Guide to a Floating

Offshore Wind Farm

Published on behalf of the Offshore Renewable
Energy Catapult, The Crown Estate and Crown
Estate Scotland

May 2023
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Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 1

3. Except to the extent that checking or verification of information or data is expressly agreed within the written scope of its services, BVGA shall not be responsible in
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Front cover image of the Kincardine Offshore Wind Farm project courtesy of Principle Power.
The views expressed in this report are those of BVG Associates. The content of this report does not necessarily reflect the views of the ORE Catapult, The Crown Estate or
Crown Estate Scotland.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 2

Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult BVG Associates
The ORE Catapult is playing a leading role in stimulating innovation in offshore BVGA provides strategy consulting in renewable energy. We help our clients to
wind. It established the Floating Offshore Wind Centre of Excellence, a do new things, think in new ways and solve tough problems. Our practical
collaborative programme with industry and academic partners that aims to thinking integrates the business, economics and technology of renewable energy
accelerate the development of floating offshore wind in the UK. generation systems. We combine deep wind industry knowledge with skills
The ORE Catapult and the Floating Offshore Wind Centre of Excellence produce gained in the world of business consulting. Our purpose is to help our clients
reports on floating offshore wind technology, supply chain and markets. succeed in a sustainable global electricity generation mix founded on
renewables.
For more information visit https://ore.catapult.org.uk.
• BVGA was formed in 2006 at the start of the offshore wind industry.
ORE Catapult, together with the Crown Estate, published a related document to
this one called “Guide to an Offshore Wind Farm” for fixed offshore projects. For • We have a global client base, including customers of all sizes in Europe,
more information visit https://guidetoanoffshorewindfarm.com/. North America, South America, Asia and Australia.
• Our highly experienced team has an average of over 10 years’ experience in
The Crown Estate renewable energy.
The Crown Estate manages the sea bed around England, Wales and Northern • Most of our work is advising private clients investing in manufacturing,
Ireland. It coordinates the offshore wind sea bed leasing rounds in these areas. technology, and renewable energy projects.
For more information visit www.thecrownestate.co.uk. • We’ve also published many landmark reports on the future of the industry,
cost of energy and supply chain.
Crown Estate Scotland For more information visit www.bvgassociates.com.
Crown Estate Scotland manages the sea bed around Scotland. It coordinates
the offshore wind sea bed leasing rounds in Scotland.
For more information visit www.crownestatescotland.com.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 3

Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 13

1.1 This Guide ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

1.2 Assumptions used in this Guide ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.2.1 Floating substructure type ........................................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.2.2 Other technology and process assumptions ................................................................................................................................................. 15
1.2.3 Site definitions ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 15
1.3 Floating technology ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 16
1.3.1 Semi-submersible substructures .................................................................................................................................................................. 16
1.3.2 Barge substructures .................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
1.3.3 Spar substructures ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.3.4 Tension leg platforms .................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
1.3.5 Other floating offshore substructure concepts .............................................................................................................................................. 20
1.3.6 Concrete versus steel as the primary material .............................................................................................................................................. 22

P Development and project management ..................................................................................................................................................... 24

P.1 Development and consenting services ............................................................................................................................................................ 25

P.1.1 Environmental impact assessments ............................................................................................................................................................. 27
P.2 Environmental surveys ................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
P.2.1 Offshore species and habitat surveys........................................................................................................................................................... 29

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 4

 P.2.2 Onshore environmental surveys ................................................................................................................................................................... 31
P.2.3 Human impact studies ................................................................................................................................................................................. 32
P.3 Resource and metocean assessment ............................................................................................................................................................. 33
P.4 Geological and hydrographical surveys ........................................................................................................................................................... 35
P.4.1 Geophysical surveys ................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
P.4.2 Geotechnical surveys .................................................................................................................................................................................. 38
P.4.3 Hydrographic surveys ................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
P.5 Engineering and consultancy .......................................................................................................................................................................... 40
P.6 Project management ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 42

T Wind turbine ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 43

T.1 Nacelle .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44

T.2 Rotor ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 46
T.3 Tower ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 49
T.4 Electrical system ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 50

B Balance of plant ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 52

B.1 Cables........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
B.1.1 Array cable ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 54
B.1.2 Export cable ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
B.1.3 Cable accessories....................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
B.2 Floating substructure ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 68

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 5

 B.2.1 Primary structure ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 70
B.2.2 Secondary steel .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
B.2.3 Substructure auxiliary systems .................................................................................................................................................................... 73
B.2.4 Corrosion protection ................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
B.3 Mooring system ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 75
B.3.1 Anchors ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
B.3.2 Mooring lines .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 81
B.3.3 Jewellery .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
B.3.4 Topside connections ................................................................................................................................................................................... 85
B.4 Offshore substation ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 86
B.4.1 HVAC electrical system ............................................................................................................................................................................... 87
B.4.2 HVDC electrical system ............................................................................................................................................................................... 88
B.4.3 Auxiliary systems ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 89
B.4.4 Topside structure ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 90
B.4.5 Foundation ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 91
B.5 Onshore substation........................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
B.5.1 Electrical system ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
B.5.2 Buildings, access, and security .................................................................................................................................................................... 94

I Installation and commissioning ................................................................................................................................................................... 96

I.1 Offshore substation installation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 97

