conductors are preferred to Solid Conductors as for same cross sectional area they have higher outer radius due to which corona loss is lesser. * In Single Strand Conductor skin effect is more. Skin effect is tendency of AC current to be concentrated on the surface of conductor. Cause of Skin Effect: Non-uniform distribution of magnitude flux linkages Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross section of conductor decrease and hence resistances increases. Skin Depth,6 = ,| 2 ous In case of DC, There is no skin effect so Roc At] Skin Effect is absent in case of DC Transmission. Skin effect is more in communication lines as frequency is in MHz range + Instead of a single conductor multiple smaller strands are bundled together to increase the electrical cross sectional area and thus reduce the skin effect. Due to non-uniform outer surface of the conductor the corona loss increases as compared to solid conductor. Tensile Strength of the conductor also reduces which increases the sag of the conductor so we use Composite Stranded Conductor where central strand is made of Steel and is called as Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR).‘The conduction area for solid and stranded conductors having same outer diameter has been shown in the fi; sue affective est Same Cross Section 2 7 sesistancedThe shaded region indicates the conduction area in both types of conductors. From the figure we can see that electrical cross section area (conduction area or shaded area) of stranded conductor is more as compared to Solid Conductor so resistance of stranded conductor is less as compared to Solid Conductor. Hence, skin effect reduces in case of Stranded Conductors. But the outer surface of Stranded Conductor is non-uniform and hence there are edges. Since, edges have lesser cross sectional area the current density and electric field are higher and hence corona loss is higher in stranded conductor. For given cross section area, in a stranded conductor, if number of strands are more, skin effect reduces. Conductor surface becomes smoother & corona loss also reducesSE Se a a a ee a Composite Stranded Conductors replace Homogeneous Stranded Conductors in order to increase tensile strength or reduce Sag. Figure : Cross Sectional View of Composite Stranded Conductors Central or internal strands of normal AAC will be replaced with the new strands having good mechanical & tensile strength. Here, the central strand is made of a different material usually steel. Steel has more tensile strength as compared to aluminum so tensile strength of conductor increases. Steel strands only provide mechanical strength & it will not carry any amount of current. An example of Composite Stranded Conductor is shown in figure where central strand is made of Steel. Such conductor is called as, ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced).ACSR represented bys ratio. x = Number of steel strands y = Number of aluminum strands For the conductor shown above, we have one steel strand and 6 Aluminum strands. So, it can be named as ACSR =. For power conductors, number of Al strands > number of steel strands. As number of layers increase, number of strands increment will follow the series 1(1* layer)+ 6(2™4 layer) +12+18+24+30+....... Total number of conductors = (3x? + 3x + 1) where x = Number of layers Cdo not count central strand as 0 aye)Let d= diameter of each strand D= diameter of ACSR For 1 layer, D=d For? layers, : dae D=3d For3 layers, eS D=5d ACSR is suitable for HVAC Transmission line. a ACSR is also suitable for HVDC Transmission line that is due to stringing property. Conductors are natured i.e. we choose such a conductor which have more mechanical strength & more stringing property. Paper/Hessian will be placed in the inter-layer region of ASCR conductor, the resultant size of conductor increases & electric field reduces due to which corona loss reduces, this type of conductor is called as expanded ACSR conductoComparison oes cond? Property Solid AAC | ACSR Skin effect Very