Chapter 1 : Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

-The third rock from the sun (introduction to chapter):

The earth is a rocky planet , which means that it is made out of rocks and metal
ores . It is the densest planet in the solar system , mainly because the core consists of
iron surrounded by a mantle of rock. Humans can only use the outside part of the
Earth , above the mantle , which are rocks and minerals. Their quantity is limited and
their extraction can cause environmental and other problems.
Peak mineral is a concept that provides a date after which there will only be less
extraction of a mineral. As it is unknown how many minerals exist , estimates of peak
minerals may vary. However , the resources of these commodities are finite , so it's
important that we limit the use of these resources , and reuse and recycle them
whenever we can.

1.1 Formation of rocks

The planet earth was formed 4.5 billion years ago , gravity pulled the heavier elements
together forming the core , then the lighter elements formed the earth's crust (3-4
billion years ago) , the mantle developed as a layer between the dense core and the
light crust .

-Types of rocks

● Igneous rocks : Formed when molten rock from the crust and upper mantle
cools. The molten rock is called magma when it is still below the surface and
lava when it reaches the surface . Magma is found in the outer mantle , its hot ,
liquid rock that is under pressure from rocks above it. When liquid magma rises
to the surface from volcanoes , the cooling occurs quickly and forms lava.
They usually contain crystals …
▪ Extrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools quickly, small crystals are formed e.g.
basalt.
▪ Intrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools slowly, large crystals are formed e.g.
granite.
● Sedimentary rocks : Formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the
Earth's surface or the accumulation of dead plants and animals . Weathering
processes release small mineral particles that accumulate to form sediments ,
and over time they accumulate into layers and get pressurized due to the
newer deposits above them , forming a sedimentary rock .
(The sediments are transported by water and wind, erosion).
Particles like clays, silts, sands, gravels and small boulders are found in
sediments. Sedimentary rocks may contain fossils .
Examples: limestone , sandstone and shale.
 ● Metamorphic rocks : Created from existing rocks when the heat or pressure ,
or both, causes changes in the rock crystals without melting the existing rock.
The rock changes in structure becoming a metamorphic rock , changes can be
physical or chemical or both .
Examples: marble and slate .

-Rock cycle :
When the Earth's crust first formed, all the rocks were igneous. These rocks were
slowly eroded, releasing small particles that formed sediment, and these sediments
built up over time to form sedimentary rocks. The rocks that make up the Earth's crust
are always moving, which creates the heat and pressure needed to form metamorphic
rock. All rock types are constantly eroded and formed in the rock cycle

1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth

Minerals provide us with materials that we use in our everyday life
-Coal and oil: Energy and chemicals used in industry
-Metallic ores: Metals and alloy needed to make products such as computers , mobile
phones , cars , wires , etc.

-Searching for minerals

1. Prospecting : Looking carefully (examining) the surface of rocks

2. Remote sensing : a process in which information is gathered about the Earth’s
surface from above. Photographs taken from air , radiation detection, satellite
signals and images , geochemical analysis .
Photographs of the area are taken from air , the images are carefully analyzed
for mineral presence. (Aerial photography can cover more ground than a
person on the surface)
Also , mineral deposits are weathered at the Earth’s surface, forming mineral
oxides. They can be detected by their unique radiation pattern ,recorded by a
satellite and downloaded to a computer for analysis. Other satellites send
signals to the Earth’s surface and collect the reflected signals, indicating the
presence of minerals , the system works in all weather conditions. In addition ,
satellite images can be used ,computers are used to process the data from a
region of interest to check for mineral presence , then geologists confirm the
presence of the mineral by visiting the location(recorded by the satellite’s
positioning system).Geologists can further check the availability of
the mineral in nearby areas. (Using satellites saves time and costs less.)
Field surveys on the ground are used to take samples , taken from stream
sediments, soil or rocks (using shallow drilling). These are sent to a laboratory
for geochemical analysis , analysing the chemical properties of rocks . (The
location of the sample points can be accurately found using the Global
Positioning System , GPS).
 3. Geophysics : A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent through the
Earth’s surface.Several sensors are placed at different distances from the
source of vibrations on the surface.The vibrations create shock waves that
travel down into the rock layers. They are reflected back to the sensors on the
surface. The shock waves record different patterns depending on the mineral
present in the rock layers. (explosives can be used instead of vibrations)

-Mining rocks and minerals

To know whether the mineral ores are large enough to be extracted , a resource
evaluation is carried out . The aim of the evaluation is to estimate the grade and
tonnage of the minerals of interest present in a deposit. Rock samples must be
collected by drilling , for small deposits only small samples are needed , for larger
deposits , more drilling is required , following a grid pattern on the ground . This
identifies the size of the deposit as well as the mixture of mineral ores present. From
the info collected , the deposit may be classified as a mineral ore reserve , which
means the amount of material is a practical amount to extract. Finally , a feasibility
study is carried out to evaluate the financial and technical risks of a mining project. It
may be decided to develop a mine straight away or wait until conditions change .

-Methods of extraction
● Surface mining (open-cast/open-pit/open-cut and strip mining):
A type of mining used when the mineral is either exposed on the surface (not
probable) or overlain by only small amounts of overburden (top soil+sub soil)
This type of mining is used when a valuable deposit is located near the surface
, often buried below a thick layer of worthless material called overburden . The
overburden has to be removed to expose the deposit and its stored nearby to
be used in mine restoration.
Open-pit - The vegetation is cleared and topsoil removed. The rocks are
broken up and loosened with explosives.The loose rock is removed using
diggers.These types of mines are dug in sections called benches , their walls
are kept at an angle to reduce the risk of rock falls . Roads have to be made as
the digging progresses to allow the removal of deposits and overburden.
Building materials such as sand , gravel and stone are removed from open-pits
called quarries.
Open-pit mines stopped working because as much valuable deposit as
possible has been removed and the amount of the overburden that needs to be
removed has increased to an extent that the mine is no longer profitable.
Strip-mining - mainly used to mine coal near the surface . Bucket wheel
excavators are often used , as they can move thousands of tonnes of material
every hour
● Sub-surface mining (deep and shaft mining):
A type of mining used when the deposit is covered by a deep layer/s of
unwanted rock. It involves digging tunnels into the ground to reach mineral
deposits that are too deep to be removed by surface mining . Sometimes
 horizontal tunnels are dug directly into the coal seam in the side of a hill or
mountain , this is called a drift mine entered by an adit. A sloping tunnel is
dug to reach deeper deposits. The deeper deposits are reached by digging a
vertical shaft , horizontal galleries are then dug to reach the deposits. Only
large deposits if valuable minerals are mined in this way .

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Surface mining ● Lower costs ● Lots of

● Near the surface- environmental
easier damage
● Safer ● Overburden can
collapse

Sub-surface mining ● Does not damage ● Expensive

the environment as ● Miners are
much propense to have
● Miners are payed a health problems
lot ● explosion and
underground fire
● Collapsing tunnels

-Factors affecting the viability of extraction of minerals

Mining companies need to consider a range of issues when planning to open a mine ,
including:
● The cost of exploration and extraction-
Greenfield sites are areas that have never been mined before , so the chances of
finding a deposit there are low , the strike rate range from 1:50 to 1:100
Brownfield sites are areas that have already been mined , so they usually have a
higher rate.
Probable cost of extracting one tonne has to be calculated. There are fewer
technical difficulties of mining on a large scale using open-pit mining as there’d be
low extraction costs per tonne. Shaft mining is costlier to set up and maintain as
the cost per tonne will be higher. So, only deposits of higher value can be mined in
this way.
● Geology -
High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical elements than low-grade
ores.Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.Small deposits of low-grade
ore that cannot be mined at a profit are left as reserves.
● Accessibility-
Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can be difficult and
expensive.The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant or to the
nearest port for export has to be considered.Carrying out some processing at
the mine reduces transport costs. The mining company must be given a licence
 before extracting a deposit.A long-term agreement between the government
and mining company must be reached to avoid rapid rises in the tax, which
makes the mining unprofitable.
● The environmental impact-
For a licence application to be approved, the company must have a plan to
keep the loss of habitat minimal, followed by the restoration of land proceeding
the completion of mining.The choice of site for mine waste should also be
considered.
● Supply and demand -
the relation between how much of a commodity is available and how much is
needed or wanted by the consumers.
Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the prices. The profit
from a working mine depends on changes in supply and demand. If the
demand is too high, mines that were not profitable before become worth
mining.If the demand falls, working mines may get into a loss due to the
transport and extraction expenses.
The profits from periods of high world prices are used to make up for periods of
low profitability , as well as to pay for the development of newly discovered
deposits.

1.3 Impact of rock and mineral extraction

-Environmental impacts:
● Ecological impacts :
Loss of habitat as the vegetation is cleared , plants do not have a place to grow, so the
animals depending on them for food and shelter are affected. After deep mining has
been working for several years, more habitats will be destroyed due to the increased
overburden aboveground. Large scale surface mining causes the greatest loss of
habitat , large areas of vegetation have to be removed and the large areas of removed
overburden have to be stored . After mining is stopped , the overburden is spread but
this vegetation will have less biodiversity compared with the original vegetation , which
means some animals and plants habitats will still be lost .
When a company applies for a licence , an environmental assessment is carried out
.The licence application is usually approved if the company has a plan to keep the
loss of habitat minimal, followed by the restoration of land proceeding the completion
of mining.The choice of site for mine waste should also be considered. Any mining
company must have detailed plans to control the amount of damage to the
environment.
● Pollution:
➔ Noise : due to machinery and explosives , it disturbs the behaviour of animal species
and causes hearing problems for people.
➔ Water : The water that drains from mine waste or comes directly from mine shafts ,
can cause change to the population of living organisms in streams and rivers .Water
supplies may also be polluted, making it unsafe for people to drink.The water may
 become acidic and dissolve toxic metal ions-this combination kills many aquatic
organisms.
Bioaccumulation: organisms absorb the ions and retain them in their body, reaching
a higher concentration than that in water.
Biomagnification: the concentrations increase higher up in the food chain and cause
the death of top consumers.
➔ Land: toxic nature of the waste doesn’t allow plant growth even years after the mining is
stopped. The waste pile may collapse , if stored above natural courses , and cover
more land .
➔ Air : dust particles settle on the vegetation,not allowing sunlight to reach the leaves and
thus,reducing the rate of photosynthesis.Breathing in dust that remains in the lungs can
cause serious lung diseases that may lead to death.
[Mining companies must provide equipment to protect miners . Yet , many people make
a living from small-scale mining without a licence , which is illegal . No licence=No
control ]
➔ Visual: landscape is damaged

- Economic impacts
o Provides employment for people and taxes for the government. Jobs are created
directly to extract the mineral;Further jobs are created to supply transport and mining
equipment; More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to make products;If all
these activities occur in the same country, it will generate the most income; Earn
foreign exchange.
o The income earned can be used for buying goods and services and investing in
infrastructure projects.
Improvements to transport; Improvements to services, like healthcare and education;
These services can be helpful for miners and their families too; Investing in
infrastructure projects can help the country in building more well-designed
communities.

1.4 Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction

-Safe disposal of mining waste
Mine waste must be stored to prevent collapse.Site of the mine must prevent the
chances of water pollution. The waste must be monitored to detect any movement or
further pollution.
-Land restoration and bioremediation
After (sanitary) landfilling, mine waste can be covered by a layer of soil, that can be
enriched with fertilisers.After improving the soil fertility, plants and trees can be grown
in that area, helping an ecosystem to be reborn.
Bioremediation: a process of removing pollutants from waste using living organisms.
In situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste where it’s left.
Ex situ treatment: removal of contaminated waste from a site to a treatment plant.
Often happens slowly (can be sped up by providing oxygen and nitrogen).
Microorganisms, like bacteria, can absorb pollutants and metabolise them into less
harmful substances.Some plants have the ability to bioaccumulate toxic metals.
After these plants grow for a while, the parts of the plants aboveground are removed
so the waste in the ground becomes less toxic.
• Making lakes and natural reserves:
Several tree and herb species are introduced. As their populations grows, they create
habitats for many species.These nature reserves become valuable green spaces for
human recreation and help in maintaining biodiversity.
If the rock lining the hole (created by the extraction) is non-toxic and impervious to
water, it can be filled with water to form a reservoir or lake. It is used for irrigating
farmland or processed to provide clean, safe drinking water for humans.
• Using as landfill sites:
Landfilling: the waste is tipped into a hole; from time to time it is levelled off and
compacted.
Sanitary landfilling: As in landfilling, the waste is used to fill the hole, but alternating
layers of waste and sand are used.

1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and materials

• Sustainable resource: a resource that can be continuously replenished e.g.
agriculture, forestry, etc.
• Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present,without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
It may be possible to find substitutes for the use of scarce materials , such as using
silica instead of copper.
Strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and minerals:
o Increasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals:
Mine wastes must be processed for the second time.This allows the valuable minerals
to be recovered and reduces the risk of pollution due to mine waste. Chemical
treatment of the waste and biological treatment (using microorganisms) extracts much
of the valuable minerals still within it.Improvements in the performance of the
machines used in mining and processing.
Greater use of data analysis by computers (to predict geological conditions).
o Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals:
Engineering solutions e.g. design steel beams with same strength but using less steel.
The need to recycle rocks and minerals:
Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores.It also produces less waste and
thus, reduces the risk of pollution.
o Legislation:The governments pass laws that require manufacturers to become
responsible for recycling

Chapter 2: Energy and the environment

-The need for power
Fuel is enormously useful , very valuable and very important politically , but tackling
global warming might mean choosing to leave the untapped reserves in the ground

2.1 Fossil fuels

The world population uses much of its energy by direct combustion (burning) to
produce heat and light. Combustion requires a suitable fuel source , typically
something with large amounts of carbon . There are sources more ´energy dense´ that
produce greater amounts of heat from a unit of fuel . These sources , natural gas ,
coal and oil , are known as fossil fuels .

-How fossil fuels are made

Fossil fuels are produced from the decay of plants and animals . These remains
formed organic matter that became covered in layers of sediment.Over million of
years , and buried deep in the ground by the addition of further layers of sediments ,
the organic material was subjected to great pressure and heat . The precise
conditions , and the type of animal and plant material available , determined whether
coal , oil or natural gas is produced .

Formation of coal- Huge forests grew millions of years ago covering most of the Earth.
The vegetation died and formed peat. The peat was compressed between layers of
sediments to form lignite (low-grade coal).Further compression formed coal.

Formation of oil and natural gas -Small animals and plants die and fall to the bottom of
the sea. Their remains are covered by sediments.As the sediments start forming
layers, they start to change into sandstone as the temperature and pressure
increases.The heat and pressure turn the remains into crude oil and natural gas.
They separate and rise through the sandstone, filling in the pores.The rock above the
oil and gas is impervious (non-porous).So, they get trapped underneath it.

Extracting them involves digging or drilling deep underground . The length of the time
needed to create fossil fuels means that there is only a limited supply .

2.2 Energy resources

The demand for energy is increasing worldwide due to :

-Increasing population size
-Increasing industrialization and urbanisation
-Improvements in standards of living and expectations

Types of energy resources

 ● Non-renewable : resource that exists in a finite amount and that as they are
used they cannot be replaced
● Renewable : Resource that will not be used up or can be replaced

Non-renewable energy Renewable

Oil Geothermal power

Coal Hydroelectric power

Natural Gas Tidal power

Nuclear power (will last for many Wave power

centuries , however uranium is limited)

Wind power

Solar power

Biofuels (Include the burning of wood ,

of which there is only a limited amount at
any one point in time , yet it is possible
to replace felled trees with new ones )

-How energy sources are used

Most energy is generated by electromagnetic induction , which involves the
movement of a metal coil and a magnet. In this system , a heat source (in the burner)
heats up water (in the boiler) , which is converted into steam . The steam passes
through the blades of the turbine , causing them to move . As a result of the rotation
of the shaft , the copper coils in the generator move , producing electricity that is
transferred by conductive wires to the light bulb . The efficiency of the turbine can be
increased by fitting more blades , or increasing the flow of gas or liquid that causes it
to move.
Energy sources such as fossil fuels , biofuels and nuclear and geothermal power are
usually used to heat up water to produce steam . Other energy sources , such as wind
, wave , tidal , and hydroelectric power , are used to turn a turbine directly without the
need to produce steam first .