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 6

 I.1.1 Substation installation vessel......................................................................................................................................................................... 98
I.2 Offshore cable installation................................................................................................................................................................................ 99
I.2.1 Export cable installation .............................................................................................................................................................................. 100
I.2.2 Array cable installation ................................................................................................................................................................................ 102
I.2.3 Cable-laying vessel..................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
I.2.4 Cable-laying equipment .............................................................................................................................................................................. 104
I.2.5 Cable pull-in ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
I.2.6 Electrical testing and termination................................................................................................................................................................. 107
I.3 Onshore export cable installation ................................................................................................................................................................... 108
I.4 Anchor and mooring pre-installation ............................................................................................................................................................... 109
I.4.1 Anchor-handling vessel .............................................................................................................................................................................. 110
I.4.2 Installation equipment ................................................................................................................................................................................. 112
I.5 Floating offshore wind turbine assembly ......................................................................................................................................................... 113
I.5.1 Heavy lifting and moving equipment ............................................................................................................................................................ 115
I.5.2 Technician services .................................................................................................................................................................................... 117
I.6 Floating offshore wind turbine installation ....................................................................................................................................................... 118
I.6.1 Tow-out ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 119
I.6.2 Mooring line hook-up .................................................................................................................................................................................. 120
I.6.3 Array cable hook-up ................................................................................................................................................................................... 121
I.6.4 Final commissioning ................................................................................................................................................................................... 122
I.7 Inbound transport .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 123

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 7

 I.8 Construction port .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 125
I.9 Offshore logistics........................................................................................................................................................................................... 127
I.9.1 Sea-based support ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
I.9.2 Marine coordination .................................................................................................................................................................................... 129
I.9.3 Weather forecasting and metocean data ..................................................................................................................................................... 130
I.9.4 Marine safety and rescue ............................................................................................................................................................................ 131

O Operations and maintenance.................................................................................................................................................................. 133

O.1 Operations .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 134

O.1.1 Operations control centre ......................................................................................................................................................................... 136
O.1.2 Training .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 137
O.1.3 Onshore logistics ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
O.2 Maintenance ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 139
O.2.1 Turbine maintenance ................................................................................................................................................................................ 139
O.2.2 Balance of plant maintenance ................................................................................................................................................................... 142
O.2.3 Statutory inspections ................................................................................................................................................................................ 150
O.3 Major repair ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 152
O.3.1 Main component refurbishment, replacement, and repair (in-situ) .............................................................................................................. 153
O.3.2 Main component refurbishment, replacement, and repair (tow-to-port) ....................................................................................................... 154
O.4 Offshore vessels and logistics ...................................................................................................................................................................... 155
O.4.1 Crew transfer vessels ............................................................................................................................................................................... 156

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 8

 O.4.2 Service operation vessels ......................................................................................................................................................................... 157
O.4.3 Turbine access systems............................................................................................................................................................................ 158
O.4.4 Helicopters ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 159
O.5 O&M port .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 160

D Decommissioning ................................................................................................................................................................................... 162

D.1 Floating offshore wind turbine decommissioning ........................................................................................................................................... 163

D.2 Anchor and mooring system decommissioning ............................................................................................................................................. 164
D.3 Cable decommissioning ............................................................................................................................................................................... 165
D.4 Offshore substation decommissioning .......................................................................................................................................................... 166
D.5 Decommissioning port ................................................................................................................................................................................. 167
D.6 Reuse, recycling, or disposal ........................................................................................................................................................................ 167

Glossary .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 169

About BVG Associates ............................................................................................................................................................................... 175

List of figures
Figure 1 Example of a semi-submersible floating substructure. ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2 Example of a barge floating substructure. ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 3 Example of a spar floating substructure. ........................................................................................................................................................... 18

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 9

Figure 4 Example of a tension leg platform floating substructure. .................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 5 Floating substructures with counterweights....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 6 Floating substructures which pivot about a single point. .................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 7 Floating substructures with multiple rotors. ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 8 Vertical axis floating substructure. .................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 9 Combined wind and wave device. .................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 10 Example of a floating lidar used to capture atmospheric data. .......................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 11 A specialist geophysical survey vessel. ........................................................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 12 GE’s Haliade X 12 MW nacelle. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 13 Example of an offshore wind turbine blade. ..................................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 14 Offshore wind turbine towers being stored at the quayside of a port................................................................................................................. 49
Figure 15 Dynamic array cable. ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 16 Floating offshore wind dynamic cable system. ................................................................................................................................................. 57
Figure 17 Static export cable. ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 60
Figure 18 Cable hang-off clamp and cable pull-in head................................................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 19 Cable bend stiffener. ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 20 Buoyancy modules stored on a vessel prior to installation. ............................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 21 Dry mate connector and wet mate connector. ................................................................................................................................................ 67
Figure 22 Semi-submersible floating substructures used at the WindFloat Atlantic project. .............................................................................................. 68

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 10

Figure 23 The final assembly of the primary structure of a steel semi-submersible floating substructure. .......................................................................... 70
Figure 24 Secondary steel elements on the floating substructures used at the Kincardine project. ................................................................................... 72
Figure 25 High-level mooring system options: plain catenary, multi-catenary, buoyant semi-taut and taut ........................................................................ 75
Figure 26 Typical mooring system components for floating offshore wind turbines. .......................................................................................................... 78
Figure 27 Suction pile anchor, drag embedment anchor and driven pile anchor. ............................................................................................................. 79
Figure 28 Mooring chains stored on the quayside of a port. ............................................................................................................................................ 81
Figure 29 Clump weights, buoyancy elements, load reduction device, and floating substructure and mooring line connector ............................................ 83
Figure 30 One of the fixed offshore substations used at the Hornsea One project. ........................................................................................................... 86
Figure 31 Offshore substation jackets. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 32 Onshore substation........................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Figure 33 Topside structure of an offshore substation being lifted onto a jacket foundation. ............................................................................................. 97
Figure 34 Offshore export cable transitioned to shore. .................................................................................................................................................. 100
Figure 35 Cable-laying vessel. ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Figure 36 Onshore export cable trenching process. ..................................................................................................................................................... 108
Figure 37 Anchor-handling vessel. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 110
Figure 38 Stevtensioner and Stevadjuster. ................................................................................................................................................................... 112
Figure 39 Floating offshore wind turbine final assembly taking place at port. .................................................................................................................. 113
Figure 40 A landside crawler crane lifting a nacelle onto a floating substructure. ........................................................................................................... 116
Figure 41 An assembled floating offshore wind turbine starting its tow-out for the WindFloat Atlantic project. ................................................................. 118

