RICHES AND MISFORTUNES
DURING DEVELOPMENT
SUKHWINDER SINGH
2022POL1017
PEASANTS AND WORKERS DISCONTENT AND THE LARGER CONCERNS OF
HRIDYA BISHNOI ECONOMIC REDISTRIBUTION, INEQUALITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
2022POL1006
MILPREET
2022POL1043
INDIA’S POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY
UNDER BRITISH RULE
India’s journey to independence has been marked by several ups and downs, shifts and
transformation. After gaining independence from a 200 years old exploitative rule, India’s
condition was no better than of a poorest nation. During colonial rule, the colonizers
introduced several changes in different sectors like administrative changes were done for
eg. Implementation of common laws of English : Morley- Minto reforms, Montague-
Chelmsford reforms etc. All economic patterns like: Land Revenue system, trade policies,
infrastructure were designed to suck as much as possible from India. The sole purpose
behind reforms cum changes was to increase the ‘DRAIN OF WEALTH’ from India- a theory
given by Dadabhai Naroji in 1867. This set the base for people’s discontent.
A few pictures
depicting the
plight of Indian
people.
FLAWED AGRICULTURE AND THE PLIGHT OF
PEASANTS IN THE EARLY YEARS OF
INDEPENDENCE
• Land Tenure System: Characterized by exploitation of peasants due to inequality and fragmentation of landholding. It
included Zamindari system, Ryotwari system and Mahalwari system.
• Outdated Technology: Traditional and inadequate farming practices were used which led to Less output.
• Lack of Infrastructure: Inadequate infrastructure for irrigation, transportation and storage hindered growth.
Dependence on monsoon made agriculture vulnerable to droughts and floods.
• Inadequate Credit Facilities: Farmers had limited access to credit facilities which hindered their ability to invest for
modern farming methods and purchase HYV seeds and fertilizers.
• Lack of Agricultural Research: Limited investment in agriculture research and development which lead to lack of
innovation and technological advancements in farming practices.
• Lack of Govt Expenditure: Govt was not so enthusiastic in incurring investment in agriculture.
• Debt Trap/ Bondage: Many farmers were trapped in debt bondage due to high interest rates charged by moneylenders
further exacerbating their poverty.
• Lack of Crop Diversification: There was a high reliability on a few staple crops leading to vulnerability to pests and
market fluctuations.
• Emphasis on subsistence agriculture: Emphasis was laid only on subsistence agriculture rather than on
commercializing it.
• Lack of Education and Training: Most farmers had limited access to modern farming education and training
preventing them from adopting more efficient farming methods.
• Land ownership Inequality: The majority of land was controlled by small number of landlords leading to unequal land
distribution and limited access to rural poor.
These poor conditions of agriculture at the time of independence were among the key challenges that the Indian
government sought to address through various agricultural reforms and policies during ita planning period.
INJURED GROWTH OF INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
• Colonial Exploitation: During British rule Indian economy was geared towards supplying raw materials
to Britain which stifled the growth of domestic industries.
• Lack of Capital: There was the shortage of capital for industrialization. The capital that was available was
often controlled by foreign interests.
• Infrastructure Deficiency: Inadequate infrastructure including transportation, power supply hindered
industrial growth.
• Economic Policies: Import tariffs, trade restrictions along with other policies limited industrial expansion.
• Technological Backwardness: There was a lack of modern technology, which hindered competitiveness.
• Agricultural centric economy: India was as agrarian economy, majority of people were in agriculture,
leaving limited human resources for industry.
MAJOR CONCERNS OF WORKERS IN THE EARLY
YEARS OF INDEPENDENCE
• Low wages and long hours: Wages were meagre which caused economic hardship in meeting daily needs
accompanied by long working hours with was beyond their human capacity.
• Lack of Job security: They had no fixed tenure and could be dismissed anytime. This increased their plight.
• Exploitative Labour practices: Workers were made dependent on employers and were exploited badly.
• Lack of union representation: Unions were restricted and labours had limited ability to collectively bargain.
• Gender Disparities: Again gender discrimination was done in working and wages.
• Poor working conditions: Workers often lived in overcrowded and unsanitary slums, with limited access to clean
water and healthcare facilities.
• Outdated Technology: Traditional and old machines were used which hindered growth and progress.
• Lack of education and awareness: Majority of workers were illiterate and unaware of their rights which made
them vulnerable to exploitation.