❖ Fossil fuels and biofuels : These produce a massive amount of energy during
combustion that is used to heat water and convert it into steam, which thereby drives
the turbines.
❖ Nuclear power : Uranium, a radioactive element, releases huge amounts of energy
when nuclear fission (splitting of the atom) occurs. This energy is used to heat the
water, produce steam, and rotate the turbines.
❖ Geothermal power: Cold water is pumped under pressure into a layer of hot rocks.The
rocks heat the water. The hot water returns to the surface under pressure and heats the
second supply of water using a heat exchanger. The steam produced in the second
supply moves the turbine, generating electricity.
❖ Wind power: Wind turbines have shafts (blades) that rotate due to wind. Gearbox
maximises the rotation of the shaft. Brakes slow down or stop the rotor in very windy
conditions, preventing damage to the blade.As the turbine rotates, the generator
produces electricity.
❖ Solar power: Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric charge when exposed
to light. A bank of cells organised into solar panels produce a significant amount of
electricity.
❖ Tidal power: Uses the natural rise and fall in the level of water in an area. When the
levels drop, water is held back by a tidal barrage (a small dam that releases water back
through a turbine).
❖ Wave power: Also uses turbine and generator. Uses the smaller differences in water
levels that are caused by wind.
(Tides are the rise and fall of the ocean caused by the gravitational pull of the moon
and sun on the earth while waves are the wind energy moving across the surface of
the ocean thereby making waves much easier to measure as when compared to tides)
❖ Hydroelectric power:Uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir. Water is
released from the reservoir that flows through the turbine, rotating it. The turbine then
activates a generator that generates electricity.
-advantages and disadvantages -

-Using the different energy sources:

Economic factors - If a fuel is in high demand and short supply , then the price for
that item rises. It is logical for a country to rely on its local fuel supply , for example the
Middle East relies on its oil , Russia on its natural gas and the USA relies on its coal.
Some countries can take advantage of naturally occurring resources , such as high
amounts of sunlight or geothermal energy. Countries may have an economic barrier
and may not be able to access this energy sources
Social factors- It can develop an area (infrastructure) , it will produce jobs for mines ,
schools , shops , etc. However the energy business could also mean the displacement
of a whole community . Also , other activities won't be able to be done , like for
example if there is a mine the land won't be able to be used for agricultural use.
Environmental factors- Fossil fuels will release carbon dioxide which is linked to
climate change . It can cause pollution , such as an oil spill in the ocean which will
damage wildlife , changes to the ecosystems , like the destruction of habitats , and it
can cause visual impact as the nature of the landscape can be changed.

2.3 The demand for energy

-Industrial demand : The use of energy is far lower in a farming community than a
community that has been industrialised. Manufacturing requires the use of large
amounts of energy throughout the production e.g. iron and steel production.
Advanced manufacturing techniques made the products, that were once luxury items,
cheaper. So, more people want to buy them. The demand for the product increases ,
the demand for energy (needed for production) also increases.
-Domestic demand : Created by affordability, availability and social status. Most of the
purchases that are considered as necessities now increase the demand for energy
supplies, notably electricity.
o Example:
Fruits and vegetables, that aren’t naturally available in the season locally, are
produced in glasshouses or in areas with a favourable climate and are then
transported. In both the scenarios (glasshouse operation and transport), the energy
cost is significant.
-Transport demand: Manufacturers supply customers across the globe. This
decreases production costs in countries that import, but increases the transport costs
as they require large amounts of fossil fuels to operate.
-Economic demand : If economic conditions are good it means that the country will
have higher employment; more money to spend on luxury items; increase in demand
for the product; increase in demand for energy (for production). However, if economic
conditions are poor , families have less money to spend on luxury items; need to make
savings; reduce the use of fuel; reduce the purchase and use of electrical items;
decrease the demand for energy . The decline in the economy of one country can
have a global impact.
Example : Reduction in the economy of China meant a worldwide:
▪ Reduction in production of steel.
▪ Decrease in the amount of manufactured goods (transported by ships).
▪ Decrease in the price of oil (energy source).
Climate demand: The demand for energy with regard to climate depends on the
country. People living in a temperate climate are likely to experience colder winters, so
the energy demand for heating would be far higher. They also experience fewer hours
of daylight , which increases the usage of electrical lighting.
Climate change (excessive heat or cold) increased the energy consumption
(particularly in urban areas) as it means the need for additional heating and the
installation and operation of air-conditioning units.

2.4 Conservation and management of energy sources

Strategies for effective energy use
● Reduce consumption : Reducing the amount of energy used to heat a
building. Insulation:constructing using material with good insulation
properties prevents loss of heat.
▪ Loft insulation: adding an insulation layer into the roof space.
▪ Underfloor insulation: adding an insulation layer on the floor e.g. carpet.
▪ Cavity wall insulation: a gap between inside and outside walls is filled with an
insulating material, causing the heat to pass through more slowly.
▪ Double glazing: two panes of glass with a gap in the middle to act as an insulator.
This sealed gap is usually filled with air or an inert gas e.g. argon. Triple glazing can
also be used, but it is too expensive.
-Electrical devices must be turned off when not in use. ▪ More energy-efficient devices
must be bought. ▪ Developing alternative fuels for vehicles and further development in
engine technology.
▪ ‘Scrappage’ schemes: remove inefficient machines from use (electrical appliances or
vehicles).
● Energy from waste : Reusing existing materials to extract energy from them
before they are disposed of.
▪ Anaerobic digestion: breaking down of organic matter (waste food and vegetation)
using bacteria.This process takes place in a sealed container and releases methane
(a flammable gas) that can be used for heating purposes.The composted waste can
be used as organic matter to improve soil structure.
▪ Household rubbish can be incinerated (burnt) to produce heat that can be used to
generate electricity; yet this process produces poisonous gases .
▪ Vegetable oils, once used, should be disposed of; These oils can be collected and
recycled into biofuels suitable for running vehicles.
● Education: Benefits of the technology must be communicated to others as to
promote new ways of thinking; The message must be that significant savings in
energy bills can be made over the longer term, reducing energy use;
▪ Energy-efficiency ratings must be provided for new products to compare with the old
ones.
▪ Laws have to be passed by the government to make changes rapidly:
▪ Stricter building regulations: new constructions must be more energy efficient.
▪ Preventing the sales of inefficient types of electrical devices.Incentives to encourage
the purchase of more efficient technologies:
▪ Insulating older houses that are energy efficient; Replacing older, inefficient
electrical devices; Scrapping older, inefficient cars that emit more pollutants.

-Exploiting existing energy sources

The type of energy source used depends on social, environmental and economic
factors. The current solution is to use a renewable resource as a primary energy
source when possible and have a fossil-fuel (or biofuel) powered station available as a
backup when weather conditions are not suitable. This is a reliable source for industry
and households and reduces the amount of fossil fuels used.
-Transport policies
They include : Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gases from vehicles;
Check on the fuel efficiency; Restrictions on where vehicles may go; Taxation on fuels;
Surcharges for travelling to certain places at peak times; Improving public transport so
it is easier and cheaper than using cars; Improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians;
Encouraging car-sharing; Restricting when cars can be used e.g. odd even rule in
Delhi; Providing incentives to buy more fuel-efficient vehicles and for vehicles using
cleaner technology.

Development of new resources

Research has identified potential sources of fuel that so far have not been utilised , the
most prominent is called fracking. This process involves obtaining oil or gas from
shale rock by splitting them open using water, sand and chemicals.
A vertical hole (2-3 km deep) is drilled to reach the fuel-rich rocks (shale rocks).
Water, sand and chemicals are pumped down into the shale rock layer.This causes
the rock to fracture, releasing oil and natural gas, which are forced back to the surface
and collected.
Purpose of the three components:
▪ Water: easy to handle (in high pressure).
▪ Chemicals: stop the blockage of pipes , many of them are toxic
▪ Sand: keeps the cracks in the rock open to allow gas and oil to escape , sometimes
referred as proppant.

Fracking is safe and should be Fracking is unsafe and should be

encouraged because … banned because…

Access to more gas and oil , which are in Risk of toxins entering the water table;
limited supply

Using gas and oil produces less pollution Chemicals are toxic and may affect local
than burning coal residents;

Reduces the need to import Uses a lot of water; may cause water
scarcity;

Shale rocks are a low way underground Noise pollution

so it poses little threat

Fracking will supply many jobs locally Natural areas damaged; as when new
drills are developed

May cause additional Earth tremors.

2.5 Impact of oil pollution

The world is very reliant on oil ,as it's relatively easy to store and transport , it's easier
to extract than coal , it can be made into a number of different products , and it
produces less pollution when burnt compared to coal.
Oil is a toxic material and spillages can cause great damage. Crude oil is thick, dark
and sticky . It is also flammable and it's impact can be devastating.

-Main causes of marine oil spills:

o Offshore oil extraction: leakage from the rigs.
o Oil pipelines: leaks in the oil pipework.
o Shipping: risk of collision or damage to oil tankers.

Organism or habitat Impact of oil

Phytoplankton Oil floats on the surface of the water and

blocks the sunlight from entering.
The phytoplankton can’t
photosynthesise, so they die.

fish Shortage of food; reduction

in phytoplankton.Oil floating on the
surface prevents gas exchange.
Fish become short of oxygen and die;
Direct contact of the fish with oil affects
their gills.

Birds Shortage of food as fish and other

creatures die; May consume oil when
eating fish (toxic);When hunting for food,
feathers get covered with
oil, affecting their ability to
fly and buoyancy

mammals Food sources are depleted; Mammals

may also swallow oil while feeding
(toxic); Coating of oil will affect
their skin.

Reefs Complete devastation of

the reef due to lack of oxygen (species
die); Areas may be covered in oil.

beaches Oil (washed by tides) coats rocks;

Organisms in shallow water and rock
pools may die due to toxic effects of the
oil; Animal food sources and
tourism is affected.

2.6 Management of oil pollution

-Reducing oil spills in marine environments
● MARPOL (Marine Pollution): International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships.
o Regulations of the MARPOL:
▪ Supervise the transport of oil at sea;
▪ All tankers must be certificated to show they have appropriate systems in use; Else,
it can result in a heavy fine or the ship may not be permitted to leave port.
 ● Tanker design: Oil spill can be caused by damage to the hull (a hole in the hull
of the boat causes its contents to leak).
-Increase in the number of compartments within the hull of the ship: if one of the
compartment’s damaged, the contents of the whole ship aren’t lost.
-Double-hulled tankers: if the outer layer is damaged, the contents are still secure
by the inner plate.Though double-hulled tankers cost more than single-hulled, the risks
of oil spill are far less.
-Minimising the impacts of oils spills
▪ Floating booms: a floating barrier is used to surround the oil slick, preventing it from
spreading. This process works well when the spill covers a relatively small area and
the sea is calm.
▪ Detergent sprays: detergents help break down the oil slick into smaller droplets that
eventually degrade, and disperse it. They are effective on smaller spills, but cause
damage to the coral reefs themselves as they’re not tolerant to detergents.
▪ Skimmers: clean the water using a material that oil easily attaches to.The skimmer
drags oil off the seawater surface, that is then scrapped off into a container.
This system is used when oil slick is contained within a boom and the sea is calm.
When the oil reaches beaches, it can only be removed by hand (difficult and
time-consuming).

Chapter 3: Agriculture and the environment

-Food for thought

Agriculture is the largest industry on the planet and it can have major environmental
impacts. The challenges are large and the solutions complex: the human population is
growing rapidly and needs to be fed , and existing farmland is often overused ,
depleted of mineral nutrients and suffering from soil erosion.

3.1 The soil

Soil is fundamental to the growth of plants , and ultimately the success of all other
living creatures.
-What is soil?
Soil is a habitat for plants and other organisms that grow within it . It's fundamental for
food , that's why it's often said that the quality of soil where a person lives determines
their standard of living.
It is made up of :
● Mineral particles 45%: combination of rock fragments and other inorganic
substances. They are formed due to physical, chemical and biological
weathering of the parent rock.
● Organic content 5%: mixture of living plants, animals, microorganisms and
their dead remains.
● Air 20-30%: held within the pore spaces (between the mineral particles and
organic content). Air enters the soil by diffusion.
 ● Water 20-30%: held within the pore spaces (water that is available for plant
growth). Water enters the soil when there’s precipitation or when the soil is
irrigated.
The proportions of these components will vary depending on the type of soil , the way
it has been managed , local climatic conditions and the size of the mineral particles.

-Where do the soil components come from?

Mineral particles , which occupy the largest volume within the soil , are formed from
the weathering and erosion of the parent rock. Weathering is the process that
causes rocks to be broken down into smaller particles and erosion is the movement of
rock and soil particles into different locations. There are different types of weathering:
❖ Physical: frost , wind , heat , water , ice or wind
❖ Chemical : acids , acid rain
❖ Biological: the growth of plant roots into the cracks in rocks
The word organic means derived from living things.The organic components of the
soil are a mixture of plants , animals and microorganisms along with their dead
remains.

-Particle size
The size of the particle has a major effect on the properties of the soil : how well it
holds or drains water , its capacity to hold mineral nutrients and the ease with which
plants can grow and be cultivated.
• Soil can be classified into three groups according to their size :

Particle type Size of particle Texture Characteristics

SAND 2.0-0.02 mm Gritty Large pore sizes ,drains

well, and contains large air
spaces
-Easy to cultivate
-Lack of nutrients due to
positive charges

SILT 0.02-0.002 mm Silky or soapy Less friction than sand ,

particles slippery

CLAY <0.002 mm Sticky when Poor air spaces/drainage,

wet; Hard when particles hold together
dried -Retains nutrients due to
negative charges

3.2 Soils for plant growth

Most plants require a combination of factor to grow successfully :
● Availability of important mineral nutrients
● Anchorage to hold roots in one place
● Water
● Oxygen around roots
-Mineral Ions
Plants require a supply of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and a range of other
elements to construct proteins and carry out life processes.
-Soil pH
The pH of soil depends on the type of parent rock and pH of water that flows into the
area .It affects the uptake of nutrients by plant roots and the availability of those
nutrients .
Farmers can try changing the pH of the soil either to acidify it (using fertilisers that
have an acidic effect) or make it alkaline (adding ground limestone).
-Soil organic content :Combination of living organisms and dead remains .
There is a range of decomposers that produce humus:
o Earthworms: break down vegetation; mix the soil; aerate the soil; spread organic
matter through the soil.
o Fungi: feed directly on dead matter; digest hard woody items; aid plants to take up
nutrients through their roots.
o Bacteria: work on organic matter; convert waste products to simple chemicals;
some convert nitrogen to nitrates ‫ ؞‬important in nitrogen cycle.
High levels of organic matter have the following positive effects:
● Increase the water-holding capacity , as organic matter acts like a sponge and
absorbs additional water ( less irrigation is required)
● Increase air spaces in the soil (plant roots need oxygen for respiration)
● Increase no. of decomposers
● Creates tunnels and burrows in the soil, providing additional drainage and less
compaction
● Prevent the loss of mineral nutrients (humus holds on to mineral nutrients).

-Sandy soils vs clay soils

SAND CLAY

Larger air spaces Poor air spaces

Drains well Poor drainage

Poor retention of humus Retains humus

Easier to cultivate. Easier to cultivate.

Organic matter helps reduce negative characteristics of soils , as it provides additional
holding capacity to sandy soils and increases the size of air spaces in clay soils.
3.3 Agriculture
It can be defined as the cultivation of animals , plants and fungi for food and other
products used to sustain human life .The type of agriculture used depends on : climate
, culture , technology and economics.
Types of Agriculture
Subsistence vs commercial
Subsistence farming is the cultivation of food to meet the needs of the farmers and
their families . If there is surplus food it's usually bartered for other goods (or cash).
Whereas commercial farming is the cultivation of food with the main aim of selling
them for cash.
Arable vs pastoral (type of product)
Arable farming is the production of plants for consumption by humans.
While pastoral farming is the production of animals or animal-related products.
Mixed farming- grows crops for food and also rears animals
Extensive vs intensive (yield)
Extensive production occurs when there is a small amount of production (output) from
a large area of land.
Intensive production occurs when large amounts are produced from small areas of
land , high inputs ( resources used) and high outputs .