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 11

Figure 42 The Port of Cromarty Firth used as the construction port for part of the Kincardine project. ............................................................................ 125
Figure 43 Blade inspection and minor repair being carried out by a rope-access technician........................................................................................... 140
Figure 44 Technicians servicing the floating substructure at the WindFloat Atlantic project. ........................................................................................... 142
Figure 45 A crew transfer vessel servicing the WindFloat Atlantic floating offshore wind farm. ........................................................................................ 156
Figure 46 Fleet of service operation vessels servicing a fixed offshore wind farm. .......................................................................................................... 157
Figure 47 The Port of Peterhead which is being used as the operations and maintenance port for the Hywind Scotland project. ..................................... 160

List of tables
Table 1 Site definitions used in this Guide. ..................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Table 2 Description of major types of anchors expected to be used by floating offshore wind turbines. ............................................................................. 80
Table 3 Glossary of floating offshore wind terms. .......................................................................................................................................................... 169

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 12

1. Introduction
The example from fixed offshore wind is that significant progress across similar
challenges has been successfully achieved and there is no reason to doubt that
the floating offshore wind industry will address its challenges too.
1.1 This Guide To keep things simple, this Guide uses a single reference design of floating
The aim of this Guide is to help companies develop a greater understanding of substructure to provide a narrative that can be followed easily. This is a three-
the components and processes involved in the development of floating offshore column, steel, semi-submersible substructure. It is selected because it has
wind farms in the UK. already been demonstrated at two pre-commercial floating offshore wind farms
The floating offshore wind industry is early in its development, with only a small and could be used widely elsewhere. It was not selected to represent the best
number of pre-commercial projects installed globally. It is expected to grow future solution.
significantly, with between 6 and 10 GW of capacity operational by the end of The Guide also uses a set of reference parameters to ground some of the
2030. narrative and the cost estimates. These include turbine rating, wind farm rating,
There are many challenges still to address, including: final investment decision (FID) date and commercial operations date. These are
fully described in Section 1.3.
• Development: how to mitigate the impact of floating offshore wind farms on
the sea bed and other marine users, as the impact is different from fixed Where relevant, for each element in the wind farm we cover:
offshore wind farms • Function. What the component or service does.
• Design: how to accelerate the feedback loop between designing, testing and • What it costs. We provide typical prices for a project with parameters
learning, especially for the floating substructure, mooring system and described in further sections. We recognise that there can be a range in
dynamic cable system, and establish design standards optimised for floating prices of any element, due to specific timing or local issues, exchange rates,
offshore wind competition and contracting conditions. Prices for large components include
• Manufacture: how to achieve economies of simplification, standardisation delivery to nearest port to supplier and warranty costs. Developer costs
and scale, given the current industry maturity (including internal project- and construction management, insurance,
typically spent contingency and overheads) are included in the highest-level
• Offshore operations: how to establish new, efficient and effective ways of
boxes but are not itemised. The sum of costs in lower-level boxes therefore is
working for offshore installation, operations and maintenance (O&M), as
often lower than in the highest-level box. Costs, when combined with project
there are significant differences from fixed offshore wind farms, and
life of 25 to 30 years, capacity factor of just over 50% and weighted average
• Financing: how to give confidence to investors, lenders and insurers
cost of capital equate to the bid prices expected by developers of floating
regarding performance and level of risk to reduce the financing costs of
projects.
projects.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 13

• Who supplies them (examples only). The list of suppliers is indicative rather
than exhaustive. We have focused on suppliers with proven capability and
generally have not listed suppliers with likely future capability or located
distant from the UK (for example in US or China). Nevertheless any omission
does not reflect any judgement of a company’s capabilities.
• Key facts. Description including dimensions / materials where relevant or
what is involved in delivering the service / how it relates to other elements
and other relevant information.
• What's in it. We list the sub-components / services described elsewhere in
the Guide, or standard components / materials / processes used across a
range of industries.
A glossary is provided, recognising that there are many industry-specific or
technical terms and abbreviations used in the descriptions.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 14

 Table 1 Site definitions used in this Guide.
1.2 Assumptions used in this Guide
Parameter Data Unit
1.2.1 Floating substructure type Year of FID 2025

This Guide uses a single reference design of floating substructure to provide a First operation date 2028
narrative that can be followed easily. This is a three-column, steel, semi- Wind farm rating 450 MW
submersible substructure. Turbine rating 15 MW
It is selected because it has already been demonstrated at two pre-commercial
Water depth at site 100 m
floating offshore wind farms and could be used widely elsewhere. It was not
Annual mean wind speed at 100 m height 10 m/s
selected to represent the best future solution.
Distance from offshore substation to export 60 km
1.2.2 Other technology and process assumptions cable landing point on the shore
This Guide also assumes that: Distance from to export cable landing point 10 km
• Each floating substructure uses a three-point mooring with drag embedment onshore substation
anchors Ground conditions: benign, allowing a piled
• The offshore substation is supported by a fixed jacket foundation, rather than substructure for the substation and drag
a floating substructure, and embedment anchors for the floating offshore
wind turbines
• Floating offshore wind turbine assembly (the assembly of the turbine onto the
floating substructure) takes place at port using an onshore crane or a port-
side jack-up vessel.

1.2.3 Site definitions

The site definitions used in this Guide are shown in Table 1. These affect the cost
calculations.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 15

1.3 Floating technology
This section introduces the key floating offshore wind substructure types, other
floating offshore wind substructure concepts and materials.
There are about a hundred designs for floating substructures currently being
proposed by technology innovators, but only a handful of these have been tested
at full scale. These substructure designs have a wide range of different
characteristics and performance, and all belong to one of four substructure types
that have already been successfully used within the offshore oil and gas industry.
These are described below.