high | Very less _| Moderate Mechanical strength | Very high | Very less | Moderate Points to Remember For a feeder power loss should be minimum. * Fora distributor voltage drop should be minimum. + High voltage transmission is used to minimize transmission losses. + For voltage rating above 345 KV, insulation is designed on the basis of switching overvoltage. * Cross-sectional area of a conductor is decided on the basis of current rating\NKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE |. To determine the performance of the Transmission Line we need to draw its equivalent circuit. Equivalent Circuit refers to representation of a physical apparatus or device in terms of network elements so that performance can be analyzed by using basic network analysis. The equivalent circuit consists of Inductance due to flux linkage in a conductor, resistance of the conductor, capacitance due to charge storage on the surface of conductor and leakage resistance due to Insulator Resistance connecting the link to tower. Here, the current in one conductor is shown to be I and in other two as -I/2 as other two conductors act as return path for the first conductoRaee eee eee e areas eee ee eee ener eee eee ee re ST ea eT 1. Internal Inductance of a conductor is due to flux linkages inside a conductor because magnetic field inside a conductor is non-zero. Here, we will only consider one conductor and we will assume return conductor placed at infinite distance from forward conduct Hy, Internal Inductance, a 2 En a a 1. External Inductance of a conductor is due to flux linkages outside a conductor because the magnetic field also exists outside a conduc External Inductance fino. distance re L ett 2 ‘ahi _ 2e LDA, enittah distone 20-2 Ln D rnH/kn Total Inductance is given by 7 tat in( &)o1m ee = 0-22n aANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITES! 1, When there are multiple conductors then there are two types of flux linkage which are self and mutual. Self Flux implies when the flux produced by a conductor passes through the same conductor and mutual flux is when flux due to one conductor passes through other conductor. In order to simplify such configuration of conductors by replacing them with two conductor. The separation between two such conductors in order to have same mutual flux as original configuration is called as Geometric Mean Distance. In single phase 2 wire line, there are only 2 conductors and hence their separation itself is equal to GMD. 2. Similarly, if we want to replace group of conductors by a single conductor so that self flux linkage remains same the radius of such hypothetical conductor is decided on the basis of GMR of the system. So, both these distances are hypothetical and exist for an equivalentInductance of a Transmission line Single Conductor Assumption: Skin Effect is neglected. Holt, Internal inductance “gz” H/m / External inductance from distance dj’ to dy’ Le "gn } H/in/ Total inductance = Hah + Holt tein) 8x x r tstin(3 4) 24, m( $ aInductance of single wie _ wa) ee ee = Total inductance = L, + Lz i bem Hahn) |< tote nducance of ton If radius of both wire is not same, assume radius of 1st wire & that of second wire is BL. -tenf | Qeometne mean of 2 GMR 1,’ = 0.77881, & ry’ = 0.7788n, In case of Bundled Conductors, then GMR is replaced by self GMD (Geometric Mean Distance) and ‘d’ by mutual GMD.In case of Bundled Conductors, GMR is replaced by Self GMD. ‘Assume there are n conductors in Forward path and n’ conductors in Return path. ‘Oo z 5b (O Oo in’-conductors(reverse)Where D, =" =0.7788r, (Sef GMD, =[(04, Dy Dy) Oy, Dsg——Drg) (ODP Where D,, =1; = 0.77885,Mutual GMD Mutual GMD =[(0,; 2,y-—-D,;)-—--—Py Og: oad Now, with these terms all the inductance expressions change to: height above easth Single wire : en (ais wis) <4 les Beet Dny 4 > wire: He }p{ Mutual GMD 1-9, 2 wire: in| uta GE ) ee SAESolid conductors have high mechanical strength but suffer from skin effect. Hollow conductors have larger outer diameter for same current rating & hence they have less electric field & less corona loss. They are used in us;bars. Stranded conductors have more electrical cross-section area & hence less skin effect & re- sistance but sag is higher. In composite stranded conductor tensile strength is more so sag is reduced. Bundled conductor have more than one conductor in each phase & each conductor is a stranded conductor, <— we reduced Covona Loss Inductance of Bundled conductor is less then solid conductor but capacitance is higher. 