3.4 Increasing agricultural yields (efficiency of production per kg)

The demand for food keeps increasing as the global population increases . Therefore,
there is pressure on food production in a number of ways , including:
➔ An increasing world population needing more resources
➔ Climate change affecting the availability of fertile land
➔ Increasing settlement sizes reducing available farmland
➔ Increasing standards of living creating a demand for more food variety
➔ Larger population impacting on the availability of water for irrigation

-Solution to world hunger:

● Reducing the population increase , as it will decrease the predicted demand for
food
● Growing more staple crops that are high yielding , and fewer luxury items that
are not so productive .
● Ensuring greater food equality
● Eating less meat , as it wastes a lot of resources

The Green revolution involves a number of techniques and improved varieties that
have been developed to increase yields . The green revolution is not one activity but a
range of improvements to many aspects of agricultural production that , combined,
means there is an increase in yields .

-Techniques for improving crop yield

1) Crop rotation
It is the principle of growing different types of plants in different plots each year.
Groups of plants are grown together during a season , then at the start of season
moved to a different plot that has just been used for a different plant group.
Farmers observed that growing the same type of plant in the same plot often resulted
in a decrease in yields , due to build-up diseases in the soil , an increase in pests and
the depletion in soil nutrients.
While incorporating crop rotation means that:
▪ Diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind;
▪ Pests need to find a new site , so their population is reduced
▪ The soil in the new plot is likely to have the essential nutrients
▪ Crops ready to harvest at different times
There is less potential waste, less labour and machinery needed.
Example of a four-part crop rotation :
Legumes- have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules.
Leafy crops: vegetables that are required for their leaves (require a lot of nitrogen left
by legumes).
Root crops: have deep root systems , help to break up the soil
Fallow: the land is ploughed but left barren for a period to restore soil fertility and to
avoid surplus production. (The stubble/straw can be left producing organic matter ,
leading to less fertilisers)
2) Fertilisers
They contain minerals such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, and add on to
the nutrients available in the soil.
Organic vs Inorganic
Organic fertilisers are substances that have been derived from natural sources.This
includes animal manure , bone meal , dried blood . This type of fertiliser takes longer
to give results .
Inorganic fertilisers are manufactured within a factory , they are more uniform from
batch to batch , and can be formulated to provide a precise amount of nutrients. They
act rapidly.
QUICK ACTING • Deficiency problems are dealt with swiftly. • Easily leach out in
heavy rain.
SLOW ACTING • No need to reapply. • Little immediate impact
-The effects of fertilisers
Plants need three major nutrients : Nitrogen , phosphorus and potassium. They are
needed in large quantities . There are also minor nutrients, such as zinc , iron , boron
and calcium which are needed in smaller amounts. Shortage of any of these nutrients
means that the plant does not grow at its optimum rate, a significant shortage can
result in a deficiency disease impacting on the yield.
-Applying fertilisers safely
If fertilisers are applied at a time or quantity not suitable for plants , they will be wasted
and washed away in rainwater , potentially causing environmental damage.
It's important to identify the crop that needs additional fertiliser ( by visual inspection or
soil testing) . And making sure that the plant is able to absorb the nutrients , which
requires moisture , however if there is too much rain fertilisers will be wasted due to
leaching .
3) Irrigation -Supplying water to the crops
It is important as a large percentage of a plant is made up of water , it's essential for
cell activity and used in photosynthesis. Also mineral nutrient uptake requires water in
the soil.
-Using water wisely
Water must be free from pollution and low in salt. Many farmers extract or store water
when it's abundant to use later when water is in short supply . Also rainwater can be
collected from field run-off or from the roof of buildings.
-Water application methods

Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Overhead Sprinkler system • Easy to set up • Large droplets

sprinkler that forces the • Can cover a may cap the soil
water out under large area from • Small droplets
pressure. one sprinkler may be blown
• No need to away by wind
attach pipes to • Water lands on
each plant. leaves and soil,
which evaporates
quickly.
•Not very precise

Clay pot systems Porous clay pots • Simple • Only suitable for
that are buried in technology permanent plants
the soil next to the • Easy to check the • Large labour
roots of the plants. amount of water cost.
Each pot is filled • High efficiency.
with water , which
gradually seeps
into the soil around
the roots.

Tickle drip Series of hoses • Water placed • Expensive to

systems laid on the surface directly at the base install; complex to
of soil between the of the plant maintain.
rows of crops • Automated and • Grit can block
controlled via tubes
computer • Inflexible; cannot
• Water is used be moved easily.
very efficiently.

Flood irrigation Water flows freely • Inexpensive • Inefficient use of

over the ground • Can cover large water
throughout the areas quickly. • Damages soil
crop structure.
Farmers can reduce the rate of water loss from their crops by providing them with
shelter , from the heat of the Sun or wind speed , and therefore reducing the rate of
transpiration . Also mulching the base of the plant is helpful as it reduces water loss
by evaporation.
4) Control of competing organisms
The growth of a crop plant can be reduced by attack from other organisms that can
feed on it , weaken it and sometimes kill it . Large proportions of potential crops can
be lost due to weeds , pests and diseases.
A weed is a plant that is growing in an inappropriate place which uses space and
nutrients that could be used by the food crop.They must be controlled because they:
Compete with crops for light, water and nutrients; Reduce the quality of a seed or
grain crop; Might be poisonous; Make cultivation difficult; Can block drainage systems
with excessive growth; Can be a source of pests and diseases; Can look untidy
(impact on tourism areas).
Weed control: weed-killing chemicals are known as herbicides. They are mostly
applied in a liquid format via a sprayer that slips the liquid into fine droplets. An
alternative method is to use herbicide granules which dissolve in water.
Before applying herbicides a farmer needs to be aware of wind , which affects the
spray pattern, heavy rain , which will wash away the herbicides or cause them to
leach , and extreme sunlight that can scorch foliage through herbicide droplets acting
as lenses.
o Alternatives to herbicides are cultural controls: hand weeding and hoeing; weed
barriers and flame guns.
However farmers may prefer to use herbicides as they are easier to manage ,
alternatives may be less effective , cheaper , results are more predictable , less labour
needed , effect is more rapid.
5) Controlling pests and diseases
A pest is an animal that attacks - feeds upon a plant , chemicals used are pesticides
or insecticides .
A crop disease is caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses (pathogens). Fungal diseases
are controlled by fungicides. Pests and diseases are control by pesticides
If applied incorrectly they can affect other organisms , potentially affecting food webs.
Also , these chemicals can be poisonous to humans so farmers may need to wear
personal protective equipment.
Chemical control causes a reduction of insects , less food for predators ,
biomagnification ( chemicals build up in larger quantities) , toxic
oAlternatives to chemical control :
Biological control , which means finding natural predators to feed on the pests
Advantages : No chemical residues , no impact of sprays ,no need of reapplication ,
the predators will die naturally when the pests are controlled
Disadvantages: Not as instant as chemical control , pests may breed faster than the
predator, predators may feed on an unintended plant.
6) Mechanisation
The usage of machinery. Using machinery can mean that larger areas can be
cultivated , reduces labour cost , ploughing can be done even when soil is heavy,
additional attachments can be done to apply fertilisers and pesticides.
 7) Selective breeding
The process of selective breeding : Firstly , choose parents that exhibit the desired
characteristics of the species , then raise the offspring from these parents and select
the best offspring that shows the desired characteristics , repeat the process.
Examples of desirable characteristics in certain organisms can be :
Dairy cattle - an increase in milk yield / Beef cattle - an increase in muscle size
Rice-an increase in yield , such as IR8
Drawbacks: slow process that takes lots of generations and has less success rate.
8) Genetic modification
Genetic modification can produce faster results .Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMO) is when the DNA of one organism is inserted into another.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

•Disease and pest resistance may • Unknown impact of the new

increase characteristics on human health
• Nutritional value may increase • Products are not natural
• Crops can be grown in inhospitable • Genes might get into wild plants if they
areas interbreed with GMOs , reducing
• Herbicide resistance may increase biodiversity
• Crops with longer storage lives. •Reduction in the gene pool.
The resulting organisms are called transgenics .
9) Controlling the crop environment
There are some important techniques to control the environment , such as providing
shade for cattle so that they don't get too hot , using windbreaks to prevent damage to
the crop , removing trees in order to maximise the light the plants receive.
Over smaller areas , it's possible to invest more money to control the environment.
One example of this is the use of greenhouses , which is a term for structures that
support the controlled growth of plants . Greenhouses are used to manage the
environment for plant growth , it allows many different environmental factors to be
managed .

Growth factor How it might be increased How it might be decreased

Temperature Operate heating system Open roof ventilators

Light level Supplementary lighting Shading material in the roof

Humidity Use misting units Open roof ventilators

Day length Supplementary lighting Shading material and curtains

Water Sprinkler or irrigation system Drainage material underneath

Investment for a greenhouse is expensive and only cost effective for an expensive
crop. Also , operating all additional systems can require a lot of labour.However , a
range of sensors to monitor environmental conditions can be used , they act
automatically so the worker does not need to be present all the time.
Greenhouse crops can identify a blueprint ; the ideal environment conditions needed
by a plant for maximum growth . If this is programmed to a computer , the greenhouse
can be managed remotely.
The heating system of a greenhouse can be reduced by the greenhouse effect , as
sunlight passes through the glass , converting a proportion of the energy into heat and
the greenhouse becomes warmer than outside .
Plants can even be grown using just water and dissolved nutrients , these types of
plants are called hydroponics. The advantages are that there is no need for soil, it
can be used anywhere, it's easy to harvest , exact nutrients needed are provided,
water is recycled and pollutants are not released into the environment. Yet it can be
expensive to set up, only suitable for small production areas, technical knowledge
required, disease, if present, may spread rapidly and plants can die quickly if
conditions are not maintained.

3.5 The impact of agriculture on people and the environment

-Overuse of insecticide and herbicides
❖ Regular use of one insecticide can cause resistance within the pest
population. Solution: use a range of different pesticides so that if resistance
starts to build up to one product another insecticide is still likely to be toxic.
❖ There could be unintended environmental damage , for ex :beneficial insects
like bees are also affected and the food web is disturbed.
❖ Spray drift: herbicides stay longer in the soil and may affect the next crop.
❖ Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of the chemicals into nearby lakes.
-Misuse of fertilisers
❖ Addition of extra mineral nutrients is waste of money and resources if the soil
has reached its maximum level
❖ Heavy rain can dissolve the nutrients and cause leaching
❖ Excess water containing dissolved fertilisers drain into nearby lakes and rivers,
leading to eutrophication
❖ Nitrates from fertilisers if consumed by humans can cause diseases such as
blue-baby syndrome
❖ Large quantities can affect the pH of the soil and in turn, the availability of
minerals
❖ Too much trace elements can be toxic to the plant.
❖ Too much fertiliser dehydrates the plant (scorching) . As roots use osmosis to
take up water if there's too many fertilisers in the soil , it will cause water to flow
out of the plant
❖ Imbalance of nutrients makes the plant produce lots of foliage, but no flower.
❖ It can cause lush growth and the plant may not be able to support itself due to
rapid growth.
Solution: strict limits on where, when and how the fertilisers must be applied. They
can also be replaced with organic fertilisers.
-Misuse of irrigation
Too much irrigation can have various negative effects:
❖ Damage to soil structure ,when wet air pockets are lost and soil is compacted
❖ Death of plant roots as waterlogged soils prevent plant roots from getting
enough oxygen to respire
❖ Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and washed away with water
❖ High levels of run-off , causing soil erosion.
❖ Soil capping: surface of the soil becomes hard and compact , which makes
harder for plants to grow through the soil
❖ Salinisation: salt content of the soil can increase.As irrigation water soaks into
the soil to a great depth , salts dissolve in the water at a great depth, water
evaporates from the field leaving the salts behind . If the salts are too high,
plants will have difficulty taking up water by osmosis.
❖ Prevents soil cultivation as it’s difficult to cultivate soil with a high-water content
as it is too heavy even for machinery
❖ Poor management of soil can lead to desertification , where land becomes
desert
-Overproduction and waste
❖ Waste from overproduction: the unsold proportion of the crop , too much of a
crop might mean that some will not be sold
❖ Waste of storage space: may take longer to sell a crop and some crops may
even need special conditions.
❖ Waste of transportation: to sell a crop, a farmer may need to travel longer
distances, using more fuels
❖ Waste of quality products: If a crop decreases in quality , because it hasn't been
sold quickly , it will be worth less money
❖ Waste of labour: not an efficient use of time and labour if too much is produced.
-Mechanisation
For machines to work , fields have to be made larger which involves the removal of
natural vegetation . Also , fossil fuels need to be used for machines to work (fuel
pollutes and is expensive for the farmer). Machinery can cause the soil to be
compacted as the soil is squashed together and air spaces removed. Finally,
mechanisation impacts on jobs and employment , causing some families to relocate
due to the lack of jobs.

3.6 Causes and impacts of soil erosion

The topsoil is where most plant roots are found , as it contains organic matter and
potentially a larger amount of nutrients.Loss of this layer can have serious effects on
the fertility of the soil. There are a number of ways topsoil can be eroded:
1. Removal of natural vegetation: Once plants are removed , so there's no more
roots to bind the soil together or slow down the torrents of water,so flash
flooding and rainwater run-off pick the soil and carry it away.
 2. Overcultivation : The soil loses its structure , as constant ploughing and digging
breaks the soil into smaller and lighter particles which are more easily carried
away by wind.
3. Overgrazing : livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly ground level,
sometimes leaving no roots to hold the soil together. Also ,large animals
trample down the plants and their hoofs compact the ground.
4. Wind erosion : deforestation (due to need for space, excessive grazing,
increase in development of arable crops) increases the chance of soil getting
eroded by wind.
5. Water erosion:
▪Heavy rainfall dislodges soil particles and carries them away.
▪ Excess run-off water that can’t be absorbed by soil transports the soil away
from the area. Soil compaction may also reduce infiltration
▪ Gully erosion (volume of water erodes local soil further) forms deeper and
deeper crevices.
The impacts of soil erosion
Topsoil is removed: the most productive layer is absent (subsoil lacks nutrients and air
spaces).Also , organisms living in the topsoil lose their habitat which will impact on the
entire ecosystem.It will silt up of water courses: flooding occurs as water bodies can’t
hold excess water (space taken up by silt). In addition , silt deposits can form lagoons:
providing breeding grounds for mosquitoes and affecting the quality and availability of
water for drinking. Aquatic organisms are buried under the silty layer: preventing light
from reaching the underwater plants (low oxygen levels in ecosystem ‫ ؞‬no
photosynthesis). In extreme cases soil erosion can cause desertification , by which
fertile land becomes desert. Severe droughts lead to migration of the whole
community. Finally , there will be a risk of famine and malnutrition, leading to lesser
food sources

3.7 Methods to reduce soil erosion

Farmers need to cultivate land efficiently if they are to maximise its yield. If the
techniques used result in the loss of the topsoil , then fertility is lost . The list below
highlights some of the most common methods to prevent soil erosion:
1) Terracing
This method helps to prevent the erosion of soil by rainwater on steep slopes.In a
natural slope water runs down, increasing in speed and volume, carrying
soil in the run-off. However , in a terraced slope water is held in the flat terraced areas
, causing less risk of run-off and more chance to infiltrate .
2) Contour ploughing
Involves the ploughing of land along the contour in a parallel way. Each furrow holds
water and prevents large torrents of water running down the slope, preventing the
formation of gullies and run-off of topsoil .
3) Bunds
They are artificial banks at the edges of growing spaces to hold back water.The water
is retained on the terrace. The lack of water flow also means that any soil that has
been eroded from higher up the slope will be deposited in the terrace increasing the
quantity of soil available.
4) Windbreaks
They are a permeable barrier used to reduce the impact of wind on an area , without
them, the soil is eroded away. Solid structures, like walls, force the wind into smaller
spaces, increasing wind speed and causing eddy currents.Permeable structures, like
vegetation, allow some wind to pass through, decreasing its speed and thus, the
amount of wind erosion. Vegetation , like trees , creates additional habitats for
beneficial insects; roots of the windbreak prevent erosion due to run-off.
5) Maintaining crop cover
When an area is ploughed and cultivated , many of the natural safeguards against
erosion are removed : the soil is broken up into smaller , more uniform pieces , any
plant growth on the surface of the soil is removed . However it's relatively easy to
reduce the risk by maintaining the vegetative cover on the land for as long as possible
. In some cases this might mean sowing legumes immediately after a crop has been
harvested prevents soil erosion. It also provides more nitrogen to the soil, increasing
its fertility, for the next major crop. When cultivating, the legumes can be simply
ploughed.
Another method is the ‘No dig’ method , where existing vegetation is left until the new
crop is grown.Rather than cultivating the soil, herbicides are applied to kill the weeds.
Roots of the existing vegetation bind the soil until the major plant is established.
However , herbicide residues build up. If the control of the cover vegetation is
ineffective, it may compete with the main crop as a weed.
6) Adding organic matter to improve soil structure
A soil is more at risk if it has been left uncovered , this can be addressed by adding
more organic matter. This provides additional air gaps in the soil improving soil
structure , it increases decomposers in the soil as they feed on the matter , and adds
nutrients to the soil after decomposition. Also it acts like a sponge, holding the extra
water, preventing dehydration of the soil , reduces soil erosion as the organic matter
acts like a base to smaller particles.
7) A multi-layer approach to cropping
• Planting trees has many benefits : rows of trees act as windbreak ,tree canopy can
provide shade for smaller plants that don’t thrive for sunlight , it provide a natural
habitat for animals that feed on pests, and tree leaves fall to the ground and add on to
the organic matter.
• Mixed cropping: growing more than one type plant in the same area , causing
resources in the soil, like nutrients, to be used more efficiently.
• Intercropping: rows of a different crop are grown between the rows of the main crop.
This maximises the use of space and other resources.