REFORMS IN AGRICULTURE SECTOR
In the early years of independence, government introduced several reforms in agricultural sector to modernize and
improve the country’s agricultural practices. These were the measures to ensure Economic Redistribution.
• Land reforms: The government implemented land reforms to ceil lands and abolish zamindari system. This helped in
transferring ownership and control of land to actual tillers. The Zamindari Abolition Acts were passed in various states
like Uttar Pradesh (1950), Bihar (1950) and West Bengal (1955).
• Community development programs: CDPs were launched in 1950s to improve rural infrastructure, promote
agricultural development and provide technical assistance to farmers. It aimed at improving self- sufficiency in villages
and reducing poverty in rural areas.
• Five year plans: Introduction of FYPs was the major step taken in this direction by government. Infact the first plan by
K.N Raj had direct emphasis to improve agriculture and reduce poverty.
• Irrigation projects: Various irrigation projects and dams were constructed to provide farmers with a
reliable source of water for agriculture. The Bhakra Nangal Dam and Damodar Valley project are notable
examples.
• Agricultural Credit: The government established cooperative banks and institutions to provide
agricultural credit to farmers at affordable rates. This helped farmers access to funds for purchasing seeds,
fertilizers and equipments. Several Regional Rural Banks were established in September 1975. NABARD-
National Bank for agriculture and rural development, as the apex development bank was established in
1982.
• Minimum support price: The government introduced the concept of MSP to ensure the farmers receive
a fair price for their crops. FCI- Food Cooperation of India was established in 1965 to procure food grains at
MSP, providing price stability to farmers.
• Green Revolution: Initiated in 1960s , introduced High yielding variety of seeds (seeds for rice were taken
from Philippines and for wheat were taken from Mexico), modern agricultural techniques, and the use of
fertilizers and pesticides to increase agricultural productivity. It was led by scientists like Dr. M.S
Swaminathan and resulted in the significant increase in the food production
REFORMS IN INDUSTRIAL SECTOR ( PRE-
LIBERALIZATION)
• Industrial policy resolution: It laid the foundation for planned industrialization in India, emphasizing the role of
public sector and setting the stage for five year plans. It was announced in 1948 but adopted in 1956.
• Planning Commission: It was formed on the lines of socialist policies adopted from USSR. It was established in 1950
to formulate and implement five year plans directing investment and resources into priority sectors including heavy
industries and infrastructure.
• 2nd Five Year plan: It emphasis was on ‘rapid industrialization’ as said by the drafter of the plan – P.C Mahalanobis. The
purpose was to achieve heavy industrial growth along with the socialist pattern of society (1956), as said by Nehru in
Avadi session.
• Nationalization of key industries: The Indian government nationalised key industries such as coal, steel, banking to
establish state control and reduce private sector monopolies. Banking Companies Act (1969) was passed to nationalize
14 major banks , done under Indira Gandhi.
• FERA (1947): Foreign exchange regulation act was enacted to regulate foreign exchange and investments in india. It
imposed strict controls on foreign companies operating in India.
• License Raj System: It was a complex system of permits and licenses led to bureaucratic control and hindered
private sector growth. It resulted in inefficiencies limited innovation. Along with this license Raj system, the industries
were divided into 3 types: A type industries were basic ones which were directly under the control of government. B
type industries were the ones which could be controlled by both public and private sector. C type industries were
those which were only kept for private sector and were out of the category of basic industries and were controlled
through the system of licenses.
Though several measures were taken by Indian government to ensure economic redistribution and
improve the conditions of agriculture and industrial sectors alongwith reducing the plight of peasants and
workers. But unfortunately the results weren’t satisfactory which time to time gave rise to discontent
among them shown in the form of strikes and protests.
DISCONTENT AMONG PEASANTS: FAMOUS
UPRISINGS
• Telangana Peasants Rebellion: During 1946-51, the Telangana region in South India witnessed a prolonged
peasant rebellion against the oppressive feudal system lead under Nizam. Peasants led by communist party of
india demanded reforms and better living conditions.
• Naxalite Movements: These movements were from late 1960s onwards. These were inspired by maoist
ideology , gained momentum in various states like West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Bihar. It was rooted in rural
discontent with peasants and tribal communities seeking land distribution and social justice. They took arms
and became violent while demanding land reforms and end of exploitation. Examples : Naxalbari Uprising of
West Bengal lead by charu majumdar; The Srikakulam Uprising by radical student’s union in Andhra Pradesh;
Naxalite movement of Andhra Pradesh lead by PWG to establish classless society.