1 Self GMD =[(D,,Djz-+-D,)(Dai-+-Day)oo-(DysDya-+-Dya) "80 it is geometric mean of dis- tance possible within each group. Mutual GMD =[(D,,Dy «yy. )(Dys+-Day)-( Dy Dag -De Jn mutual GMD, we take combination of all distances within two groups.Aadf. GH0 compitation Bundled cont’ abproximatn > tf cmd ae pln a ener © oF or © of a repur beliaon then a ot Sat GMD sf comb" is some S< 200 km; L*f > 10000 Modeling of transmission lines ‘Transmission lines are modeled as 2 - port network V,=AV, +B |, =CV, +DI, Under no load 1,= 0, V,= AVp,No Load Voltage = 4 ib Voltage Regulation = 100% If , Ip=0,1,=CVpo This current is called as line charging current and is responsible for as effect is called as “Ferranti Effect”. Ferranti Effect Under no-load or light load conditions in Medium and Long Lines, receiving end voltage becomes more than sending end voltage due to presence of line charging current. Veo= Vy; Init Wpol >I s1Short transmission line V, =Vy +h (R+jwl)=V, +h.Z V, (he *T] A=D ical) / aed ST alt Te Jines ave Symmedrieat ox well os * ad ‘Yeci roca Male [ Oncor BR) Voltage Regulation aa, S ae +, fax) |* For a Short TL, A = 1. Thus, Voltage Regulation is given by, ( ping +f | dom >,: Vpsindy AX tee Line aan currentZz For Zero Voltage regulation, cos(0+4,) 2-2 J a queria a per fre where, $x is the receiving end power factor angle. x oar ‘i is the impedance angle of the Transmission Line. For maximum Voltage Regulation, 0= $n; CVR)max = Zou. Note: Zero Voltage Regulation is only possible for leading pf loads and Maximum Voltage Regulation for lagging pf loads. Approximate Voltage Regulation For “iy g pf ven wie +Xsing, )For resets pf VR = Eh ircose, -Xsind,) VR= xZpu cos(®-fy) = fractional Snoding Using Approximate Voltage Regulation, Condition for Maximum Voltage Regulation, 0= 6x 4: Sogaing ft onge i +be= For Zero Voltage Regulation, , 0 + x= 90° Medium Transmission Line The shunt capacitance and the line charging current cannot be neglected for the case of Medium Transmission Linesoy fo3) 3) Re beg Here all parameters are in actual values & not per unit length. A=D: Symmes “i [t] fo bow Nominal-n Model woz Zi 4 1 Per a Ye yor Z+ Riyal Nominal-m Model is more preferable as it has only two nodes, so the number of nodal equations in Load Flow Analysis is reduced.Nominal-m Model is more preferable as it has only two nodes, so the number of nodal equations in Load Flow Analysis is reduced. pe abproximakion , no Jumbeng Long transmission Line a V, = Vp coshyX +1,Z, sinhyx a! Vegi 1, =h coshyx+ sinh: |, =}, coshyx zon Where Vx & Ix are voltage and current at distance ‘x’ from receiving end. Characteristic Impedance u inde berdenk of line lenIn case of long transmission line, we use all parameters per-unit length. For loss less line, R= G=0 , Za F this impedance is also known as Surge Impedance For distortion less line, RC=LG / 1G Prepagation con For sending end, x= a V, = V, coshyl+1,Z, sinhyl {= obtenuabion come Np/Km, = Ma i 1OX \=hcosmie 3 sinhyl Pr core Vv coshyl Z_sinhyl \, z sinh coshyl |} |, [ oe B+ phane omit mal/kem Ne {yes Grego [kmA=D (symmetrical) AD - BC = 1 (reciprocal) ‘The parameters ABCD in complex form can be represented as A=|AlZa B=p\zp C={|zy D=plza_ yage =A 0-2" sig4 Equivalent Networks of Long Transmission Line Equivalent 7 model Ne Z'=B=Z_sinhyl _{A=1)_ coshy-1 B Z,sinhylEquivalent T - Model Y=C= psinhyl )-» (Sian) Power Transfer Equation _MlMl A =F rces(6-8)-[alMcos(-«) _MMeip_s) lve sine ae (B-8) ial (B-a) : aie Zesinyl sn! coshylFor Short TL B =|2|20 , where 0 is the impedance angle A=120=|A|Za >|A|=1, a=0 p - MIM Fl oa cos(0—8)— ML cose = MM no -8)- M Ml sino If resistance of line is neglected lossless shot 1) Fi-l%\-P| and @=90°ind; Q4= MMos Mi = See Wad [Wvslenss - hat] Remember, the last expression can be applied between any two buses in a power system as long as transmission line connecting them is loss less.