3.8 An integrated approach for sustainable agriculture

-Aims of sustainable agriculture
o Meeting the needs of the population for agricultural products
o Making efficient use of non-renewable resources
o Supporting the natural ecosystem by following natural processes with farming
techniques
o Sustaining the economic independence of farmers
-Fertilisers: Their application in excess at any particular time can cause serious
environmental damage , such as eutrophication . A sustainable alternative is the use
organic fertilisers as they are slow acting which reduces the risk of eutrophication ,
they are a waste product and using them saves on disposal costs , are already
present on many farms (minimal transport costs) , they do not require energy for their
manufacture , and they also improve soil structure.
-Grazing: A managed approach looks at the stocking density in an area and evaluates
an appropriate timescale for allowing the animals to graze. Managing livestock
prevents overgrazing , ensures sufficient grazing by preventing scrubland plants from
establishing , maintains soil fertility and good drainage.
-Choice of varieties
• Use of pest-resistant varieties of crops: reduces pesticide use.
• Use of drought-resistant varieties of crops: reduces water usage for irrigation.
• Use of herbicide-resistant varieties of crops: reduces herbicide use
-Irrigation : Sustainable agriculture has focused on the targeted use of water , and it
uses alternative water supplies , reserving water from bore holes and other clean
sources.Rainwater harvesting is the collection of rainwater, for example from the
roofs of buildings, and its storage in a tank or reservoir for later use. In systems where
large amounts of water are used, run-off water can be collected and returned to
storage.
-Towards a sustainable future?
The pressure on agriculture to supply an increasing population but in a sustainable
way is one of the biggest challenges the world faces . To rise up to the challenge ,
environmentalist the need to understand the nature and composition of soils , why soil
is important , how to manage soils in order to maximise their performance , ways in
which yield can be improved ,the impact of different practices on soil erosion and how
agriculture can produce yields in a sustainable way.

Chapter 4: Water and its management

-Amazing water
Water is vital for life , and it's required not only in quantity but , importantly , in good
quality . Even though we rely on water so much , both at personal and at a national
level , we also abuse and pollute it , and too many people lack a basic level of drinking
water and sanitation.

4.1 The distribution of water on Earth

Although more than 75% percent of
the Earth's surface is covered in
water, only 3% percent of this water is
fresh (non-salty) and potentially used by humans. However much of this water is
locked up in the polar ice caps or glaciers.In fact , less than 1% percent of Earth's
fresh water is available for people to use.
On average one person uses about 1.5 million litres of water a year. And although it
seems that there is plenty of water for everyone , half of the available fresh water is
found in just six countries.

4.2 The water cycle

Water exists in different forms and is found in many places.The ice in a glacier may
melt and become liquid water. It may then enter a river that flows into a lake. With the
warmth of the Sun on the lake, water may evaporate and become vapour. This
vapour can then rise into the sky, condense and form clouds. Under certain
circumstances, the water in these clouds will fall as rain or snow, called precipitation.
It may then enter the soil and be taken up by the roots of the plant, to be transported
up the plant in the transpiration stream. This movement is driven by the loss of water
from the plant in the process of transpiration. Other possibilities are that that it will
flow along the ground in a process called surface run-off, be trapped by the leaves of
plants, a process called interception, or enter the ground by infiltration and then
become part of groundwater flow (if it flows through rocks) or through flow (if it
flows through soil).

4.3 Why humans need water

-Domestic use: In the home water is used for cooking 3% , washing and flushing the
toilet 50% , washing clothes 20% . The proportions may vary depending if the country
is economically developed or not.
-Industrial use: Water is used in a vast range of industrial processes , such as for the
cooling in the production of electricity . ( water is known as the universal solvent)
-Agricultural use: Irrigation and for domestic animals . For successful growth of crops,
a reliable supply of water is required.

4.4 The main sources of freshwater for human use

Fresh water is often very visible on the Earth's surface as lakes, rivers and swamps.
This is called surface water. Rivers, and sometimes lakes, are major sources for
human use.However, there is a lot more water in the ground, known as groundwater.
Vast quantities of water are stored in the spaces of porous rock (limestone or
sandstone) , which is called an aquifer. Where insufficient water is present from both
surface water and groundwater sources, other solutions to water supply have to be
found. One of the most common of these is to use salt water from the sea. This water
is made safe for human use (potable) by removing the salt. This carried out in a
desalination plant.

-Water from rivers : Water can be taken from rivers by simply dipping a bucket into it,
as it is done in many parts of the world. On the other hand , there are huge national
projects involving the construction of a reservoir , such as the construction of a dam
or a bank-side reservoir .Usually water in these places has to be treated to make it
potable.Another types of reservoirs are service reservoir, storing potable water, such
as water towers and underground cisterns.

-Water from the ground :Water infiltrated in the ground accumulates in porous rocks
such as sandstone and limestone , these stores of water are called aquifers .About
30% of all fresh water is stored in aquifers. A well can be dug by hand or machinery in
order to obtain water from aquifers , if the water isn't under pressure it has to be raised
to the top of the well by lowering a bucket (LEDC) , or by a motor-driven pump(MEDC)
. If the water is stored under pressure , the water is referred to as an artesian aquifer
and it doesn't need a pump to obtain the water.

-Water from the sea: In order to make salt water suitable for human consumption , the
salt has to be removed in a process called desalination. Two processes can be used
to make salt water potable:
● Distillation : Water is boiled and released as vapour , leaving the salts behind.
The vapour is condensed as liquid water and can then be used. 10-30%
efficient , leaves large quantities of waste , and a lot of energy is needed for
transportation and the process. This process is mainly found in energy-rich
countries , such as those of the Middle East.
● Reverse osmosis : Salt water is pumped at high pressure through very fine
membranes. 30-50% efficiency , brine as a byproduct, and a lot of energy is
required (less than distillation).

4.5 Availability of safe drinking water around the world

The most important factor when considering water wealth is the amount of rain the
country receives , Brazil and Russia being the wealthier and the United Arab Emirates
the most water poor. However , having plenty of water doesn't mean there's plenty of
safe water for everyone because the number of people needing the water has to be
considered.
The lack of water may be because of low rainfall and/or high levels of evaporation ,
this is referred to as physical water scarcity-not enough water to meet both human
demands and those of ecosystems to function effectively. A second reason for lack of
water is economic , as a country may have a lot of water but no money to extract it ,
purify it and make it available for the population , this is called economic water
scarcity. To ensure water is potable there has to be sanitation systems and
water-treatment processes.
Just as access to safe water varies from country to country around the world , it varies
within countries.Unlike rural areas, urban areas have higher access to
safe drinking water because: cities are more wealthy places with factories and
offices , on average, people’s incomes are higher ,it's easier to put pressure on the
politicians or leaders to make improvements , wealthy people are more likely to live in
 cities , water pipes are easier and cheaper to build when a lot of people live close
together than in scattered rural areas.

4.6 Multipurpose dam projects

The construction of a dam may be controversial but the benefits are usually great .
Advantages • Generation of electricity in hydro-electric power plants
• Flood control
• Irrigation
• Creates recreational land for tourism and leisure
• Provision of water
• Creation of habitat for wetland species
• Access by boat to otherwise inaccessible areas
• Renewable source of energy
• Doesn’t produce greenhouse gases
• Reduces fossil fuel consumption
• Creates more jobs.

However , dam projects have drawbacks

Disadvantages • Relocating people
• Flooding land
• Disrupting the life cycles of fish and other aquatic organisms
• Dam may become redundant due to sediment build up
• Very expensive to build
• Requires maintenance
• Reduces jobs for farmers if natural fisheries are affected
• Altering water supply for people downstream the dam
• Reducing soil enrichment downstream of the dam.
-Where to build a dam: It has to be in a river valley and, for economic reasons, the
valley should be quite narrow where the dam is built. A wider valley would require a
more costly, wider dam. A dam also needs to be quite high up a valley if it is to be
successful at producing hydroelectric power (HEP). The higher it is, the greater the
pressure of water, which means it will have more potential energy. Dams should be
sited away from developed areas if possible, to reduce the risk of pollution in the
reservoir.High precipitation to provide sufficient water; Low temperature to prevent
evaporation;Built on strong impermeable rock so water doesn’t drain and has a good
foundation.
-Are dams sustainable?
• Sustainability of dams:Alternative for burning of fossil fuels as no greenhouse
gases are produced.
• Unsustainability of dams:Reservoir can become silted due to material carried
into it by rivers; dam structure under a lot of pressure can deteriorate and eventually
fail and they have negative effects on the environment and fish population.

4.7 Water related diseases

• Water-borne disease: spread by consuming contaminated water due to poor
sanitation and untreated sewage, or by washing food, pots and pans, or hands and
face in dirty water.
o Examples: cholera and typhoid.
• Water-bred disease: the carrier breeds in water and spreads the disease by biting
its victims.
o Example: malaria.
-Cholera and Typhoid:Water provides a nutrient-rich environment for bacteria. Bacteria
may enter drinking water from sewage if sanitation is poor. If these bacteria are
pathogens, and the water in which they live is drunk untreated, diseases can be
spread.Two major diseases caused by water contaminated with human faeces are
cholera and typhoid.The crucial element in preventing these diseases being
transmitted within a population is to ensure that sewage and drinking water do not
come into contact with each other. Therefore, good sanitation is crucial, if there is any
doubt about whether water is safe to drink, simply boiling it can eliminate most harmful
organisms.

Cholera Typhoid

Symptoms Diarrhoea and vomiting Fever, abdominal pain

with skin rash
Diarrhoea and vomiting
are not uncommon

Consequences Can be mild but can lead If untreated , fatal

to dehydration and death complication can arise

Treatment Rehydration Antibiotics

A vaccine exists A vaccine exists

-Malaria
Malaria is caused by a microscopic organism called Plasmodium.It's a water-bred
disease because the organisms that passes the disease to humans requires water to
breed. Mosquitoes can pass malaria to humans , acting as vectors.Malaria is caused
by a parasite , which breeds in an insect , which breeds in water.
The symptoms of malaria are flu-like and include fever and chills at first, but it can be
fatal. Malaria can be treated but prevention is a better option.
-Prevention:Avoiding being outside between dusk and dawn , wearing clothes that
cover most of the body and use mosquito-repellents , sleeping under mosquito nets
treated with insecticide , draining wetlands to avoid reproduction , introducing fish
which can eat larvae and pouring oil into surface to stop larvae from breathing.
Unfortunately, there is the possibility that malaria is favoured . Also, the vector is
evolving resistant to insecticides and the parasite is becoming resistant to available
drugs .
4.8 Sources, impact and management of water pollution
There are three main polluters of water: Domestic waste , Industrial processes and
Agriculture.

-Domestic waste:Sewage is waste matter carried away from houses and other
buildings , taken away in drains called sewers and then dumped or converted into a
form that is less harmful.

Sewage treatment-aims to reduce the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the

sewage , which is the amount of oxygen it would be used up if released directly into a
river or lake.
1. Sewage outfall: waste water from homes and industries is taken to a sewage
treatment plant in sewers.
2. Screening tank: large objects are removed from the waste using a coarse grid.
3. Primary treatment, first settling tank: solid organic matter, mainly human waste,
settles at the bottom of the tank (sludge), which is treated in a
sludge-digester.Clean water then overflows the sides of the tank and
is taken to the next stage.
4. Secondary treatment, oxidation: water is pumped into a tank where oxygen is
bubbled through it.This encourages the growth of bacteria and other microbes
that break down organic matter, which cause BOD.
5. Secondary treatment, second settling tank: water enters, where bacteria settle
to the bottom, forming more sludge. This cleaner water overflows the sides of
the tank as effluent, usually discharged into a river.
6. Sludge digester: oxygen-free conditions are created that encourage the growth
of bacteria which can break down the sludge, releasing methane,that can be
burnt.Treated sludge can be dried in sludge lagoons and used as organic
fertiliser on farmland.
Tertiary treatment: further filtering out of its effluent or its chlorination which produces
even cleaner effluent that protects the habitat in which it is released.

Improved sanitation-separates human excreta from contact with humans, achieved

by toilets and latrines.
oFlush toilet: uses a holding tank for flushing water, and a water seal that prevents
smells. Pour toilet: has a water seal but uses water poured by hand for flushing. Waste
needs to be removed by : Connection to a system of sewer pipes or sewerage, that
collects human faeces, urine and waste water or to a septic system, which consists of
an underground, sealed settling tank.
oPit latrine: type of toilet that collects human faeces in a hole in the ground that is
sometimes ventilated to take away smells.
oComposting toilet: dry toilet in which vegetable waste, straw, grass, sawdust, and ash
are added to the human waste to produce compost.
Water treatment - Water is made potable by undergoing coagulation treatment, being
filtered and disinfected.
oCoagulation: Particles in the water are stuck together and settle to the bottom of the
container. Water is then filtered through sand.
oChlorination: to kill remaining pathogens, chlorine is added as a disinfectant.

-Industrial processes : As most chemicals are solvent in water , many of chemicals

used by industries end up in water bodies and cause pollution.Also, gases from
industries enter in the atmosphere where they dissolve in water and cause acid rain.
Accumulation of toxic substances from industrial processes in lakes and rivers
reduces oxygen in lakes and rivers, causing reduction in photosynthesis and
death of fish and insect larvae. Also, biomagnification of toxic substances in food
chains increases concentration of a toxic substance (e.g.mercury and pesticides) in
the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain, causing
illness.And bioaccumulation is the accumulation of a toxic chemical in the tissue of a
particular organism.
The effect of acid rain on organisms in rivers and lakes:
oLower pH makes the environment intolerable for aquatic life
oFish egg-laying is reduced, and young fish are malformed
oLeaching of heavy metals such as aluminium, lead and mercury from the soil into the
water
oAluminum clogs fish gills and causes suffocation;
oMinerals essential for life, notably calcium and potassium, are washed out of the lake
or river, reducing algae growth and leaving less food for fish and other animals.