• Farmer’s protest in Punjab and Haryana: It was during 1960-1970s, due to green revolution which lead to
increase in agriculture productivity but many small and marginalized farmers in Punjab and Haryana were left
behind. Protests and demand for fair prices were common during this period.
• Land acquisition protests: Throughout 1980-2000 , there were various protests against land acquisition for industrial
and infrastructure projects. Farmers often felt that they were not compensated fairly, which spread discontent.
1. Chipko Movement (1970s): Its the example of the above mentioned protest. Although not solely farmers protest, it
involved rural communities especially women protesting against deforestation in Himalayan region.
2. Narmada Bachao Aandolan (1980s- ongoing): This movement primarily involved farmers and indigenous protesting against
large dam projects on the Narmada river. They demanded proper rehabilitation And compensation for the people
displaced due to dams construction.
3. Adivasi Movements: Indigenous communities often relient on agriculture have protest against land alienation, displacement
due to development project and forests rights violation.
• Bhoodan and Gramdan Movements: Social activist Vinoba Bhave initiated the bhoodan ( land gift) and Gramdan (
(Village gift) movements, encouraging land reforms and voluntary land distribution.
• Protests for Debt Relief: Rural debt and farmers suicide were significant concern during this period. Farmera in various
states protested for debt relief, access to credit and better financial support from government.
• Anti SEZ protests: Sez’s often faced resistance from local communities and farmers who felt that their land was taken
away for the benefit of corporations.
WORKER’S STRIKES
• The Great Bombay Textile Strike(1982): It was a significant labour strike lasted for a year
from January 18, 1982 to March 2, 1983. The strike primarily involved mill workers who were
protesting against poor working conditions, low wages and closure of mill textiles. This strike was
the turning point in Mumbai’s textile industry.
• All India Strike(1974): It was a nationwide labour strike that took place from 8 may to 9 may
and was organised by various trade unions and workers associations. The strike was primarily in
protest against the rising prices, unemployment and the government’s economic policies.
• The Karnataka Land reform movement (1950s-70): It was aimed to address the issue of
inequality of land and poverty by implementing a series of land reforms. It’s speciality was that it
included both the farmers and the industrial workers.
• The Banking sector strike (1960s-2000): They often revolved around issues like wages, working hours, and job
security. This was the time period when banking sector lead any strikes and they were that their peak.
• Railway Strikes: There were several railway strikes during 1950-2000:
1. Railway strike of 1974: Led by George Fernandes, lasted for 20 days. Primarily driven by the demands of railway workers
for better pay and working conditions.
2. Railway strike of 1977: Called by various railway workers union to demand higher wages and improvements in their
working conditions.
3. Railway strike of 1980: The demand was for higher salaries and provisions for social benefits.
4. Railway strike of 1997: Protest against the government’s decision to implement the recommendations of Rakesh Mohan
Committee which aimed at restructuring and modernizing the Indian Railways.
• Bihar Movement (1974): Also known was JP movement or Total revolution movement aimed to address issues such as
corruption, social injustice and economic inequality.
• Mumbai Dabbawaala strike (1983): Mumbai Dabbawala delivery mem strike for improved working conditions and
better wages.
THE DAYS OF CRISIS
Even after several reforms and measures for • As the situation was worsening day by day , the
redistribution, crisis were recurring. need came to introduce LPG in Indian
economic sector. As India’s foreign reserves
• Food crisis: Food shortage and famine
were about to end and couldn’t support for
• Unsatisfactory results of green revolution in more than 15 days, so Indian government had to
other areas take loan of $2.4 billion from World Bank and
IMF. Along with this aid , we were asked to
• Failure of Land reforms introduce LPG reforms in our country. So from
• Agricultural Credit crisis and unending loop then onwards, Indian government introduced
of rural poverty changes keeping in mind the environmental
sustainability concerns
• Economic Crisis
CONCERNS REGARDING
SUSTAINABILITY AND
ENVIRONMENT (1950-2000)
PROBLEMS FACED BY POST COLONIAL
INDIA IN ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
:
Post-colonial India faced several challenges in environmental sustainability in the
period from 1950 to the 2000s, which can be attributed to the legacy of British
colonial rule. Some of these problems include:
1) Resource Exploitation: During colonial rule, natural resources were often
exploited for the benefit of the British Empire. This left India with depleted forests,
over-exploited mineral resources, and degraded soil.