+ Assuming that power is flowing from bus 1 t0 bus 2 3=8,-8 v HPA os(p-8)— “Wf cos(—< Tay S88) git eos(8-a) ia snip) -lvs ina) + For short loss less line, o for a oars Une, one anal ps Flow from dower one to a =tilpy-teos3) <(Cource = line) high angle o.-Lélprcoss-.] < Clone load) + For short loss less line, real power flows from higher voltage angle to lower voltage angle.La sec higher voltage magnitude to lower voltage magni- Fiat hipesis ote = 0. +Wil=KI=PI 2-H -ena)>0 Source line 2 to (eons-1}<0 Sood Line Hence, reactive power flows into the line at both ends. The direction of reactive power flow can be determined as,GATE & ESE - EE, EC Save up to 30% h extra months on Plus & Iconic os SU Cae CL eC REM tarts Ciel ete ere Corry for 10% off D -CE SE a > The equivalent circuit of a Long Transmission Line is shown below. Here each section of the line is replaced by equivalent circuit, so each parameter is per unit length. > Here, each section of the line is assumed to have different length and thus the value of their lumped parameters is different. > The value of distributed parameters is R/km, L/km, C/km, G/km.Disriones [ [msi] [ 1. If the wave in the Transmission Line does not suffer any distortion in the wave shape as wave propagates in the Transmission Line, it is called as Distortion Less Line. 2. The condition of Distortion less transmission is, Time constant of series part = Time constant of . This condition is same as the condition for a network to be independent of frequency because if a wave is non-sinusoidal then it contains multiple frequencies and if the output is independent of frequency then all frequencies experience equal delay. Hence, the shape of the wave at the receiving end of the line is unaltered. |. As shown in the figure above that due to resistance and conductance of the line the wave may be attenuated i.e. amplitude may change but wave shape should remain constant,, VGH) = Va 2B IVCI= Va < flat vothoge Foo- Re pe Pool= efile: If the voltage magnitude and current magnitude remains same at all points on the Transmission Line but the phase may be different, then it is termed as Flat Line or Infinite Line. Flat Line implies that the voltage profile on the line is flat or the voltage magnitude at all points on the transmission line is equal. A Transmission Line terminated in Characteristic Impedance is termed as Flat Line or Infinite Line. Infinite Line implies that there is no reflected wave generated if the line is terminated in characteristic impedance due to which it appears that there is no receiving end in the line or the length of the line is infinite.ZOE es a ee a ee ea tosis [jg [aniston] — |g Subset. of distoskion less line . If R= G=0, in cach section of Transmission Line then the wave amplitude remains same and does not decrease as the wave propagates forward in a Transmission Line. . If R #0, or G #0, then it is called as lossy line or attenuated line. . If RC=LG,R#0,GF0 then wave magnitude decreases without any distortion.PO a a a a a ee ee Z, =Impedance offered by an apparatus for surges, traveling waves / Transients. Itis the voltage to current ratio on Power line during wave propagation = , where, = and y and impedance and admittance of the line per unit length. For attenuated or lossy line , Z, = |— ae For distortion less line, Z.AZ\20 Ls rdeborent of RC=LG,R#0, G40 @<0 length Z: Copacitive im nokuveFor loss less line R = 2-/- Viet “VC This expression is same as characteristic impedance for Distortion-less line and itis purely resis tive in nature. But it does not create any loss in line. For overhead line, range of characteristic impedance is 200-500 2” Typically, Z, = 4000 / Practically for 132kV line, 