Agriculture- Modern agriculture makes use of chemicals, such as herbicides,

pesticides and fertilisers. All of these are water soluble and can cause pollution in
water bodies.
• Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication: Increase in nutrients, such as
nitrates and phosphates, in a water body causes algae bloom (rapid growth of
algae). Death of algae causes an increase in organic matter that acts as food for
bacteria as they decompose the dead algae. Bacteria use up oxygen, reducing
oxygen content in the water and causing the death of organisms.

Pollution control and legislation : legislation puts pressure on polluters to find ways
to reduce pollutants. Industries are required to monitor the pollution they cause and
keep it within a set level. Governments apply fines for exceeding set limits.Companies
may be prosecuted and in extreme cases, forced to shut down.

Chapter 5: Ocean and fisheries

The bountiful oceans-
Oceans cover 71% of the Earth's surface yet most of it remains relatively
unknown.The deep regions that are almost impossible to access, are also really
unproductive as 95% of all commercially caught fish are found over the continental
shelves. Most of the food harvested from the ocean is animal.based and so rich in
proteins , fats and oils , which are essential for humans. However , the ocean has
appeared so vast to humans in the past that we tended to assume we can have no
effect on it. Yet, it has now become clear as fish stocks are declining due to
overfishing and pollution(250.000 tonnes of waste plastic are circulating in ocean
regions). The ocean still has much to offer us but our use needs to be better managed
in the future than it has been in the past.

5.1 The resource potential of the oceans

The oceans supplies humans with:
● Food:fish that includes true fish, finfish, shellfish and other sea animals that
can be eaten , world fisheries yield about 90 million tonnes a year. The main
fisheries are located on the continental shelves as the water is shallow , light
can penetrate , there is more oxygen than further down and the nutrients are
abundant on the shelf. This allows the growth of plants and therefore the fish
depend on them.
● Chemicals and building materials : many materials in the oceans have been
eroded from the land, where rain and wind break down rocks, and are carried
into the oceans via rivers. Some substances can be extracted directly, like salt,
magnesium, tin, gold, titanium, diamonds. Seawater that is left behind over
many weeks in the hot sun evaporates and leaves sea salt behind. Diamonds
are found in greater numbers on the ocean floor than on land , yet they are
much harder to mine on the ocean floor as it must be dredged, then the
sediment silted. Also , sand, gravel and crushed rock can be mined for the
construction industry. Physical damage can be caused to seabed and
associated habitats if care is not taken. Oil can also be extracted by offshore
drilling rigs. As the mining of land depletes, mining the ocean floor will increase.
● Wave and tidal energy : Wave energy has an enormous amount of energy in
the waves and it is estimated to produce twice the present world
energy production if harnessed.And tidal energy is due to the varying
gravitational pull of the sun and moon, water in the sea moves up and down on
a twice-daily basis. This causes water to come onto land and later recede,
which can be harnessed to generate electricity.
● Tourism : seaside is a major tourist attraction. People of MEDCs are attracted
to marine sites of great natural beauty, especially coral reefs. Diving,
snorkelling, windsurfing, jet skiing and deep-sea fishing or simply sunbathing on
the beach are some adventurous activities. There’s business in boat trips to
view sea creatures, especially whales and dolphins.
● Transport:ships are important to transport people and goods; however,
shipping is less common to transport people now due to the advent of aviation.
Pleasure cruises are still an important economic sector and bulk freight is best
transported from country to country on ships.
 Type of ships: Bulk carriers , Container ships ,Tankers (transport of fluids,
especially liquified petroleum gas and liquified natural gas) Refrigerated
ships, Roll-on/roll-off ships (transport of vehicles, together with
their loads, that can be driven on and off the ship) Coastal trading
vessels , Ferries (movement of foot passengers) , Cruise ships and Ocean
liner (transport people from one port to another)
● Potential for safe drinking water:only a small proportion of water is safe to
drink. Salty water is unsafe as your body must remove the salt, requiring more
water.Purification of water is possible by desalination

5.2 World fisheries

-Mayor ocean currents:
Surface currents are the movement of the surface water of the sea in a constant
direction by the action of prevailing winds. Prevailing winds are the direction from
which the wind nearly always blows in a particular area. However, the final direction of
the current depends on the shape of the shape of the land.
Currents in the southern hemisphere are generally anticlockwise .An important
aspect of a current is whether its weather is warm or cold. Cold currents come from
the poles and warm currents come from the tropics or either side of the equator.
-Finding the fish:
Herbivorous fish rely on primary producers, mainly green algae called phytoplankton.
Carnivorous fish eat the herbivorous ones or other carnivores.They are part of a food
web, starting with phytoplankton.Thus, fish are found where there are plentiful
phytoplankton.
Phytoplankton produce their own food by photosynthesis which requires light, water
and carbon dioxide (CO2).Water is abundant in the oceans and CO2 dissolves
in the water from the atmosphere, therefore light is likely to be the limiting factor for
photosynthesis.Most ocean water has absorbed all the sunlight by a depth of
only 200m. This 200m deep zone is called the euphotic zone, below which
photosynthesis will not take place. This is one reason why fish are found where water
is shallower. Shallow water is found over the continental shelves , which are usually
no more than 150m below sea level.
Not all areas with continental shelves have significant fisheries because phytoplankton
need not just light, CO2 and water, which allow it to make carbohydrates such as
sugars, but they also require mineral nutrients to make
proteins. Making proteins requires a source of nitrogen and sulfur. Nucleic acids,
which form the genes of living things, also require phosphorus. The green pigment
chlorophyll, which is essential for photosynthesis, requires magnesium. The most
important fisheries of the world are where the current system stirs up decaying
material from the seabed, which is rich in nutrients.
In the Peruvian anchovy fishery , cold water is forced upwards near the coast , leading
to nutrient-rich surface water in the area, this is called upwelling.
Fisheries may suffer collapses due to overfishing , when the number of fish that is
caught is greater than the rate at which the fish reproduce, leading to a fall in fish
numbers in an area.
The upwelling is disturbed once every 10-15 years due to an event called El Niño
Southern oscillation , which causes the change in the prevailing winds that leads to
change in the pattern of currents in the oceans of the South Pacific. Warm
nutrient-poor water comes into the region from the equator which results in no
upwelling of the cold, nutrient rich water that supports the anchovy fishery.
No nutrients mean the phytoplankton do not grow well, so there’s less food for the
fish.Much of the production of the anchovy fishery was used for fishmeal which is used
to feed farmed fish, thus countries where this is important (UK), are affected by
a crash in the anchovy fishery.

5.3 Exploitation of the oceans : impact on fisheries

Overfishing of marine species:
At least 75% of the world's marine fisheries are threatened .As the main reason for
fishing is economic gain , this leads to a fishery in which the number of fish caught is
based on how many are available.Sustainable fishing involves monitoring how many
fish are left in order to provide for the next generation. The yield from the world
fisheries has only remained constant because it has been possible to switch to new
species.
The causes of overfishing include :
● Demand for fish as food due to increasing world population
● Much bigger boats, which can work a long way from a port for many weeks
● Finding fish easily by using SONAR and detailed weather data
● Creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in an area, often half of which is
discarded as bycatch (animals caught by fishers that are not the intended
target of their fishing effort).
TRAWL NET- Catch all types of unwanted species and damage the seabed
during their use.
DRIFT NET -Drift with the current and are not anchored.Often used in coastal
waters.
SEINE NET-Hang like a curtain in the water.A variant called the surrounding net
is often used.
DREDGE NET-Dragged along the seabed, mainly to catch shellfish and other
types of fish living in the mud. Thus, they dig into the seabed with
teeth or water jets.
Overfishing is closely tied to bycatch—the capture of unwanted sea life while fishing
for a different species ,such as turtles , dolphins , small whales and sharks . Shrimp
fisheries are known to have the biggest bycatch of all.
• Impact of overfishing of marine fish species:
oLack of growth in fish caught globally since 1990s, leading to loss of job and
reduction in food supply
oSize of fish gets progressively smaller, increasing demand for food
oHarvest of untargeted/protected/endangered marine species that are discarded at
the sea or shore;
oReduction in marine biodiversity, causing a disruption in the food chain.
• Farming marine species reduces the exploitation of fisheries:
Due to the increasing human population, the increase in demand for fish as food is
above the production capacity of oceans and seas.Overexploitation of the fisheries
leads to a decline in wild fish populations. So, fish are farmed in controlled
environments.
Aquaculture: farming freshwater fish.
Mariculture: aquaculture practised in marine environments e.g. closed section of an
ocean, tanks, ponds and raceways filled with seawater.
-It reduces the pressure on wild population, allowing their population to increase
- Production is constant
- No bycatch, as non-interest species are unlikely to be present in the farm
-No erosion of seabed, that is usually caused by trawl nets.

5.4 Strategies for managing the harvesting of marine species

Net types and mesh size and shape:
Driftnt and other types of nets are now banned from use in certain areas. Because if
the mesh size is too small, juvenile fish will be caught, which reduces the
number of fish that grow to maturity and reproduce.A diamond-shaped mesh catches
fish more easily, thus a square mesh panel is often included in an otherwise diamond
net. For example , the GFCM adopted an agreement that stated a minimum of at least
40 mm square-mesh .
Other methods of fishing:
Many fishers use fish aggregation devices (FADs) for tuna fisheries. It Includes the
usage of a log suspended below the surface of the sea from a buoy. This attracts the
tuna together with other species including tuna predators.Once a good aggregation of
fish is collected, they are gathered in a giant net. This will take all other species and
younger tuna fish with it, leading to a large bycatch.
Solution: Use pole and line method for catching the tuna. Done right, this method is
highly selective with very little or no bycatch.
Quotas :
Quotas are the legal limits on the amount of fish that can be caught .Legislators e.g.
government set limits on how many and what type of fish can be caught.The limits are
set according to the information gathered from networks across the world about fish
populations. These limits ensure enough fish are left to reproduce
and replenish the fishery for the following season.
Closed seasons and protected areas :
Governments and other legislation bodies can pass laws that can close fisheries down
for part of the year, most commonly in the breeding season.
Protected areas and reserves: some fisheries are protected by preventing fishing in
certain areas, often where the target species is known to breed.
International agreements and conservation laws
o'Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation andManagement Act:
Main law governing marine fisheries in the USA.It aims to control the country’s
territorial waters, conserve fishery resources, enforce international fishing agreements,
develop underused fisheries and protect fish habitats.
oEconomic exclusion zone:
Every country with a coastline has a zone of 200 nautical miles around it inside which
the country responsible must attempt to manage its fisheries so that they’re
sustainable.
oInternational agreements: needed to regulate fisheries in international waters,
leading to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).Such an agreement is
needed in the Mediterranean where a 200 nautical mile exclusion zone has no
meaning.
Monitoring: a model system is operated by the African country of Namibia.
Larger vessels in its waters have onboard observers and air patrols detect and deter
unlicensed vessels. All landings are monitored at the country’s two fishing ports. In
addition, all vessels in the exclusion zone must keep daily logs of their catches.
Effectiveness of these strategies:
Because of the vastness of the oceans, it is difficult to monitor fishery laws and
agreements ,Monitoring organisations based in ports have more
success.Due to fishing being important for both income and food for many people,
there is a huge incentive for illegal activities.Quotas can easily be avoided by simply
not declaring how many fish are being caught.Overstretched authorities may not be
able to check every boat, and fishers may be willing to risk under-declaring the size of
their catch and not being checked. Usage of nets with an illegally small mesh size,
and in areas where patrols are inadequate .Fishermen frequently trespass in areas
where they are not supposed to fish.

Chapter 6: Managing natural hazards

-Predicting the impossible?
A supervolcano is when an eruption measures magnitude 8 or more and creates
deposits that are greater than 1000 km. One in ten people in the world live within 100
km of a volcano that could possibly erupt and ,as the world population grows , the
exposure of human populations to natural hazards will only increase. Natural hazards
have the capacity to kill, injure and disrupt lives. Their impact can continue long after
the event has passed.People cannot change when, where or how frequently natural
hazards occur , but we can try to predict , prepare and manage them so that we can
minimise the impact.

6.1 What is a natural hazard?

-Natural hazard is a physical event that has the potential to cause loss of life or injury
and damage property and infrastructure . (naturally occurring events that will have a
negative impact on people ) . They can be short-term events that last just a few
minutes or events that can happen over several years.
They can be classified by:
-Cause of hazard
● Geological hazards: earthquakes and volcanoes
● Climatic hazards: droughts , tropical cyclones , floods
-Or based on the magnitude/intensity , speed, duration and frequency of the event.
People and property need to be put at risk by the physical event for it to be called a
natural hazard.
-Natural disasters is when there is serious disruption to a community caused by a
natural hazard (natural hazard + factors affecting possible risk )
The impact of natural disasters on a community depends on the length of time people
are exposed to natural hazards , the vulnerability of people and people's ability to
cope with the effects .

6.2 What causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions?

● Inner
core :
5000-6000 ,
solid - intense
pressure from
overlying
rocks , made from iron and nickel
● Outer core: 4000-5000, liquid , made from iron and nickel
● Mantle : Silicate minerals . Divided into asthenosphere and lithosphere . The
lower mantle is the asthenosphere and has a temperature of 1000-1200 , it
flows slowly due to convection currents created by heat from the core . The
upper part of the mantle , lithosphere, is more brittle and joins with the top layer
of the earth , the crust
There are two types of crust : oceanic and continental crust
Oceanic crust (Sima -silicate+magnesium) Continental crust (Sial- silicate+aluminium)

● made of basalt ● made of granite

● thinner ● thicker
● denser ● lighter
● younger ● Older
● it can sink and its continually being ● it cannot sink and it is neither restored
renewed and restores or renewed

The theory of plate tectonics helps us understand the movement of the Earth's
surface . It also helps explain the global distribution and causes of features and
landforms such as volcanoes , earthquakes and mountain ranges called fold
mountains.
The earth surface is fractured and the sections are called tectonic plates , which are
pieces that move slowly , made of crust and upper mantle. The largest plates are the
Antarctic ,Eurasian and North American. Plates can be continental , oceanic or a
mixture of both , continental plates are lighter than oceanic plates. Heat from the core
creates convection currents in the magma of the mantle , and this causes the plates
to move . Where the convection currents rise to the surface, the plates move away
from each other , where they sink the plates move towards each other . The place
where two plates meet is called plate boundary or plate margin. Most earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions occur along or close to plate boundaries. Some volcanoes are
found above hot spots and earthquakes can occur whenever the crust moves.
-Plate boundaries
There are three types of plate boundaries: Constructive , Destructive and
Conservative.
1) Constructive (divergent)
At a constructive plate boundary two plates move away from each other.
When two oceanic plates move away, magma rises to the surface due to convection
currents and solidifies when it comes in contact with cold ocean water.The magma
turns to lava and forms a new basaltic ocean crust , which is called sea-floor
spreading or ridge push . The new crust builds up to form mid-ocean ridges and can
also form shield or basic volcanoes (submarine volcanoes) which usually have
non-explosive eruptions.Also, small Earthquakes are triggered. An example of this
type of plate boundary is where the Eurasian plate moves away from the North
American plate along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , where Iceland is located and has 35
active volcanoes.
If two continental plates move away from each other, a rift valley may form , where
land drops down between the faults. Example: East african rift valley
2) Destructive (converging)
At a destructive plate boundary two plates move towards each other because of the
convection currents in the mantle.
-When an oceanic plate and continental plate move towards each other, the denser
oceanic plate is forced down or subducted, under the lighter continental plate. This is
called subduction or slab pull and it happens in the subduction zone. An ocean
trench is formed where the oceanic plate is subducted , these trenches are the
deepest parts of ocean (Mariana trench).The friction between the plates triggers
Earthquakes in the Benioff zone. The heat produced due to friction turns the
descending plate into magma which starts to rise and erupt (due to pressure) through
a weakness in the crust as an explosive composite (strato) volcano.Fold mountains
are also formed as the sediments get pushed upwards and folded , ex: andes
mountains (Nazca and South american)
-When two oceanic plates move towards each other the older is subducted , magma
erupting at the surface forms volcanic islands called island arc .
-If two continental plates move towards each other (collision zone) , the sediments
between the two plates are compressed and pushed upwards to form fold mountains
,ex: Himalayas . Earthquakes occur, but no volcanic activity as there’s no subduction
of oceanic plate.
3) Conservative
At a conservative plate boundary no is being destroyed or created , two plates are
sliding past each other.They can move at different speeds. The plates get locked
together and pressure builds up until it is released as an Earthquake , Ex: San
Andreas Fault (Pacific and North American).