1.3.1 Semi-submersible substructures

Overview and description
• Semi-submersible substructures typically consisting of typically three or four
buoyant columns or other floating elements at the periphery that are
connected using pontoons and/or trusses. They are typically ballasted to
provide additional stability. Figure 1 Example of a semi-submersible floating substructure. Photo of
• At present, only Principle Power’s WindFloat has been installed at full scale the WindFloat Atlantic project courtesy of Principle Power/Ocean Winds.
demonstration.
Characteristics
• Suitable for water depths greater than 40 m.
• Smaller draft than spar substructures. This enables quayside turbine
• Design variables include: the number of columns, placement of tower installation and adjustable ballasting can make the complete structure stable
(eccentric vs central), construction material (steel vs concrete) and ballast for tow-out and installation.
system, with some designs opting to use a suspended submerged
• Tugs and anchor-handling vessels (AHVs) can be used in broad weather
counterweight to lower the centre of gravity.
windows, reducing the need for specialist vessels.
• Can be used with a wide range of mooring and anchor configurations.
• The largest floating substructure type, in terms of length and width.
• Higher mass than tension leg platforms.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 16

• Large sea and land areas are required for the storage and marshalling of
substructures during construction.
• Semi-submersibles experience higher wave-induced motions than spars, but
lower than barges and experience large heave motions in extreme weather
conditions when the wave period is close to their heave natural period.

1.3.2 Barge substructures

Overview and description
• Barge substructures have a single hull that pierces the waterline. They have
a large surface area in contact with the water which provides stability,
however this can make it more susceptible to wave loading.
• The overall dimensions are less than the equivalent semi-submersible.
• The barge-type floating substructures that have been installed to date are
BW Ideol’s Damping Pool and Saitec Offshore Technologies’ SATH.
• Suitable for water depths greater than 40 m. Figure 2 Example of a barge floating substructure. Image courtesy of BW
• Design variables include: construction material (concrete or steel) and the Ideol. All rights reserved.
shape of the single hull which may be square or cylindrical.
Characteristics
• Another key variable between designs is the presence and size of a
• The turbine can be erected onto the barge substructure in a sheltered
moonpool to improve the stability of the substructure in rough sea states.
harbour then towed to the installation site because the combined structure is
• Can be used with a wide range of mooring and anchor configurations.
stable in transport.
• Reduced transport and installation cost associated with building floating
projects using barge substructures compared to spars, which can only use
specialist marshalling ports because of their depth, or tension leg platforms
(TLPs), which need specialist solutions for transport and installation because
they have low stability until installed.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 17

• Barges may experience large heave motions in extreme weather conditions
when the wave period is close to its heave natural period. This may require
turbines installed on barge-type substructures to be engineered for larger
tower motions than for other substructure types.

1.3.3 Spar substructures

Overview and description
• Spar substructures use ballast-stabilised designs. They consist of a tall
cylinder housing dense ballast in its lower part to lower the centre of gravity
below the centre of buoyancy, creating a self-righting motion.
• Spar substructures have a large draft.
• This substructure type has been used by Equinor at its first three projects in
the in the North Sea, which have used concrete and steel-based designs.
• Suitable for water depths above 100 m.
• Design variables include: construction material, ballast material, and the size Figure 3 Example of a spar floating substructure. Image courtesy of ORE
of the cylinder. Catapult. All rights reserved.
• Can be used with a wide range of mooring and anchor configurations.
Characteristics
• Its large draft and small waterplane area mean it is less affected by wind,
wave and current compared to other designs.
• The large draft means that assembling turbines onto substructures from the
quayside requires deep-water locations, which may not be available in some
areas. This may also be done using floating installation vessels in sheltered
deep-water areas, such as the Norwegian fjords, but this adds cost.
• The large draft also limits site locations to allow tow-out for installation and
tow-back for major-component replacement.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 18

• It has the highest tilt during normal operations of all technology types, and
active ballasting is not an option to address this.

1.3.4 Tension leg platforms

Overview and description
• TLPs achieve stability through the mooring system. They typically use
mooring lines that connect to anchors either vertically or predominantly
vertically. The upwards buoyancy force acting on the hull needs to be
sufficient so that the tendons are continuously under tension under all
operating loads.
• TLPs are well established in the oil and gas industry but have not been used
with wind turbines, up to now, on any commercial-scale demonstration
projects.
• A star-pontoon arrangement is expected to be used for floating offshore wind
turbine applications with minimal structure piercing the waterline and minimal
steel mass. Figure 4 Example of a tension leg platform floating substructure. Image
courtesy of ORE Catapult. All rights reserved.
• The first full-scale TLP demonstrator in offshore wind is expected to be SBM
Offshore’s design at Provence Grand Large, France, in 2023. Characteristics
• Suitable for water depths above 80 m. • Installation is complex as the hull is less stable than other technology types.
• Design variables include: construction material, the shape of the hull and This means that final assembly of the turbine onto a TLP in port followed by
whether there is any active adjustment of the tendon load. tow out to site is not possible.

• The high loading in the mooring system, and their vertical, or near vertical, • It is expected that either turbines will be assembled onto installed TLPs at
configuration, requires an anchor type that can withstand a strong vertical site, requiring a weather sensitive floating-to-floating lift, or pre-assembled on
pull, such as a driven pile or a suction anchor. a vessel capable of installing the turbine and TLP together. This also makes
tow-to shore options for maintenance harder than for other floating
foundation types.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 19