400.2 / for 220 kV line, 295.0 // for 400kV line, 2500 / For UG cable, Z, =49Q-4800 Typically Z, =409 For lumped inductive loads (C= 0), Z, is ideally infinite & practically of the onder of 1000 of ohms. For power transformer winding, capacitance is very low and hence Z,~5000 ohms. For transmission line Z, is independent of length aeaae For attenuated line, Z, depends on frequency of surge whereas loss less line Z, is independentIt represents changes happening in Voltage and Current waves during propagation. . Changes ~ (1) physical displacement of wave (2) decrement in the wave magnitude . y=Ve , z=r+jol and y=g+ joc Here, all parameters are per unit length. |. For attenuated Power Line = Vrs joLXg + joC) = a+ jB rad/sec @_jis called as attenuation constant and it represents decrement in voltage & current magnitude B is called as phase constant and it represents physical displacement in the wave |. For lossless Transmission Line R=0 , G=0 y= joie = jp B=oVZC rad/km .No attenuation in wave magnitude i.e. the wave amplitude remains constant.aaa eee ee eee ese eee eee I a Ee Se ST Wave length of Power Line is distance traveled by wave to get one repetition or 2x radians. With B rad/km physical displacement 2x aA=—= km “ee Fora lossless line, B= OVC rad/km \/ 2nd Thereliee d= rg Fate™ Velocity of wave, v= Pha Thee 4 LAC ave ber kmABCD Parameters of a Lossless Line y=jB «=O Coshyl= cosh Zesinhyl= (=snpt cospl jz, sinB Ir Thain oak vecsvng ond if = sina cospl [t] th. y Angles of A & Dare zero re Angles of B & C are 90 ne it If physical length of line (1) = »== then VseVr ; Is=Ir The {eeF AL If le==— ; V,=-V, , L=4 ie , f . > In both these cases the magnitude of sending end parameters are equal to magnitude of Receiving end parameters, Such a line is called as Tuned Power Line.Surge RENN sane 3- maximum active power to unity power factor load When load impedance = surge impedance , ” ®, = $2 = Surge Impedance Loading c HZ =Z VertnZe —— tdeah loadin V, im no teflected wave i ft volta velop stat According to long oa equ tion, V, = Vp coshyx+l,Z, sinhyx = Vp coshyx+V, sinhyx = 2V,e" So no term containing ¢* & hence no reflected wave & hence whenever surge impedance is connected at load, there is no reflection.For a lossless line, Sending end voltage a. V, = (COsBI)V,+ jl,Z_SinBI = (cosBI)V, + (jsinBl) V_ =V_[cosBl+ jsinpl]=V, 2p RZ=VR ; AZo sinBl+, cosBIl, (cosBl+ jsinBl) =|, ZBI we Under SIL, voltage é& current magnitude are same at any point on Transmission Line, with a phase displacement measured from receiving end of line. Such a line is called as Flat Line or Infinite Line.aaa eee ee eee area eee I Sa Ee Se eT The ABCD parameters of lossless Transmission Line are, cos! jZ, sin i zine cospi B=90° , a=0° Maximum power transfer capability for loss less transmission line B=90° , a=0° Y, Pg MMe ly con) pallet Ya! me {BL Zin Br For a TL generally | V, =| Vz! z= Jf. 7, sinBl sin For practical TL, sinf<1;P,Maximum Power is also called as Steady State Stability Limit as if an attempt is made to draw power more than maximum power then system becomes unstable. If7<80km, loading on the power line is based on thermal limit ic. it is based on temperature rise in the Transmission Line. nee If 80km 300km, inthis case the loading of power line is based on St Stabili f P., & SIL are very high for underground cables so loading is decided by Thermal Limit.Effect of Compensators on surge impedance loading: Weil Ci. © se (sit), Ly, => Inductive shunt compensation Cay = Capacitive shunt compensation Be (1+ Kesh) (I-Kist) C.. = Capacitive series compensation Or4, {es ) Kou, = Degree of Cy, (in fraction) Bayg. (14 Keon) (I= Kesh) Kian= Degree of La. (in fraction) ~ 8, Kuo = Degree of Cy. (in fraction) Be NS ky, Loading = SIL = No compensation is requitedSurge Traversal Thevenin equivalent circuit When surge voltage ‘ V’’ is induced on the line & line can be represented as Thevenin equivalent circuit shown. ah Z. = Characteristic or Surge impedance of line chav. Z a Z, = load impedance or characteristics