-Characteristics of earthquakes
An earthquake is when the ground shakes or moves in sudden jerks , they result from
a build up and sudden release of tension , usually along a fault line . This release of
tension sends out shock waves(seismic waves) that travel outwards from the focus.
The focus is where the earthquake begins underground , and the point on the Earth's
surface , directly above , is called the epicentre . The magnitude of an earthquake is
measured on the Richter scale by an instrument called seismometer.
Faults or cracks may appear on the surface , the ground may suffer from liquefaction
if it is made from loose sediments , aftershocks can occur and tsunamis can be
created if earthquakes occur under sea or coastal areas .
The number of deaths or injuries does not just depend on the magnitude , other
factors that must be considered are:
➔ Location of the epicentre , the closer to the epicentre the greater the damage
➔ Time of the Earthquake, if the earthquake occurs during winter months or at
night there is often a greater loss of life.
➔ Geology of the area , determines whether liquefaction takes place
➔ Relief of the area, mountainous areas can suffer from landslides and coastal
areas can suffer from tsunamis
➔ Severity of aftershocks, can cause already damaged buildings to collapse
➔ Level of development of human settlement, affects its ability to cope with the
impact
➔ Population density
➔ Building density and strength
• Distribution and causes of Earthquakes:
 o Caused due to the tectonic activity
o Occur mostly on the destructive and conservative plate boundaries (and sometimes
on the constructive plate boundaries).
-Characteristics of volcanoes
There are two types of volcanoes :
-Intrusive , when magma cools underground to form igneous rocks
-Extrusive, when magma flows out onto the Earth's surface as lava
A volcano is a hole or crack (fissure) through which magma erupts , gases and
pyroclastic material can also be erupted. Lahars can be created - mudflows of
volcanic material , caused when ash mixes with heavy rain .
When magma erupts to the surface it can form different types of volcanoes depending
on the viscosity (stickiness) of the magma .

Shield Composite

● Mauna Loa , Iceland ● Mt St Helens, USA

● Found on constructive p.b and hotpots ● Found on destructive p.b
● Covers a wide are with gentle slopes ● Formed by alternating layers of lava and ash
● Formed by lava flows ● Magma is viscous
● Magma has low viscosity , it flows easily ● Eruptions are explosive but infrequent , lava
● Eruptions are usually non explosive flows are limited

o Caused due to the tectonic activity

o Found on constructive and destructive plate boundaries and hotspots.

6.3 What causes tropical cyclones?

Tropical cyclones (Indian ocean, Australia) , hurricanes (Atlantic and Eastern Pacific
ocean) and typhoons (western Pacific ocean) are found in different parts of the world
but they are all the same feature.
Certain conditions are needed for tropical cyclones to form :
● Ocean surface temperature of at least 27°C , Warm water provides the energy
to evaporate more water that rises, condenses, releasing huge amounts of
energy.
● Ocean depth of at least 60 m deep.
● These conditions must occur between 5° and 20° north and south to have
sufficient Coriolis force , making the air spin. Any closer to the equator , and
there is insufficient , at higher latitudes the oceans are too cold.
● Very little wind shear (change in wind speed or direction) , which allows the
vertical development of the storm.
These conditions exist between may - november in the northern hemisphere and
between november and may in the southern hemisphere.Tropical cyclones start as
clusters of thunderstorms that grow in size and start to spin . The air rises as it's
heated from below. It cools, condenses and releases latent heat causing air to rise
even faster , intensifying the low pressure area and more air is suckked in towards the
centre of the storm. Cumulonimbus clouds are formed.
A tropical cyclone therefore derives its energy by evaporating moisture from a warm
ocean, when it passes over land or a cold ocean current it loses the source of energy
and the speed decreases.
-Characteristics of tropical cyclones
A cyclone can be up to 800 km in diameter and up to 20 km in height , lasting usually
for a week. They rotate in an anti-clockwise direction around the eye (the calmest part
of the storm) in the Northern hemisphere and in a clockwise-direction in the Southern
hemisphere.
Typical weather :
1. Cloudy, increased wind speeds, rain, sunny intervals
2. 119 km/h wind speeds,cumulonimbus clouds,heavy rainfall
3. Light winds, clear sky,warm (eye of the storm)
4. Cumulonimbus clouds,heavy rain, strong winds
5. Wind and rain decrease,sun intervals
They create the following hazards:
-Structural damage to buildings due to strong winds
-Floods and landslides(heavy rain)
-Storm surges can lead to flooding in low coastal areas (rise in seawater level during a
storm)
6.4 What causes floodings?
Flooding is when the discharge of a river exceeds the capacity of the river´s channel.
When this occurs , the river overflows the banks and covers the adjacent floodplain.
Heavy rainfall is the cause of most floods.
-Storm hydrographs:
These types of graphs show how quickly a river responds to a rainfall event. The
water can reach the river by overland flow , throughflow and groundwater flow. The
shorter the lag time (peak rainfall-peak discharge) and the steeper the rising limb , the
quicker the water reaches the river (flash response) and the greater the chance of
floodings. They are useful for planning against future flooding and times of drought.

CAUSES OF FLOODS
Physical causes Impacts

Weather Intense rainfall or rapid snowmelts (when the ground

underneath is frozen) can exceed the infiltration capacity
of the soil and cause an increase in overland flow.Steady ,
prolonged rainfall can saturate the soil and cause the water
table to rise.

Previous weather Antecedent soil moisture refers to the amount of water in

the soil before a rainfall event.The more saturated the soil ,
 the less infiltration.

Soil and rock type Impermeable soils and rocks (clay) , have low infiltration
capacity and percolation rate

Relief Steeper gradients lead to faster overland flow ‫ ؞‬water has

little time to infiltrate.

Earthquakes, Produce tsunamis and storm surges that flood low-lying

volcanoes and coastal areas
tropical cyclones

Human causes

Deforestation It reduces interception and infiltration

Urbanisation Concrete is an impermeable surface that leads to more

overland flow.

Agriculture Overgrazing leaves soil exposed reducing interception,

Heavy farm machinery compacts the soil making it
impermeable

Climate change Global warming leads to a rise in sea-levels ,as well as

more rainfall and storms in parts of the world.

6.5 What causes droughts ?

Drought is when there is lack of rain or less rain than normal over a long period of
time. It can lead to insufficient water to support plants, animals and people.Droughts
can happen anywhere but are particularly common in Africa.
Most drought occurs when regular weather patterns are interrupted and evaporation
exceeds infiltration.
-Reasons why this happens:
Physical -
● Changes in atmospheric circulation patterns altering storm tracks and wind
patterns, Inter tropical Convergence Zone
● Air in high pressure system sinks and rain clouds generally do not form , no
condensation
● El Niño Southern Oscillation (less than a year)causes the surface water in the
Pacific Ocean along South America to be warmer. These warmer waters alter
storm patterns and can cause droughts in Australia. Whereas, La Niña (1-3
years) causes the temperature of the water along South America to decrease
,the cooler conditions cause drought in parts of North and South America.
● Warmer worldwide temperatures cause the rainfall to decrease in some parts of
the world,leading to drought.
Human-
 ● Agricultural practices can make the land more vulnerable to drought ,
overcultivation and overgrazing can lead to soil compaction , and the soil is less
able to hold water
● Deforestation-lack of trees decreases soil infiltration and increases soil erosion
● Building a dam can cause drought downstream by reducing the flow of water.

6.6 Impacts of natural hazards

The impacts can be social , economic or environmental, being short or long term.The
impact is usually greater on communities at lower levels of economic development
due to lack of finance to rebuild infrastructure , lack of insurance, technology or
expertise to deal with the event.
-Impacts of drought:
Water sources dry up, forcing people to travel long distances to fetch water. Decline in
crop yields; Loss of crops, livestock, plants and wildlife. Decrease in land prices as
production declines and farmers lose money.Migration from rural to urban
areas.Unemployment, Increase in food prices.Health problems due to malnutrition;
Soil erosion, leading to desertification. Increased risk of wildfires and poor air
quality.Conflicts over water usage and food.
-Impacts of tropical storms:
Flooding from storm surges and heavy rainfall. Loss of life.Damage to buildings and
infrastructure.Disruption of electricity, transport and water supply . Water-borne
diseases . Economic loss as production is halted.Damage to crops, food shortages
and loss of export earnings.
-Impact of tectonic hazards:
Damage to buildings and infrastructure ,fires from ruptures of gas pipes. Tsunamis hit
coastlines. Landslides cover buildings and roads. Destruction of farmland, leading to
starvation. Loss of wildlife habitats.Water-related diseases because victims are in
temporary accommodation with no sanitation or clear water,Water is also
contaminated by broken sewage pipes or untreated sewage.Loss of life, trauma, poor
mental health. Financial losses when repairing the damage.
-Impact of floodings:
Loss of life.Damage to buildings and infrastructure. Contamination of water supplies
leading to disease. Loss of crops and livestock leading to food shortages. Deposition
of silt from the flood waters.Recharge of groundwater stores. Rivers may change
course .Financial losses when repairing the damage.

6.7 Strategies to manage the impact of natural hazards

Management strategies focus on PREDICTION , PREVENTION and PROTECTION
(the three Ps), dealing with the hazards before , during and after the event .Strategies
should be sustainable, and improvements in technology mean that it is increasingly
possible to predict and protect against natural hazards..However , it is usually
expensive and the provision of aid (international or national) is often needed for the
rebuilding , coming from governments or charitable organisations.
 -Earthquakes:
Prediction Preparation and protection

▪ Monitor tremors (using seismometers), ▪ Earthquake-proof or aseismic buildings. Older

groundwater levels and radon gas Buildings can be modernised
▪ Epicentres and frequencies of past events can ▪ Smart metres to switch off gas
be mapped to check if a pattern is developing supplies,preventing fires
▪ Measurement of local magnetic fields ▪ Land-use planning:important services
▪ Hazard zone map can be drawn (geological info (schools,hospitals) must be built in low-risk areas.
and ground stability)
▪ Unusual animal behaviour.

Features of aseismic buildings:

-Rubber shock absorbers at the base to absorb tremors
-Foundations sunk deep into bedrock
-Cross-bracing steel beams allowing the building to move as rigid structure
-computer controlled weights
-Fire resistant materials
-no bricks or concrete blocks

-Volcanoes
Prediction Preparation and protection

▪ Seismometers can be used to monitor tremors ▪ Volcano hazard map (study past eruptions)
caused by rising magma; ▪ Lava diversion channels and lava barriers
▪ Satellites using heat-seeking cameras can be ▪ Spraying lava with water
used to monitor increasing ground temperatures ▪ Halting lava advance by dropping concrete
▪Tiltmeters (measure very subtle changes in the slabs into the flow
surface of theEarth as magma accumulates) ▪ Building reinforcements (sloping roofs to
and GPS can be used to monitor changes in protect against ashfall).
volcano shape;
▪ Emissions of steam and gas(sulphur dioxide) can
be monitored.

-Tropical cyclones:They are the most predictable natural hazard , we know when they
will form , and we can track their movements.

Prediction Preparation and protection

▪ Tracked using satellites. ▪ Cyclone shelters

▪ Embankments along the coast;
▪ Preserve mangrove swamps to absorb the energy of storm
surges.
• Building on stilts so the area isn't flooded by storm surge
 -Flooding:
Prediction Preparation and protection

▪ Monitoring the amount of rainfall and river ▪ Hard engineering projects such as levees, flood
discharge using an ADV barriers and dams
▪ Using the features of the drainage basin ▪ Soft engineering projects , afforestation and storage
and type of storm to determine the severity basins
of the flood. ▪ Increasing the river channel (clearing vegetation)
▪ Land-use planning to restrict development on
floodplains
▪ Use of sandbags and pumps
-Adapt houses by the use of pillars or stilts

-Drought:

Prediction Preparation and protection

▪ Monitoring precipitation ▪ Increase water supplies (dams, reservoirs, wells,percolation ponds,

and temperature. aquifers, pumps, water transfer by pipeline and desalination);
▪ Water conservation(storage tanks,spray irrigation,drought-tolerant
crops, recycling water and reducing deforestation);
▪ Agricultural improvements (shelterbelts to decrease wind and
evaporation, bunds to increase infiltration and fencing to control
overgrazing);
▪ Government stockpiling supplies of water, food and medicine.

6.8 Opportunities presented by natural hazards

• Individuals may want to be near family and friends.
• Confidence in prediction, preparation and protection.
• Employment opportunities e.g. tourism.
• No choice in moving if there is pressure on land or if it is too expensive to move.
• After a volcanic eruption, fertile soils are created that produce high crop yields.
o The scenery can be spectacular
o Geothermal energy can be obtained easily
o Possibility of mining minerals such as sulphur, diamonds and gold.
• Living near rivers may provide a source of food, water for drinking and irrigation.
o Communications may be easier
o Flat land on either side is available for building on.

Chapter 7: The atmosphere and the environment

7.1 The structure and composition of the atmosphere

-Composition
The atmosphere is a layer of gases held to the Earth by gravitational force. Gravity
and compression mean that 50% of the atmosphere lies within 5.6 km of the Earth's
surface. Today's atmosphere is composed of : Nitrogen , Oxygen , Water vapour ,
Carbon dioxide and Ozone . Carbon dioxide and ozone are referred to as variable
gases because their quantity can change as a result of processes such as
evaporation, transpiration , pollution and seasonal change. Besides these gases the
atmosphere also contains aerosols or solid particles (particles of dust , sand and
volcanic ash) .
The natural balance of gases is maintained by various cycles , such as the nitrogen
cycle and carbon cycle.However , human activities can alter the composition by the
burning of fossil fuels , deforestation , growing rice and keeping cattle (methane) and
releasing CFCS.

Components % in Importance to Earth

atmosphere

Permanent gases : • Growth of plants and respiration

-Nitrogen 78.09
-Oxygen 20.95

Variable gases: • Source for precipitation; provides

-Water vapour 0.2-4 most of the natural greenhouse
-Carbon dioxide 0.03 gases, vital for the existence of life.
-Ozone 0.00006 •Used in photosynthesis
•Absorbs ultra-violet radiation

Inert gases: • Can create an inert atmosphere

-Argon 0.93 that protects materials from
-Helium , neon , Krypton Trace reacting with oxygen or other
gases.

Non-gaseous particles: Trace • Absorbs and reflect incoming

Dust short-wave radiations , and takes
part in cloud formation

Pollutants: Trace • Can lead to smog , acid rain ,

-Sulfur dioxide , nitrogen ozone depletion and enhanced
dioxide , methane greenhouse effect

-Structure
Atmospheric pressure decreases with height in the atmosphere , as the strength of the
Earth's gravitational pull declines with altitude .Based on temperature changes the
atmosphere can be divided into four layers:
● Troposphere :Temperature decreases with height as conduction and
convection of heat from the Earth’s surface decrease.The top of this layer is
called the tropopause, where temperatures remain fairly constant.This is the
upper limit to the Earth’s weather and climate. Pressure decreases.
 Weather reflects short-term conditions of the atmosphere while climate is the
average weather for an extended period of time at a certain location.
● Stratosphere: Extends up to 50 km above Earth's surface. Pressure continues
declining but temperature increases slightly with height.This is called
temperature inversion. This is caused by the concentration of ozone that
absorbs the incoming ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.This layer also acts as a
shield against incoming meteorites.The top of this layer is called the
stratopause.
● Mesosphere:50-80 km in height. Pressure continues declining and
temperature falls rapidly(-80C) as there’s no dust, water vapour or ozone to
absorb the short-wave radiation. The upper limit of this layer is called the
mesopause.
● Thermosphere:80-1000 km .Temperatures rise rapidly because of the
absorption of ultraviolet radiation by atomic oxygen.The upper limit of this layer
is called the thermopause.