• The mooring system and anchors are expected to be more expensive than • Pivoting about a single point, thus removing the need for a turbine yaw
for other technology types as they are subjected to higher loads and they system and ability of the support structure to withstand loads from all
require sufficient redundancy to counter the consequence of failure. directions. Examples include X1 WIND’s PivotBuoy, Aerodyn’s Nezzy2 and
• It has the lowest structural mass of all floating substructure types once Saitec’s SATH, see Figure 6. These use turret mooring/single point
installed, although this has to be set against the higher costs of transport and moorings, which is a proven technology for floating production storage and
installation, and the mooring system and anchors. offloading solutions (FPSOs) in oil and gas. A challenge is how the floating
offshore wind turbine behaves when strong waves or tide are not aligned
• The lowest substructure motions of all floating substructure types other than
with the wind direction.
spars once installed. This reduces the structural loadings on the turbine and
array cables compared to other types. • Downwind rotor. Examples include X1 WIND’s PivotBuoy and Aerodyn’s
Nezzy2, see Figure 6 and Figure 7. These are typically enabled by a pivoting
• As the mooring system is critical to stability there could be reluctance to use
substructure and allow unconventional tower concepts such as tower
it in areas prone to seismic activity.
braces, guyed towers or inclined towers. A challenge is that the established
1.3.5 Other floating offshore substructure wind turbine manufacturers are focused on turbine concepts relying on a
yaw system that can be used onshore and on fixed offshore substructures.
concepts
• Multiple rotors. Examples include Hexicon, and Aerodyn’s Nezzy2, see
The other floating offshore wind substructure concepts included here are Figure 7. These are typically enabled by a pivoting substructure and have the
variants of the four substructure types previously described, but sufficiently novel potential to reduce the cost of the floating substructure and array connection
to describe further. Many offer the potential for significant mass reduction but per MW, having double the installed capacity on a single floating
often increase the complexity of design. Lessons from the oil and gas industry substructure. A challenge is the impact of one turbine shutting down on the
has shown the benefits of simplicity over complexity. It is important, however, other(s).
that the industry properly examines other concepts.
• Vertical axis floating wind turbines. Examples include SeaTwirl’s S1 and S2,
The non-exhaustive list of example concepts included here are intended to show see Figure 8. A challenge is that vertical axis wind turbines on land have had
the spread of potentially disruptive solutions. higher levelised cost of energy (LCOE) than horizontal axis turbines due, in
• Counterweight concepts. One example is Saipem’s Hexafloat, see Figure 5. large part, to their rotors having lower coefficients of performance.
These combine the benefits of a semi-submersible (shallow depth for • Combined wind and wave energy devices: examples include Floating Power
transport) and a spar (stability from mass at depth). A challenge is the Plant (FPP), see Figure 9.
complexity of mechanisms to lower and raise the counterweight.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 20

 Figure 7 Floating substructures with multiple rotors. From left to right:
Hexicon’s TwinWind (image courtesy of Hexicon, all rights reserved) and
Figure 5 Floating substructures with counterweights. Saipem’s Hexafloat
Aerodyn’s Nezzy2 (image courtesy of Aerodyn, all rights reserved).
(image courtesy of Saipem, all rights reserved).

Figure 8 Vertical axis floating substructure. SeaTwirl's S2 (image

Figure 6 Floating substructures which pivot about a single point. From courtesy of SeaTwirl, all rights reserved).
left to right: X1 WIND’s PivotBuoy (image courtesy of X1 WIND, all rights
reserved) and Saitec’s SATH (image courtesy of Saitec, all rights
reserved).

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 21

 Cost
• A developer’s decision to use steel concrete or hybrid substructures will
involve careful consideration of the costs across all project phases.
• Steel is expected to be less expensive per tonne than concrete but steel
reinforcing bar is cheaper than steel plate.
• Steel plate prices have been more volatile, with swings up to 50% recorded
within a year. Concrete prices tend to be more stable. Reinforced concrete
structures still use large amounts of steel, especially for reinforcement, but
the overall volume is several times less than where steel is the primary
material.

Supply chain
• Where there is no existing steel fabrication supply chain locally, concrete
Figure 9 Combined wind and wave device. Floating Power Plant's fabrication may be more straightforward to establish as it requires less
substructure (image courtesy of Floating Power Plant, all rights investment in new facilities.
reserved). • The localisation of concrete fabrication provides a larger number of jobs
compared to a steel fabrication yard. The jobs associated with steel and
1.3.6 Concrete versus steel as the primary cement manufacture must also be considered.
material • Concrete substructures are heavier than steel so require more effort to lift or
Floating substructure types can be designed using either steel, concrete or a tow, and greater channel depth, if transporting them is needed.
hybrid of the two. The decision on what materials to use may be taken on a case- Environmental impact
by-case basis considering a wide range of factors. For example, Equinor used
• Environmental considerations are important for developers and may be
steel spar substructures at its 30 MW Hywind Demo project in 2017 and
included as decision criteria in competitive offtake auctions. The carbon
concrete spar substructures at its 88 MW Hywind Tampen project.
footprint depends on how the steel and cement are made, the operational
There are four main factors which influence a developer’s choice of materials:
lifetime and any recycling or re-use at end of life.
• Steel is frequently recycled. It is expected that concrete would be ground up.
Lifecycle analysis is a useful tool for this sort of analysis.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 22

Site conditions
• Metocean conditions may influence the selection of material due to the
performance of different materials through time. For example, concrete
substructures are likely to be more vulnerable to freeze-thaw damage while
steel foundations are likely to be more vulnerable to corrosion.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 23

P Development and project
The environmental impacts can be different in some areas, for example mooring
lines could have a larger impact on fishing activities.
Sea bed leasing for existing floating offshore wind farms has been managed by

management The Crown Estate and Crown Estate Scotland through several leasing rounds
that began in 2000.
Function The Crown Estate manages the sea bed in the territorial waters of England,
Northern Ireland, and Wales and adjacent areas of the United Kingdom EEZ.
Development and project management covers the activities up to the point of
Crown Estate Scotland manages the sea bed in Scottish territorial waters and
final investment decision (FID) and managing the construction of the project
adjacent areas of the United Kingdom Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
through to commercial operations date (COD). This includes activities required
to secure planning consents, such as the environmental impact assessment Before the consenting process can begin, the developer must secure a sea bed
(EIA), activities required to define the design and engineering aspects, and all lease from The Crown Estate or Crown Estate Scotland. These are granted
aspects of project management. through periodic leasing rounds.