impedance of second tm which s\ ge travel line connected in series to first a a qe Incident Voltage V, = V Reflected voltage = V’ V+V'=V2 [Voltage continuity] Ch 2 oF medion G which surge wall entervr refleded Pav Ree reat a posite pve Refracted current = %+, v Incident current = =~ € Reflection coefficient: Refraction coefficient:For an open circuited line, Z, = «and for short circuited line Z, = ( huee-<) For bifurcated lines, (bare ) pee Refraction Coefficient is given by, Me 2Z,2,) V ZZ, 42, Reflection Coefficient is given by, \_[2:2%s-2Z-22, V |Z2,+Z,2Z,+Z,2,+ Usually in case of lagging loads, the voltage at receiving end falls below sending end voltage and to boost the receiving end voltage we connect a shunt capacitor at receiving end. Similarly, in case of leading loads, receiving end voltage is higher than sending end voltage so we connect a shunt reactor to avoid over-voltage. We can also use series capacitor to improve voltage regulation. It also improves Stability but also increases Fault Current but at the same time it also causes the problem of Sub-Synchronous Resonance. Approximately, the rating of Shunt equipment required to change the receiving end voltage by an amount AV; L shunt Lore Q,, = li V, [bys desired change in voltage XA peactamee of meUsually in GATE, we need to calculate rating of capacitor for voltage control & it is illustrated through a question shown below: Example: A three phase overhead line has a resistance & reactance of 5Q & 200 respectively. The load at receiving end is 30MW, 0.85 pf lagging at 33kv & we connect a compensating equipment at receiving end to maintain voltage at each end equal to 33 Kv. Find rating of compensating equipment? Solution: Assuming base (MV A) = 30 MVA nee Sa "ua Base voltage = 33 kv 30Mw 30MVA pu abso. ¥@ Base i = 23630 i Se esa Sa= Git Qo Ges : inductor Qe <0: capacitor pu power =pu impedance -5+1° _osee7sa6* ae Uloo-s) Ne conn {-|z]=0.568 ; 0=75.96°) 1= GL cos(75 96-8) 51 cos75 96 = cos(75.96-8) =0.81 3-401? / Mall, Mla 1x1 r = ‘sin(@-5)-7—sind | TX! —: - x sit Serer (0-8) A agg (75.96 - 40.11) xsin75.96 Qu =- 0.645 pu QL =P, tan > =1xtan(cos*0.85) Qi = 0.6197 puQ, =Q, +Q, =Q, =-1.2647pu Q, = 1.2647 x30 =37.9MVAR So, we can observe the steps involved Step-1 : Calculate 6 from P, as capacitor does not consume any real power. Step-2 : Calculate Qx using 8 calculated above Step-3 : Qe = Qi + Qe then Calculate Qc Power Factor Correction Usually, to improve the supply side power factor we connect a capacitor device like capacitor bank or synchronous condenser (synchronous motor under over excited condition). Suppose, initially a load of real power P, & lagging pf cos6, is connected & we want to improve pf to cos®, lagging (02.<0;) & we connect a capacitive device which consumes real power Pc & thus net real power after connection.P, al aeptan, | Orel ca Q, =P, tan0,; Q, =P, tan®, cox, wen rf |Q. =P, tand, —P, tand, Incase of capacitor bank, Pe=0 >22F = Load foie. Here, P represents three phase real power. If we wish to calculate capacitance per phase (in both voltage control & pf correction )° value of X_ tn each phase connected in Y Xe \el 1-1Al Ly Weel We]> The differences, between Series and Shunt Compensation are summarized below, Shunt Capacitor Series Capacitor Current in the line is modified Reactance of the line is modified | Uniform Voltage Improvement Non-uniform Voltage Improvement [High Voltage, Low Current Rating Low Voltage, High Current Rating Reactance is high and capacitance is low _ | Reactance is low and capacitance is high Reactive Power of capacitor does not change | Reactive Power of Capacitor changes by much with Load variations. large amount due to Load variations.‘Shunt capacitor is used to boost voltage & the rating required to boost voltage by AV is, o= Zr) oe ‘Shunt reactor is used to reduce voltage & rating required to reduce voltage by AV is _V (ar), 2 x The reactive power of compensator required to improve power factor is, O=Ftang, —P, tand, B.