-The natural greenhouse effect:a process that helps keep the Earth’s surface and
atmosphere warm.The Earth receives incoming short-wave radiation from
the Sun.Half of this radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface , around 20% is
absorbed by the atmosphere and around 30% is reflected by clouds and the
Earth’s surface, back into space.As the Earth’s surface warms, outgoing long-wave
radiation (infrared radiation) is emitted back into the atmosphere.Greenhouse gases
absorb some of this radiation and deflect it back to the Earth’s surface. These gases
act like a blanket trapping the radiation , the greater the concentration of greenhouse
gases , the more effectively they return radiation back to Earth.

Greenhouse gases % of contribution to the Years they stay on the

greenhouse effect atmosphere

Carbon dioxide 65 200

Methane 17 12

CFCs (artificial) 12 1000

Nitrous oxides 6 114

7.2 Atmospheric pollution and its causes

Atmospheric pollution occurs when the atmosphere contains gases and substances in
harmful amounts. Pollutants that directly pollute the atmosphere are called primary
pollutants . If the primary pollutants undergo chemical reactions the resulting
compounds are called secondary pollutants.
● Smog (smoke and fog): Occurs where the burning of fossil fuels in industry,
homes and vehicles provide additional particles that act as condensation nuclei
for fog to form around. Smog is associated with industrial and rural areas, and
 is more common during winter. Photochemical smoke involves chemical
reactions induced by sunlight on certain pollutants that converts them into
harmful substances. Vehicles are a major source of particulate matter and
volatile organic compounds , which cause photochemical smog. High air
pressure which sinks air , calm conditions and valleys surrounded by
steep-sided hills , are conditions that can create a temperature inversion that
traps and increases the concentration of smog.
● Acid rain : precipitation with a pH value of less than 7.Burning of fossil fuels in
factories and power stations releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
Vehicle emissions add further nitrogen oxides. This is dry deposition. When
these gases mix and react with the water vapour in the atmosphere, they form
weak solutions of nitric and sulfuric acid. They are carried by prevailing winds
and can occur at some distance from the source.They eventually fall to Earth
as acid rain , this is wet deposition.
● Ozone depletions : Ozone is a greenhouse gas that can be found both the
troposphere and stratosphere.It is formed when oxygen (O2) filters from the top
of the troposphere and reacts under the influence of ultraviolet radiation to form
ozone (O3). It is continually formed, destroyed and replaced naturally, creating
a dynamic balance between the atmosphere and ultraviolet radiation.
This is disturbed by human activities causing concentration of ozone to
fall.When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation breaks them
down, releasing chlorine.Chlorine reacts with oxygen in a destructive process,
breaking down the ozone molecules to chlorine monoxide and oxygen,
depleting the layer and forming a hole. Destruction of the ozone layer begins
when Spring's sunlight arrives.This hole allows harmful radiation to enter the
Earth’s atmosphere.
● The enhanced greenhouse effect : created by addition of greenhouse gases
to the atmosphere through human activities. It results in more heat retained in
the atmosphere and an increased temperature of the Earth’s surface, leading
to global warming and climate change.

Greenhouse gas Human activities that increase their abundance

Carbon dioxide • Burning of fossil fuels

• Deforestation

Methane • Cattle and rice production

• Coal mine ventilation
• Deforestation
• Decomposition of waste
(landfill sites)

CFCs • Aerosol sprays

• Fire extinguishers
• Refrigeration
 • Air conditioning

Nitrogen oxides • Vehicle exhausts

• Chemical fertilisers

Tropospheric ozone • Chemical reactions involving

nitrogen oxides and unburnt
fuel vapours. + sun

7.3 The impact of atmospheric pollution

Pollutant Potential impact on people Potential impact on the

environment

Smog • Irritation of eyes and throat; •Photosynthesis is reduced

respiratory diseases, like asthma •General health of plants decline,
• Fine particles carried into lungs, making them more prone to
leading to lung cancer, strokes and pests and diseases
heart attacks
• Breathing difficulties.

Acid rain • Acidification of groundwater, • Acidification of groundwater

making the water undrinkable; can damages tree roots
cause diarrhoea and stomach upset • Nutrients like calcium are
if the water is consumed leached out of the soil
• Aluminium leached from the soil to • Fish die as acidity levels
groundwater increase
• Crop yields decline •Foliage of trees die
• Limestone buildings are chemically
weathered.

Ozone depletion • Higher levels of ultraviolet radiation • Extra ultraviolet radiation limits
cause sunburn, skin cancers, retina the reproduction of
damage and cataracts; phytoplankton, affecting the
•Immune system is suppressed entire food webs
• Changes in biochemical
composition of some plant leaves
make them less attractive as
food.

Climate change • Melting of ice sheets, glaciers and • Loss of biodiversity, habitat or
permafrost cause a rise in sea-levels extinction if animals and plants
• Damage to low-lying countries from can’t adapt
flooding • Increased droughts could lead
• Forced migration as people lose to desertification and famine
their homes and farmland from rising •warmer temperatures allow
sea-levels diseases , like malaria , to
•negative impact on certain spread.
economic activities
7.4 Managing atmospheric pollution
The international community
Solutions can only be achieved by countries working together through international
agreements ,like the Paris climate conference.
Governments
There are many different schemes that governments can implement to tackle air
pollution.
• Reduced use of fossil fuels:low sulfur coal can be used and an increased use of
renewable energy.
• Energy efficiency: Using energy efficient appliances.
• Carbon capture and storage: Waste carbon dioxide from power stations can be
transported via pipelines to storage sites.
• Transport policies:
o Creation of cycle lanes, bus lanes, metro systems and trams
o Electric or hybrid cars can be encouraged
o Biofuels can be used
o Vehicles can be banned from certain parts of city by pedestrianisation
o Public transport and residential parking can be made free
• CFC replacement: Reduction in the use of CFCs; Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) can be used as an alternative , safe disposal of items containing CFCs.
• Taxation: Higher road tax to decrease car ownership.
• Catalytic converters: reduce sulfur dioxide emissions , converting nitrogen dioxide
and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Low-sulfur vehicle fuels can also be used.
• Flue-gas desulfurization: Scrubbers can be used to remove 95% of sulfur dioxide
emissions. Lining chimneys with lime also reduces the emissions.
Individuals
Encourage individuals through campaigns and advertising to reduce their carbon
footprint.
o Carbon footprint: a measure of the impact of our activities on the environment.

Chapter 8: Human population

The population bomb:

With 350 000 births , but only about 155 000 deaths , every day, the population is
growing at about 73 million a year.Can the Earth support this rapid growth in
population? Wealth and advances in technology lead to people's continuous desire to
be better off.

8.1 Changes in population size

-Growth
Exponential growth is when the growth rate of a population increases rapidly over
time. A population is all the organisms of one species living in a defined area.
In the ideal curve for the population growth of any organism, the lag phase happens
as the organism becomes used to an environment. The log or exponential phase
occurs while all the requirements are in superabundance. The stationary phase is
when the population is in equilibrium and has reached the carrying capacity of the
environment. Finally , the last stage is the decline phase.
-Carrying capacity
All studied populations show an S-shaped curve with a number of identifiable
stages.In nature the environment can only provide with a limited amount of resources
such as food, shelter and nest sites , it is said to have a carrying capacity . The
carrying capacity is the maximum size of a population that an environment can
support in terms of food, water and other resources without any damage.
Sometimes , if natural limits on population growth are not present, the population size
might exceed the carrying capacity , which can have devastating consequences.
Humans have consistently managed to exceed the natural carrying capacity of
virtually every area in which they live , this is because of our use of technology ,
especially that associated with agriculture .
-History of human populations:There are significant points in the growth of the human
population:
oAbout 6000 years ago, humans started growing crops and rearing animals, which
provided more food and allowed the population to begin to grow
oBy the time the modern system of counting years started, the population was about
250 million
oIt then took another 1800 years to reach 1 billion
oAfter this, the growth become very rapid
oBy 1930, it was 2 billion and by 1975, it was 4 billion
oBy 2016, it was over 7 billion, a rise of 3 billion in just 37 years.
Human populations graphs show similarities between animal population graphs , the
only difference is that there is no sign of levelling off. Yet , the human population is
expected to slow down and settle into an equilibrium .
-Birth rate and death rate
Individuals are born and others die every day. Birth rate is the number of live births
per thousand of population per year. This rate is particularly balanced by the death
rate , which is the number of deaths per thousand of population per year. The
difference between these two rates is the rate of natural increase.
-Birth rate=Death rate , population stays the same
-Birth rate > Death rate , population grows
-Birth rate < Death rate , population declines
Factors affecting birth and death rate:
● In countries with a high death rate for the very young (high infant mortality),
birth rates are also high.
● In farming economies of many LEDCs, more people are needed for manual
labour ‫ ؞‬families tend to be larger.
 ● In MEDCs, it is expensive to have children and pensions are provided by the
state. As pensions are provided, they do not need children to take care of them
in their old age.
● Many social and political factors result in low use of birth control in LEDCs,
whereas in MEDCs birth control is widely used, so both birth and death rates
are lower.
● Religion
● People in LEDCs can't afford contraceptive methods and women have low
education on family planning
● Poor medical facilities
● Natural disasters
● Diseases , ex: AIDS
-Migration:the movement of people into (immigration) or out of (emigration) a region,
country or an area.Most common worldwide movement is from rural to urban areas in
LEDCs. Sometimes urban to rural migrations also occur, mostly in MEDCs.
Population growth: (birth rate + immigration) – (death rate + emigration)
PUSH FACTORS: factors that encourage people to move away from an area.
PULL FACTORS: factors that encourage people to move into an area.
PUSH PULL

● Drought - famine ● Good supplies of food

● Poverty ● Well-paid jobs
● Poor links with outside world ● Hospitals , schools, water ,
● Poor services electricity
● No works available ● Factory , shop , office work for a
● Desertification wage
● Sea-level rise ● Public transport
● Weather events , cyclones
8.2 Human population distribution and density
-Population density : is the population per area , and it's worked out by dividing the
number of people living in a place by the area of a place (it provides an average
number)
-Population distribution: how the population is spread over an area.Very few or no
people live in deserts and mountains, whereas populations are very high in coastal
areas due to availability of fresh water.

8.3 Population structure

The structure of a population describes how the population is made up in terms of age
and sex , and can be displayed in a diagram called a population or age pyramid.
- Population/age pyramid: a diagram that shows the proportion of the population that is
male and female in different age groups (usually 5-year interval). They can be
expanding, stationary or contracting populations.
• Expanding (young) populations (Afghanistan 2015): a typical pyramid for LEDCs with
a high proportion of young people due to high birth rate.
• Stationary populations (USA 2016): population that is almost stationary, with a
rectangular shape, except at the top when old people die.
• Contracting (old) populations (Japan 2016): population is declining because of
low birth rates, and its pyramid is top- heavy because of low death rates.
In practical terms the young and old are dependant , as they are people in the
population who are not economically active (working) i.e. the young (<16) and old
(65+) and thus rely on those who are working for their needs.Whereas the middle
aged are independent and working (between 17 and 65).
In LEDCs with a young population, taxes from independent people are used for
education for the youngsters and provision of school places for the children yet to
reach school age. Whilst , in MEDCs the priority might be creating care-home places
and hospitals for the ageing population.

8.4 Managing human populations

Family planning : methods used by couples to decide the number of children to have
and when. This involves the use of contraception , but can also include sterilisation ,
abortion and the application of assisted reproductive techniques (in vitro fertilisation) .
Governments can intervene as some provide free contraception to all couples , while
in other countries contraception may be generally unavailable .
Improved health and education: makes people more aware of methods to limit family
size. Educated women may plan a career as well as having children, the former
frequently limiting how many children are born. Education can also lead to a tendency
for later marriages and thus later child bearing. High infant mortality causes couples to
have more children. When it is reduced by better healthcare and sanitation, the trend
is reversed.
National population policies: In countries where population is declining , the
government may try to remedy the situation with a pronatalist policy and where the
population is becoming too large , antinatalist policies may be used .
● Pronatalist policies: a national or regional policy that aims to encourage
couples to have children. In countries like France, couples were encouraged to
have more than 2 children. Parents are paid the equivalent of the minimum
wage for a year after they have a third child. They enjoy subsidised train fares,
pay less tax the more children they have, and subsidised day care.
● Antinatalist policies: a national or regional policy that aims to discourage
couples to have children. In LEDCs, population increases too fast, and these
policies can form in weak measures such as the provision of family planning,
contraceptives and education, to laws encouraging couples to have only
one child. Some countries have no population policies at all and usually have
high birth rates.
Chapter 9 : Natural ecosystems and human activity
-The sixth extinction?
Life on earth arose more than 3000 million years ago .The number of species that have
gone extinct over that vast period of time far outnumber those alive today. So extinction
is normal : species are only expected to exist for a geologically short period of time. The
possible sixth extinction event , which we are living through , is different from other
extinctions as the rate of extinction is much faster.
9.1 The ecosystem
An ecosystem is all the living things (biotic components) together with all the
non-living things (abiotic components) in an area.These biotic and abiotic
components interact with each other
-Ecosystem structure:Described at a number of different levels
● Populations : All the organisms of one species living in a defined area at the
same time. Ex: frogs in a pond
● Communities : A group of populations of different species that live together in
an area and interact with each other. Ex: different species of animals in the
Arctic tundra
● Habitat : the place within an ecosystem where an organisms lives , finds food
and reproduces .
Within its habitat , the population of an organism has a particular role in terms of its
interactions with other species and its effect on the environment , which is called the
niche. The fact that there are so many niches to fill is the reason why there are so
many species.
So , an ecosystem consists of communities of living things that live in single-species
populations in particular habitats where they perform particular functions within their
niche.
-Abiotic factors:Habitats and niches include non-living or abiotic factors , these affect
living things and are affected by them.
● Temperature - usually expressed in °C. Living things have a range of
temperatures within which they can survive
● Humidity - a measure of how damp the air is; how much water vapour it holds.
Some living things cannot simply survive in dry air , for example fungi.
● Water- Is essential for all life as it’s a raw material for photosynthesis and a
medium for chemical reactions. Plants obtain water from the soil and water
content of soil is an important factor in determining where exactly a plant
species lives.
● Oxygen:nearly 21% in the air , rest is nitrogen .It decreases with increasing
altitude. Usually expressed as parts per million (ppm) in water.Not very soluble
in water so all aquatic organisms have adaptations to get enough e.g. gills in
fish.
● Salinity: How salty something is, measured as ppm or parts per thousand (ppt)
or concentration. This is mainly a factor that affects aquatic animals , as all
 marine species live in water that has 35 ppt of salt , whereas in freshwater there
is none .Water that is salty but not as salty as seawater is referred to as
brackish water . Sometimes , water on soil can be salty -could be due to poor
irrigation- (ex: salt marshes) , and plants can be adapted by secreting excess
salt from their leaves.
● Light:Essential for photosynthesis; expressed as lumens. With no light there will
be no food.
● pH :Measure of how acid or alkaline an aqueous solution is.Decomposing
leaves add humic acid to the water reducing the pH to less than 7. The pH of
soil water is a very important factor for plants.
-Ecosystem processes: In the living world organisms interact with each other.
A food chain is a diagram showing the relationship between a single producer and
primary, secondary and tertiary consumers.
Producers->Herbivores(primary consumers)->1st carnivores (secondary
consumers)->2nd (tertiary consumers)
oProducers: Green plants within an ecosystem that carry out photosynthesis.
oPrimary consumers: They derive their food from producers/plants.
oSecondary consumers: Carnivores that eat primary consumers/herbivores
oTertiary consumers: Carnivores that eat secondary consumers.
oDecomposers: If the animal or other organisms like fungi consume the bodies of
dead animals/plants.
A food web shows the relationship between all (or most) of the producers, primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers in an ecosystem.
Any change in one part of the food web can cause changes in any other part , which is
often impossible to predict what one change in one part might lead to elsewhere.