What it costs In England and Wales, offshore wind projects of more than 100 MW installed
capacity are defined as nationally significant infrastructure projects (NSIPs) and
About £66 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. This does not
are examined by the Planning Inspectorate.
include any site leasing costs incurred by the project developer. It does include
The Secretary of State for the Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial
development expenditure incurred by lost projects (not itemised in sections
Strategy (BEIS) grants or refuses consent based on a recommendation made by
below) to enable a realistic industry LCOE.
the Planning Inspectorate.
Who supplies this
In England, a Development Consent Order is granted under the Planning Act
The development and consenting stage is managed by the floating offshore wind 2008 (as amended) which incorporates a number of consents, including a
farm developer. The main floating offshore wind developers include Bluefloat, BP, marine licence and onshore consents. In Wales, the marine licence is determined
Copenhagen Infrastructure Partners, Corio, EDF, EnBW, Equinor, ESB, Falck, by Natural Resources Wales.
Iberdrola, Northland, Ørsted, RWE, Shell, Simply Blue, SSE and TotalEnergies.
In Scotland, Marine Scotland examines applications for the offshore works and
Key facts Scottish Ministers grant or refuse consent under the Marine (Scotland) Act of
There are no major differences in the development and project management 2010 (up to 12 nm from shore) and the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 for
processes between floating offshore wind farms and fixed offshore wind farms. projects 12 to 200 nm from shore. A streamlined process incorporates consent
under Section 36 of the Electricity Act 1989 in parallel.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 24

In Northern Ireland, the Marine Strategy and Licensing team within the
Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA) manages the P.1 Development and consenting
consent application and decision-making process for offshore wind projects.
Other important aspects of the development process include securing land
services
permissions for onshore substations and cable routes and engaging with the Function
supply chain.
Development and consenting covers the work needed to secure consent and
Onshore consent including the transmission cable landfall and associated manage the development process through to FID.
onshore grid connection infrastructure is awarded by the relevant local planning
What it costs
authority, except where a project is handled under an NSIP in England and
Wales, in which case the onshore consents are considered within the NSIP About £31 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. This includes
process. environmental impact assessments plus staff costs and other subcontractor
work (neither of these itemised in sections below).
Developers typically build internal teams of up to 50 staff during the development
phase, which contract specialist packages of work to environmental and Who supplies this
engineering consultancies and data acquisition and analysis companies. Development services are typically led by the developer’s special purpose
The development process from first consideration of a site to FID typically takes vehicle (SPV), which manages the development process and subcontracts work
between four and seven years in the UK. The offshore wind industry, and in to a range of specialist consultancies. The SPV is a legal entity, which invests in
particular some of the organisations which regulate it in Europe, are looking at and owns the floating offshore wind farm project.
how it can be accelerated.
Key facts
What’s in it Developers typically set up a SPV for a wind farm. Should the project advance to
• P.1 Development and consenting services construction, the SPV will continue to operate for the duration of the offshore
• P.2 Environmental surveys wind farm’s life.

• P.3 Resource and metocean assessment In instances where the SPV is a joint venture between two or more developers, it
is likely that the development team will be based in stand-alone offices to
• P.4 Geological and hydrographical surveys
manage confidentiality.
• P.5 Engineering and consultancy
The SPV provides a structure to enable external investment, although this
• P.6 Project management investment is most likely to take place at FID or post construction.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 25

In the UK, the SPV manages the design of the floating offshore wind farm and have an interest in the land affected. Non-statutory consultees with specific
secures consent for the floating offshore wind farm and transmission assets. interests in the development are also likely to be consulted, such as the RSPB
An early formal step in the consenting process is the production of a scoping Developers also seek the views of local communities as part of this process and
report, the purpose of which is to scope the level of impact on various receptors hold a series of public information and consultation events. Floating offshore
in order to properly define the required assessment process and methodologies, wind farms have a greater sea bed footprint than fixed offshore wind farms,
and to ensure the EIA focuses on those impacts that may lead to substantial requiring multiple anchors for each turbine. They also have mooring lines and
effects. It also provides an early opinion from the planning authorities to help dynamic cables in the water column which fixed offshore wind farms do not.
shape and focus the development activity. These factors require engagement and consultation with local communities and
Developers aim to secure planning consent while retaining as much design fisheries.
flexibility as they can. A particular risk for developers is specifying a specific Supporting the work will be a range of specialist consultants, covering
foundation solution or a maximum turbine size, which may prove to be restrictive engineering design, legal issues, land use, environmental and stakeholder
at the point of procurement and require the developer to request variations to the relations.
consents they have already been granted. What’s in it
Design flexibilities around the floating offshore wind sector makes the
• P.1.1 Environmental impact assessments
environmental impacts less certain and difficult to analyse. The range of options
included in the proposed design is known as the design envelope, which
includes a clear upper and lower bound on the scale of the project, for example
in terms of turbine tip height.
Developers need to undertake an EIA, which describes the potential impacts with
regards to a wide range of environmental factors.
The environmental statement is based on a number of detailed analyses. Most
offshore wind developers have a predominantly in-house development
management capability, with specialist work being outsourced. Specialist
suppliers will often second employees into the developer’s team for the duration
of the development phase.
Throughout the development process, developers are obliged to seek the views
of a number of statutory consultees. These include a wide range of government
appointed consultees and authorities, affected local authorities and those that