= real power before compensator P, = real power after compensator 056 = initial pf cos}, = final pf Uf compensator does not consume any real power then P, =P, By use of capacitor Surge Impedance Loading increases & by use of inductor Surge Imped-Bedding ~y Paper Insulation\NKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE. . Since, the cable is laid underground, there is a high chance that current will leak into the ground and to prevent the leakage of current into the ground we make use of Insulation over the conductor. Insulating Material must have following properties, * High Insulation Resistance ./ + High Dielectric Strength + Non - hygroscopic (less corrosive),/ * Free from impurities ,/ * Insulators should be electrically & chemically ieee . Generally, the following materials are used as insulators and their dielectric strengths are also mentioned against each material * Vulcanized Rubber : 10 - 20 kV/mm. sXLPE * Poly Vinyl Chloride: 18 kV/mm * Impregnated Paper: 30 KV/mm| Metallic Sheath 4 If moisture enters the insulation then the dielectric strength of the material reduces. 4 In order to avoid moisture, gases or alkali content from earth to insulator eg. Al or lead » Bedding It is placed to avoid corrosion on metallic sheath because due to chemicals and moisture inside earth’s surface. eg. Fibrous Material (low grade insulator) such as Jute, Cotton or Hessian Tape. 4 Armouring It is placed to avoid mechanical damages or mechanical injuries to the cable during laying & transportation of cable. eg. Galvanized Steel Tape. Serving Used to avoid corrosion on surface of armouring. eg. fibrous material similar to bedding.a a SE a a a ee ee » The DC distributed model for a UG cable is shown below Core > Since, we are considering DC Model, we have ignored inductance and capacitance of the cable and we have only considered the resistances. > As current flows in the conductor it encounters the conductor or core resistance and the leakage current flows through the insulator to the ground and is represented by Insulator Resistance.The resistance is the conductor or core is given by, R., = Pod : a where | is the length of cable and a= nr* is the cross sectional area of the conductor. Consider a small ring of radius x and width dr inside the insulator as shown below, resistance of ae small ring = Fe) given by, ( ) al outer\ 3-7 length ‘radius This is the total resistance of Insulator and not the resistance per unit Length. insulation From the equations above, as length of conductor increases, then R._. increases but R,, decreases Insulators have negative temperature coefficient so as Temperature increases the resistance of Insulator will decrease and thus leakage current through the insulator will increase. Conductor or Core Resistance increases with increase in temperature due to positive temperature coefficient of conductors.ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE ANKITESE Ai a ea eT Assume that 2. is the line charge on the cable having the units C/m. . The electric field due to line charge at a distance x from the cable is given by, —s 2nex . Atx=r, on surface of core the electric field is, eat Ey *E’ on core surface is very high.. Capacitance of a cable can be computed as, c=kFim v V(2ne) R r where, 4 = as derived in section 6.5 2nexe, oi] . Thus, capacitance is given by (C, = Vv . Charging current, 1. =~L= length of cable R = Outer radius (sheath radius) r= conductor radius Capacitance Model Ce: Core capacitance C,: Core to sheath capacitance ( >Ce) + Ser cable 39 syste, VE 88kV 3g v>aeKv 3 single cone cableCalculating C, & Ce (1) Any of two cores or conductors are connected to sheath & capacitance is measured between remaining core & sheath. C, = C5 +2Ce OV(2) All three cores are connected together & capacitance is measured between any core & sheath. 