2) Deforestation and Land Degradation: Large-scale deforestation took place
under British rule, primarily for the extraction of timber. This led to soil erosion,
loss of biodiversity, and disrupted local ecosystems.
3) Water Management Issues: The British implemented water management
policies that favored large-scale irrigation projects, often neglecting traditional,
more sustainable practices. This led to issues like water scarcity and inefficient
water use.
4) Legacy of Dam Construction: The British initiated major dam projects,
such as the Bhakra Nangal Dam. While these contributed to agricultural
development, they also had environmental consequences, including the
displacement of communities and disruption of river ecosystems.
5) Urbanization and Industrialization: The process of industrialization
initiated during British rule often prioritized economic gains over
environmental considerations. This led to pollution, waste disposal problems,
and air quality issues in rapidly urbanizing areas.
HOW INDIA SOLVE THE PROBLEM OF
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY ?
Post-colonial India made significant efforts to address the environmental sustainability .Here are some of
the ways India worked to mitigate these problems:
1) Reforestation and Afforestation: India undertook extensive reforestation and afforestation programs
to counteract the deforestation that occurred during colonial rule. This involved planting trees and
restoring degraded forest areas.
2) Regulation of Natural Resource Use: Policies were implemented to regulate the use of natural
resources like timber, minerals, and water. This helped in sustainable resource management and
conservation.
3) Land Reclamation and Soil Conservation: Measures were taken
to reclaim degraded lands and implement soil conservation techniques to
prevent erosion and degradation.
4) Wildlife Conservation and Protected Areas: The establishment
of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and conservation reserves played a
crucial role in safeguarding India's rich biodiversity.
5) Water Resource Management: India invested in water
management infrastructure, including dams, reservoirs, and irrigation
systems, while also emphasizing sustainable water-use practices.
SOME NOTABLE MOVEMENTS
There were several movements in post-colonial India that aimed to
address environmental issues and resist exploitative practices. Here
are some notable movements:
1) Chipko Movement (1970s):
Originating in the Uttarakhand region, this movement involved local
communities hugging (or "embracing") trees to prevent them from
being felled. It was a powerful protest against deforestation and played
a significant role in raising awareness about environmental
conservation.
2)Narmada Bachao Andolan
(Save the Narmada
Movement):
Launched in the 1980s, this
movement protested the large-
scale dam projects on the
Narmada River. Led by activists
like Medha Patkar, it highlighted
the displacement of communities
and ecological impacts caused by
such projects.
3)Silent Valley Movement (1970s-80s):
This movement opposed the proposed
hydroelectric project in the Silent Valley
region of Kerala. Conservationists and
activists rallied to protect the unique
biodiversity of the area.
4) Bishnoi Movement: While it has
historical roots before independence, the
Bishnoi community in Rajasthan has a long-
standing tradition of protecting trees and
wildlife. They resisted tree felling,
emphasizing the sanctity of nature.
5) Appiko Movement (1980s):
Originating in the Western Ghats
region, this movement focused on
tree conservation and afforestation.
Activists, including Pandurang Hegde,
worked to protect forests and
promote sustainable practices.
Another movements are SAVE ARAVALI MOVEMENT (2000s) ,
SAVE WESTERN GHAT MOVEMENT (2000s) , ANTI -
POLLUTION AGITATIONS etc.
PROTOCOLS :
Independent India adopted several protocols and policies from the 1950s to the 2000s to address
environmental sustainability. Here are some key protocols:
1) National Forest Policy (1952): This policy emphasized the conservation and sustainable utilization
of forests, aiming to balance ecological stability with economic development.
2) Wildlife Protection Act (1972): Enacted to safeguard wildlife and their habitats, this act
established protected areas like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
3) Water Pollution Control Acts (1974 and 1977): These acts were introduced to prevent and
control water pollution by regulating the discharge of pollutants into water bodies.
4) National River
Conservation Plan
(1985):
This program focused on
cleaning and conserving
major rivers, including the
Ganga and Yamuna, by
controlling pollution and
promoting sustainable
practices.
CONCLUSION
Environmental sustainability in post-colonial India, after British exploitation, was a critical concern.
The colonial era had left a significant impact on the environment, including deforestation,
degradation of agricultural lands, and disruption of local ecosystems.
In the aftermath of independence, India made efforts to address these challenges. Policies were
implemented to promote sustainable practices, such as afforestation, wildlife conservation, and
regulation of industries. Additionally, initiatives like the Green Revolution aimed to boost
agricultural productivity while minimizing environmental harm.