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 26

 The EIA process can take up to three years to complete, with the main driver
P.1.1 Environmental impact assessments being the length of time it takes to complete the required environmental surveys.
Function Under the Habitats Directive and the Conservation of Habitats and Species
An EIA assesses the potential impact of the proposed development on the Regulations 2010 (as amended), developers should consider the potential
physical, biological, and human environment during the construction, operation effects on protected habitats. If the development is likely to affect a designated
and decommissioning of the floating offshore wind farm. European site, the developer must provide a report with the application showing
the designated European site that may be affected together with sufficient
What it costs
information to enable the decision maker to make an assessment, if required. In
About £4.6 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. the UK, a Habitat Regulations Appraisal (HRA) is performed as an integral part of
Who supplies this an EIA to ensure that a project conforms to The Conservation of Habitats and
Species Regulations (2010).
Atkins, ERM, GoBe, Mott MacDonald, Natural Power, Royal HaskoningDHV, RPS
and Xodus. What’s in it
Key facts • Assessment

The most recent EIA regulations specify that the assessment must consider • Environmental Statement
impacts on human health, climate change and biodiversity. To determine the • Habitat regulations assessment
impacts, a full suite of environmental surveys is undertaken. • Mitigation
After assessing the potential impacts, mitigation measures are defined and • Residual impacts
applied in order to determine the residual effects associated with the
• Scoping
development. A core part of the EIA is the Cumulative Impact Assessment (CIA)
where the development’s impacts combined with those impacts from other • Site-specific impacts
foreseeable projects are assessed. The EIA is used to inform the Environmental
Statement (ES) (or EIA Report), which forms the core evidence that is submitted
to support a consent application.
Consultation with statutory consultees, special interest groups and the local
community is performed throughout the EIA process and allows the consenting
authority, as well as other stakeholders and the public, to voice their opinions
and concerns.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 27

P.2 Environmental surveys Some surveys need to establish regional behaviours of wildlife, for example bird
feeding and breeding patterns, and in these cases, data may need to be
Function collected for several years. For highly mobile wildlife populations such as birds or
sea mammals, it may be difficult to establish whether the predicted impacts
A full suite of environmental surveys of the floating offshore wind farm location
during construction will be enduring.
and its surroundings is undertaken to determine the environmental impacts.
Vessels and aircraft are used to collect the survey data. Surveys look at the
These surveys establish the baseline for the assessment and allow impact
distribution, density, diversity, and number of different species.
modelling to be undertaken.
A challenge in the assessments is trying to understand the cumulative impacts of
What it costs
several wind farms, particularly when these are the subject of separate EIAs and
About £4 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. consenting processes.
Who supplies this Some environmental surveys are undertaken by companies that also offer
APEM, ERM, Fugro, Natural Power, RPS, RSK and SLR. geological or hydrological surveys; in which case the work can be conducted
from the same vessels in a single campaign.
Key facts
Environmental surveys are typically undertaken by companies from the home
Environmental surveys are one of the first tasks to be undertaken at a potential
market, partly because there is sufficient local resource and partly because
offshore wind farm site and it can take two years or more before sufficient data is
some of the wildlife impacts are site specific and require detailed local knowledge
collected in order to apply for consent. Floating offshore wind farms have a
and expertise.
greater emphasis on certain environmental surveys compared to fixed offshore
Under the Offshore Wind Evidence and Change programme, The Crown Estate
wind farms. This is to understand and mitigate environmental impacts, if any,
along with Natural England, Scottish Government and the Royal Society for the
because of the larger sea bed usage.
Protection of Birds has launched three new projects to protect and enhance
The surveys include bird, fish, marine mammal, and habitat surveys as well as
marine biodiversity while encouraging offshore wind deployment. The projects
marine navigation studies, socio-economic surveys, commercial fishing,
are POSEIDON (Planning Offshore Wind Strategic Environmental Impact
archaeology, noise analysis, landscape and visual assessment and aviation
Decisions), PrePARED (Predators and Prey Around Renewable Energy
impact assessments.
Developments) and Remote Tracking of Seabirds at Sea.
Companies and developers recognise more detailed surveying can reduce costly
What’s in it
consenting delays and post-construction environmental monitoring
requirements. • P.2.1 Offshore species and habitat surveys

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 28

 sample the species present in the area. Other fishing methods such as lobster
P.2.1 Offshore species and habitat surveys pots or gill nets can also be used in areas where trawling cannot take place.
Function Plankton nets can be used for fish egg and arval studies. Surveys are generally
undertaken to characterise the species present in the area of the floating
Species and habitat surveys are conducted to understand the potential impacts
offshore wind farm, but also to address specific questions such as whether fish
of a floating offshore wind farm on habitats and species and to inform impact
are spawning in the area, should this be an issue for EIA. Surveys can often be
analysis and reporting.
done using local fishing vessels, providing they reach minimum safety standards.
What it costs This approach offers the potential for good engagement with the local fishing
About £3.1 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. community.
Who supplies this Ornithological surveys establish the presence and behaviour of birds within the
floating offshore wind farm boundary and surrounding areas. The data from
ABPmer, APEM, Fugro, Gardline, HiDef Surveying, Natural Power, Precision
these bird surveys is used to establish the risks to birds that a floating offshore
Marine and RPS.
wind farm may pose. Offshore ornithological studies are normally one of the first
Key facts tasks to be undertaken at a potential floating offshore wind farm site because at
Species and habitat surveys includes benthic, fish and shellfish, ornithological least two years of data are needed to establish baseline conditions. This is due to
and marine mammal surveys. Benthic species live on the sea bed and in the high level of spatial and temporal variation in bird abundance and distribution
sediment. The survey data is used to define areas of similar environmental throughout the annual cycle. Boat-based and digital aerial surveys are typically
conditions on the sea bed and to inform habitat and species impact studies. used to establish population estimates and to gather behavioural data including
More extensive benthic surveys are required for floating offshore wind farms species’ flight heights (a key variable used to assess potential collision). Other
compared to fixed to understand the potential sea bed impacts of the multiple methods such as GPS tracking, lidar, radar and coastal vantage point surveys
anchoring points required. We expect these surveys to be conducted for all can also be used.
anchor placements initially to produce the most effective broad-scale Marine mammal surveys establish the diversity, abundance, distribution, and
categorisation of the overall region, as well as attempting to investigate smaller behaviour of cetaceans (including porpoises, dolphins and whales) and seals
scale features such as reefs. As floating offshore wind technology matures, this within the floating offshore wind farm boundary and surrounding areas. Surveys
may involve sampling of a regular grid. Methods include grab sampling, are typically undertaken monthly for at least two years to establish how these
epibenthic beam trawling and drop-down video (DDV). variables change across seasons and between years. Marine mammals are
Fish and shellfish surveys establish what species are present in the water column surveyed to determine how they make use of the proposed area and therefore
within the proposed floating offshore wind farm site and surrounding areas. the different effects that a floating offshore wind farm may have. These could
Beam trawls or otter trawls (dragging a net along the sea bed) are used to include potential disturbance and displacement, physical and auditory injury