A way of simplifying information is to think of the numbers of producers and consumers

found in the ecosystem.This information can be represented in a pyramid of
numbers, which represents the number of organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem by a horizontal bar whose length is proportional to the numbers at that
level.The pyramid shape reflects the loss of energy at each trophic level.
• Trophic level: a feeding level within a food chain or food web.
-Photosynthesis:Plants trap light energy with the help of chlorophyll.
light
Carbon dioxide + water ——>glucose + oxygen
Glucose is a sugar used by plants in the process of respiration to release energy and
to make other substances ,ex: proteins, with the use of minerals, but in every case,
chemical energy remains stored in the substance.Plants obtain CO2 from the
atmosphere through the pores in the leaves (stomata) and water from the soil through
their roots.Chlorophyll , a green pigment , splits water into hydrogen and
oxygen. The hydrogen is added to CO2 to make glucose. The oxygen not used in
respiration is given off to the atmosphere.
-Interactions between living things - biotic interactions
● Competition :living things need a range of resources from the environment
(other living things or components like water or oxygen). Many more young are
produced than will survive, so there is often competition of resources.Individuals
least adapted to the current conditions will either die or fail to reproduce.
● Predation : when one animal eats another (ex: tigers , lions).ex:beetles eating
earthworms
● Pollination:the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) from the anther to the
stigma for it to fuse with the ovule (female gamete).In plants, male sex cells are
found in pollen grain, made in the anther. Pollen grains are either blown by wind
or carried by insects(pollinators).The anther is in the flower, attracting the
animals with bright colours, scent and the production of nectar. The pollen grain
lands on the stigma of another flower and sends out a tube that grows down to
where the ovule is.The ovule is then fertilised to form an embryo in a seed that
grows into a plant.
-Energy flows and nutrients cycles:
When a consumer eats a plant it gets two things:
-Chemical energy from starch and simple sugars
-Various materials, such as nitrogen
Consumers use some of the chemical energy for their own life processes , converting it
into heat , which is given off to the environment and lost to living things. However ,
minerals are not lost because , when the consumer dies , their body breaks down
and the minerals in the dead body are released and become available again to living
things.Energy flows through the ecosystem but minerals cycle round the ecosystem.
-Energy flow :Plants store light energy as chemical energy in the sugars and other
substances they make.A plant gets the energy that it needs for life processes from
respiration:
Glucose+oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water + (energy)-placed in brackets as it isn't a
substance-
Energy for the processes the plant needs and its given off to the environment as heat.
Only the energy that is left in the material a plant does not use is available to a
consumer, which is about 10% .The same relationship occurs at the next trophic level.
This explains why food chains never have more than four or sometimes five links :
there is just not enough energy left to support another trophic level .
This can be represented by a pyramid of energy.
-Mineral cycles:At the same time as a consumer is obtaining energy from the level
below , it is acquiring the minerals that it needs ( carbon, sulfur , oxygen ,nitrogen)
-Carbon cycle:
For carbon , the reservoir is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .Fixation is by
photosynthesis. Carbon is found within living things in carbohydrates, proteins, fats
and other chemicals. Carbon is removed from living things by respiration, which
returns the carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.Respiration occurs in all living things,
including microorganisms that break down dead organisms( decay or decomposition)
Carbon dioxide is also returned to the atmosphere by burning (combustion). This is
 important in relation to the removal of forest, when much of the forest material that is
cut down is burnt - the balance is broken by deforestation-

9.2 Estimating biodiversity in ecosystems

Biodiversity refers to all the species within an ecosystem as well as all the variations
within a species (genetic diversity).Before biodiversity can be properly managed , it
needs to be measured.
Scientists use sampling methods to count a subset of the whole, which reflects the
whole population size or species diversity.
-Sampling sedentary organisms : Quadrats and transects
If the subject of investigation is a plant, the sampling can be done with a quadrat
,which is a frame of known area placed on a part of the site to be sampled.The number
of organisms of the species enclosed within the quadrat is then counted. Simple scale
can be used to estimate ACFOR -abundant, common ,occasional, frequent , rare. The
use of a gridded quadrat allows more quantitative measurements to be made , by
counting the number of squares
-Placing the quadrat
● If two areas are to be compared , the quadrat should be placed randomly ,
which is called random sampling .The sampling device is placed using random
number tables or the roll of dice.
● If the aim is to see how the species change along a gradient in the environment
, the quadrat should be placed along a line called a transect , which is
systematic sampling.The quadrat is placed along the transect line at either
regular or irregular intervals.
-Sampling mobile organisms : pitfall traps and pooters
For organisms that move , a variety of trapping methods are used.
For small animals moving about on the ground , pitfall traps should be used. Consists
of a jar sunk up to its rim in the soil.The jar may or may not be covered (depending on
the predicted likelihood of rainfall).Traps should be inspected and emptied
regularly.Can be used randomly or systematically.
Other techniques for sampling small animals often involve catching them in some net
which then need to be transported back to a laboratory.A pooter is used to transport
the organisms, from the nets or traps to a laboratory.
For larger animals(mice) , other types of traps can be used.For very large
animals(zebras) counting is used ,often from an aeroplane.

Method Advantage Disadvantage

Quadrats • Quick;• Inexpensive • Not always very accurate

• Portable. • Unless many quadrats are placed, the samples can
be unintentionally biased.

Transects • Quick• Inexpensive; • Often used in inappropriate situations.

• Portable.
Pitfall traps • Inexpensive; • Often kill the organisms captured
• Easy to set up and use. • May oversample or undersample.

9.3 The causes and impacts of habitat loss

Habitat loss is the single most important cause of extinction.
-Causes of habitat loss :
● The drainage of wetlands: Wetlands represent about 4-6% of the Earth's land
surface.They have traditionally been regarded as wasteland, yet people have
realised that they have a variety of benefits , such as shoreline protection;
maintenance of water quality;flood control; recharging of aquifers; biological
productivity ,source of variety of products, fuel and fibres and the provision of
habitats. Nowadays ,the current global area of wetlands is half what it was in
1900s. Causes of wetland loss include:
▪ Drainage for agriculture,tourism facilities, forestry and mosquito control(spread
of malaria)
▪ Dredging for flood protection
▪ Use for disposal of waste created by road construction
▪ Discharge of pollutants
▪ Peat removal
▪ Removal of groundwater
● Intensive agricultural practices(high input/output in small area of land):
Agriculture poses the greatest threat to species as it results in so much habitat
loss.Wetlands are drained and other land is occupied to provide for intensive
agricultural practices, resulting in habitat loss. The agrochemicals
(herbicides/fertilisers) are soluble in water and can be carried away from the
farms where they are applied. Overcultivation of soil leads to soil erosion,
causing habitat loss for decomposers living in the soil.
● Deforestation(the clearing or thinning of forests by humans) : Forests form the
climax community , trees form a continuous cover and provide habitats for a
wide range of tree and ground dwelling species (birds/squirrels/reptiles).Loss of
this habitat , or just its fragmentation, is likely to lead to the loss of very many
species.
▪ Climax community: An ecological community in which populations of plants or
animals remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their
environment.
-Impacts of habitat loss:Loss of biodiversity and genetic depletion
Loss of biodiversity is when various species die or relocate when their habitat is
destroyed.It is very important to retain biodiversity in the wild as wild varieties of
modern crop plants may prove useful in the future.Genetic depletion is the loss of
species containing potentially useful genes. Genetic diversity that exist in the wild
may have many currently unknown uses e.g. medicinal, drought-resistant .These
characteristics of modern crop plants may prove useful in the future e.g. due to climate
change, drought-resistant strains are needed.These useful, ancient strains (genes) of
important crop plants should be retained.However, due to habitat destruction, genetic
diversity is reducing, leading to species becoming extinct, making the genetic loss
irretrievable. Modern strain of crop plants may not be able to adapt to future changes.
9.4 The causes and impacts of deforestation
-Causes of deforestation: The most obvious cause is the need for wood.Logging is the
process by which wood is extracted from a forest and made into timber(wood
processed ready for human use).Timber is needed in MEDCs for products ranging
from luxury furniture to paper, or as a source of energy. Another reason for
deforestation is to clear land for farming , roads and settlements ( building roads for
transporting logs is the most damaging process). If economic deposits are found on
settlements rock and mineral extraction may occur , leading to further deforestation.
-Impacts of deforestation:
● Habitat loss: Biodiversity is lost when habitats are lost. Tropical rainforests are
centres of great biodiversity, so loss of habitat here is serious. Huge volumes of
trees act as massive carbon stores that’s also home for rare species which may
be useful to us.
● Soil erosion and desertification:Forests reduce the impact of heavy rainfall on
the ground, reducing soil erosion.Tree roots bind the soil in place and the layer
of fallen leaves and branches protect the soil.Also , mulch is reduced which is
the protection of soil. Overtime, after deforestation, the area that once
supported luxuriant growth may become a desert, because of desertification.
● Climate change:The main cause of the rise in carbon dioxide is the burning of
fossil fuels , following comes changes in land use most importantly
deforestation. Trees remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during
photosynthesis. However, trees also respire and give out carbon dioxide.So , If
the rate of trees photosynthesising and respiring were equal, removal of trees
would have no effect.However, permanent removal of trees leads to large
quantities of CO2 when burnt or decomposed.Moreover, the machinery of
burning fossil fuels releases more CO2.
● Loss of biodiversity and genetic depletion
9.5 The need for sustainable management of forests
Forests are vital for the lives of many organisms because of the habitat they
provide.They can be a source of food , medicine , raw materials , and they also
prevent soil erosion. Forests are a huge attraction for tourists , who bring money into
countries that possess forests , which is known as ecotourism.
-Carbon sinks and carbon stores : When most of the trees are young in a forest m they
take in more carbon dioxide in photosynthesis than they give out in respiration , this is
carbon sink. Whereas, a mature forest where trees are old and not growing takes in
and gives out the same quantity of carbon dioxide and is carbon store.
-Role in the water cycle :Forests add water to the atmosphere during transpiration,
leading to formation of clouds, eventually releasing it by precipitation.During
deforestation, this process is reduced and local droughts are caused in the area.
Forests generate moisture in the atmosphere that can affect rainfall around the world.
-Prevention of soil erosion:
o By intercepting rain, forests reduce heavy rainfall on the forest floor.
o Debris such as tree leaves on the floor of the forest slows run- off.
o Roots of trees hold soil in place.
o Forests on the coast reduce erosion by absorbing energy from storms.
-Ecotourism:It is responsible travel to a natural area that promotes conservation of the
environment. Visitors travel with the main aim of appreciating its natural beauty.
Ecotourism is both a reason to manage forests sustainably and a method by which this
can be achieved.It may be mainly economic in focus, with success measured by
income, or focused on sustainability, with success measured by a limit on numbers of
visitors.
9.6 Strategies for conserving the biodiversity and genetic resource of a
natural ecosystem
Conservation can include the protection , preservation , management and restoration
of wildlife and habitats.
-Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species , sustainable forestry and
agroforestry:
Sustainable actions must meet the needs of the present without denying the needs of
future generations.
The harvesting of animals and plants are fisheries , forestry and medicinal plants.Many
plants have medicinal properties because of the secondary metabolites they produce.
Wild plants are a preferred source as cultivated varieties only produce small or none of
the chemicals to be used. Harvesting of wild plants can be controlled by management
plans by investigating species’ growth rate, reproductive biology and impact of
harvesting and monitoring them.
In forestry , an example of sustainability is selective logging.This involves the
removal of only mature trees of species that are valuable. Other species and immature
trees of value species are left, allowing the forest to repair overtime.Non-valued trees
still provide habitat for many species and immature valued trees can be used years
later.Another sustainable technique is agroforestry which is the land management
system in which crops are grown around trees.Trees enrich the soil when the
leaves fall, provide food for animals, firewood for people, and sometimes medicine.
Tree roots bind soil together, and in some cases, fix nitrogen, further enriching the soil.
Farmers obtain food and milk from the farm, and their animals enrich the soil with
manure. An example of agroforestry is alley cropping , which involves planting rows
of trees at wide spacings with a companion crop grown in the alleyways between the
rows.Trees are pruned and the prunings are used to improve the soil and provide
minerals to the crop. (if the tree is a legume, these minerals would include nitrates)
Mineral recycling and the suppression of weeds by the trees are combined with
cropping on the same land, these thereby allow the long-term survival of
farmland.
-National parks , wildlife and ecological reserves and corridors (On -site)
To protect an area and its wildlife they can be designated as specially protected
regions covered by certain laws.
• National parks are areas of land protected by the government to preserve entire
ecosystems .Laws ban/limit activities such as hunting, logging and collection of
wildflowers are implemented.Enforcement require regular inspection and threat of
hefty fines or imprisonment for breaking the law.Extensive facilities for tourists are
provided, that includes a system of roadways, car parks and natural trails. An entry fee
charged is used for conservation work.A guidebook/leaflet is provided that includes
information on the dos and don’ts, and the importance of the conservation of wild
nature. Ex: Greenland national park
• Wildlife and ecological reserves: the practice of protecting wild plants , animal
species and their habitat that plays an important role in balancing the ecosystems and
different natural processes, thus also meeting the needs of people.This can only be
achieved with a strategy that protects the wildlife and is part of a system people want
and need.
• Wildlife corridor is a link of wildlife habitat, generally native vegetation, which joins
two or more larger areas of similar wildlife habitat. Corridors are critical for the
maintenance of ecological processes including allowing for the movement of animals
and the continuation of viable populations.
-Extractive reserves(Chico Mendez) is forest in which local people would manage the
land , and then have the right to take products from the area.They attempt to find
balance between destroying forests for short term benefit and stopping all economic
activity.
-World biosphere reserve: The plan is to promote management, research and
education in ecosystem conservation.The ecosystems that need protection are located
in the core area , where human activities are restricted to monitoring and possibly
some research. The buffer zone is an area where more research is carried out,
together with education and tourism. This area may therefore contain field stations with
laboratories and recreational facilities.The transition (or multiple-use) zone is where
local communities and conservation organisations work together to manage the area
for the benefit of the people who live there.
One advantage of biosphere reserves is that they are recognised internationally via
UNESCO , leading to the success of the reserve because it makes it easier to attract
funding and the support of experts in the conservation community.
-Seed banks , zoos and captive breeding(Off-site):
• Seed banks: stores seeds to preserve genetic diversity when it’s not possible to
protect the area where the endangered plant lives.Wild plants carry genes that could
be used in crop plants to confer resistance to pests and diseases.Seeds occupy
less space than plants, thus more species can be held and collecting small samples of
seeds is unlikely to damage the wild population as most plants produce a large number
of seeds. Seeds are dormant and need minimal care, thus easier to store than living
plants.
Disadvantages : plant evolution is frozen , some seeds are ruined when stored too
long , gene-banks can be destroyed by power cuts
-Aquariums and botanical gardens
• Role of zoos and captive breeding: Zoos provide education about the illegal trade
in animals and products, and the need to maintain biodiversity.They are involved in
scientific research on the control of diseases, animal behaviour and techniques to
improve breeding success.Captive-breeding programmes increase species numbers,
thus reducing the risk of extinction and the aim is to release captive-bred animals into
the wild when habitats have been restored.Such programmes try maintaining genetic
biodiversity of a species, as inbreeding leads to a reduction in diversity and therefore
reduces adaptability when the species is placed back in the wild.
oWays to reduce inbreeding:
▪ Organisms aren’t allowed to breed repeatedly with the same partner;
▪ A variety of partners for an organism can be achieved through in-vitro fertilisation and
inter-zoo swapping of individuals
▪ Use a database (studbook) to record breeding history of individuals in captivity.

-Sustainable tourism and ecotourism

Ecotourism is the management of tourism in a sustainable way to prevent damage to
habitat and provide what people want.Also , could be defined as responsible travel to
natural areas that conserve the environment and improves the welfare of local people.
Key to successful sustainable ecotourism is realising that the growth of the tourist
industry depends on maintaining the environment.Measures are taken to safeguard
wildlife and the resources are used sustainably.