3 2 Opn = Cs + 3C¢ =(3) Any one of core is connected to sheath & capacitance is measured between remaining 2 cores. = Me, Ss & = a 2 Con = 2C3 wane = Cpr V oe Chhy, cea Dielectric loss in an UG cable P = 3wCpnV,p, tan d Whine Where tan é = loss tangent = tan (%0-) tand = $= ph angle Sz Loss angle wepnR Note: Remove the factor of ‘3’ for a single core cable.NKITESE ANKITESE ANKITE! CN SE a , ‘Overhead Insulators _ < some a 06 cable ensulator but also have high mech strength For suspension type string insulator, the model for 3-discs looks like as Letm = sdf wp Vs=V(L+m?+3m) — \, >\, >, The voltage of disc nearest to the conductor is highest. NV +h, +\g= Vpn Yoh a string voltage String efficiency = No.of discs x voltage across bottom disc Shunt or mutual _ Wyt¥24V3) = ae 100% < f (m)Method of improving string efficiency: (i) By increasing cross arm length cost (ii) By using guard ring . G & R, Capacitance of Pt* link = C, = —* n-p a % 4 eg.atp=1, == 2 Va s hen guard ¢ placed ot node Vv of 9 disc nearest to node At p=2, Cyp=Cy=2CnFlashover and Puncture Voltage © The voltage at which the air surrounding the insulator breaks down then an arc is © formed between the conductor and the tower. This causes a current to flow | - | between tower and conductor through the arc. It is called as Arcing Ground or | Flashover of the Insulator. | The voltage at which conduction starts taking place through the insulator is called 2 as Puncture Voltage as it seems that the insulator is punctured and allows the flow | of current through it. + To improve String Efficiency we connect a guard wire between the conductor 7 P iS my, gui | and metal link between the two discs. Wherever the guard wire is connected the voltage of the discs connected to that meta} links become equal. For a Transmission Line, the corona loss operation. Corona Loss is zero for voltage of the system below Critical Disruptive Voltage. where f is the frequency ofa a a a ‘Distribution Systems — Joop resistamee = total tes of fos & Sources fed from both ends tL Teun (1) Assume I, from Va ene (ond! (2) Calculate I, from | >(3) Substitute (J, — 1), a — hy — L)&U, — fy — hp - 1) & check for sign change. (4) Node for minimum potential = Node for sign change (5) Calculate minimum potential by KVL Uniform Distribution { It current is drawn at every point on distributor Current/unit length = (A/m) —_—_—_——>* Current into (L-x) length = I(L-x) g— tj J For dx length => small resistance dr = rdx {r = resis tance/unit length} dV =I(L—x) rdx V=fdv={'1(L-x) rdxRadial distribution is less reliable & has more voltage drop as compared to ring distribution. Ring distribution has more losses as compared to radial distribution. To find minimum potential in a system with sources at both ends we assume current from one source & then apply KVL to find current. The point at which current reverses is point of minimum potential. 2 For uniform distribution , AV = 1=current/length r = resistance/lengtheS SS a Se a a a ee In pu system, every quantity is expressed as a ratio of some base value. u value = A2selute value or actual value P 2 Base Value Percentage value = pu value x 100% But KVL can only be applied on pu values and not on percentage valuesPO a a Se a ee ee Soaset Mieset lose Loose Out of these, 2 values must be known, to convert entire system into pu system Syose = Vease * hase Vee _ Ve Zuo = tt = bE \, hme She Usually, we assume Spase and Vgase aS Knows valuesSpase and Vgase are Assumed < Lime current bore - Syace Me Bx Vease = Line to line voltage Spase = 3— Power For star connection BS _Vse(Ph) V/V VEL rn| For delta connection ; hase (Ph) _ We a ee Se } In per unit system, equivalent impedance of transformer referred to primary or secondary in same. s, Change of base If base of system is changed from ™* Ves (Old), Syne (1d) tO Ve. (NEW), Se (NeW) ssn (eS (Bus Admittance Matrix 1&3 one net rectly connected, ar -y * Sum of clement in arow Yous = - Ge *¥3) 7 ee bf bos A grosnal moh | Observations ae (1) The diagonal elements are sum of all admittance connected to that particular bus. © (2) The off-diagonal elements are negative of series admittance connected between two ‘ buses. (3) If two buses are not connected to each other then the element corresponding to S\ those two buses is zero.