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 29

during pile driving, and both direct and indirect habitat loss (for example through
P.2.1.1 Offshore ornithological and mammal
effects on prey species). Detailed modelling is conducted to understand the
interaction between marine mammals and floating offshore wind components like surveying vessels and aircraft
cables and mooring lines. The methods used depend on the species and site.
Function
Traditional visual surveys using boat and aerial platforms are being
supplemented or replaced by new, more accurate technologies such as static Bird and marine mammal survey vessels and aircraft provide a platform for
and towed acoustic monitoring, tagging of individuals with satellite transmitters surveying to take place.
and remotely controlled video monitoring. Who supplies this
What’s in it Vessels: Enviro-serve, Fugro and Gardline.
• Benthic environmental surveys Aircraft: APEM, Green Rebel and HiDef Surveying.
• Fish and shellfish surveys Key facts
• Ornithological environmental surveys Traditional visual methods for surveying marine mammals are often undertaken
• Sea mammal environmental surveys concurrently with offshore ornithology surveys, offering a cost saving. For the
• P.2.1.1 Offshore ornithological and mammal surveying vessels and aircraft floating offshore wind sector, unfavourable weather and sea conditions have to
be considered in the planning of surveys to ensure that the data collected is
robust.
Multiple crews are used, including experienced and qualified surveyors, who
rotate in shifts in order to avoid fatigue and maintain visual acuity. Traditional
visual boat-based surveys can be supplemented with a towed hydrophone and
acoustic pods deployed on the sea bed to undertake passive acoustic
monitoring of marine mammals.
Whilst traditional visual aerial surveys can be used to record marine mammals,
these are not suitable to record marine birds as they fly at relatively low altitudes
and can cause disturbance (and therefore the data collected are not
representative of baseline conditions). Instead, digital aerial survey aircraft can
be used which fly at higher altitudes, recording both birds and marine mammals.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 30

These survey aircraft have a range of remote sensing instruments on board such
as high-resolution digital cameras, lidar, video imaging and imaging
P.2.2 Onshore environmental surveys
spectrometers. Twin-engine planes, with long-range fuel tanks and autopilot Function
capabilities allow for extensive surveying offshore without the need for on-board
Onshore environmental surveys consider the potential ecological impact that
surveyors.
cable laying, onshore substations and new port facilities may have on the
There is great potential for the increased use of autonomous vessels with remote onshore environment.
sensing instruments and artificial intelligence to analyse data, to reduce cost and
What it costs
carry out more extensive offshore surveys.
About £520,000 for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
What’s in it
Who supplies this
• Aircraft
Andrew McCarthy Associates, APEM, BCM Environs, ESS Ecology, Natural
• Provision of suitably experienced and qualified crew
Power, RSK and Thomson Ecology.
• Survey vessels
Key facts
Wildlife surveys are often undertaken by ecological companies who have
specialised capabilities for particular species.
Studies tend to look at the distribution, density, and number of different species.
Wildlife ranging from badgers to small reptiles are considered, depending on the
nature of the proposed site.
Fragile coastal ecosystems are a prime area of focus.
What’s in it
• Data analysis
• Surveying
• Reporting

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 31

 and thus the impact of the proposed change. Studies consider the onshore cable
P.2.3 Human impact studies route and substation.
Function What’s in it
Human impact studies assess the impact that a proposed floating offshore wind • Consultation
farm may have on the community living in and around the coastal area.
• Surveys
What it costs
About £520,000 for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
ERM, Hayes Mackenzie, Hoare Lea, LUC, Royal HaskoningDHV, RPS and SLR.
Key facts
Visual assessments comprise photomontages from specific viewpoints of what
the proposed wind farm will look like. Noise assessments assess that potential
noise impacts and determine whether the impact of the proposed floating
offshore wind farm is within the guidance of relevant noise standards. Other
areas studied include fisheries and archaeology.
The socioeconomic study assesses the impacts of a floating offshore wind farm
or coastal infrastructure, for example a port, on changes in employment,
transportation or recreation, or changes in the aesthetic value of a landscape. It
estimates the impacts on the local society, not only of these socio-economic
changes, but also of the composite of biological, geological, and physical effects
caused by the proposed change on the local area.
Socio-economic studies include a mix of objective and subjective data. Objective
data can include statistics on age, income distribution, ethnicity, mortality,
housing type and occupancy, and education. Subjective data can be derived
from surveys and observations. These are used to provide systematic estimates
of the ways in which various groups perceive their socio-economic environment

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 32

 What it costs
P.3 Resource and metocean
About £3 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
assessment Who supplies this
Function Floating lidars: AXYS Technologies, EOLOS, EOLFI, IDS Monitoring, Fraunhofer
IWES, Fugro, RPS and ZX Lidars.
Resource and metocean assessments provide atmospheric and oceanographic
Lidar units: Leosphere and ZX Lidars.
datasets to inform the engineering design of a floating offshore wind farm, the
potential future energy production, and to fully describe the likely installation and Metocean campaigns and buoys: AXYS Technologies, Fugro and Partrac.
operating conditions at the proposed floating offshore wind farm location. Reference data provision: The Met Office, StormGeo and Vortex.
Resource campaign management and design: AXYS Technologies, DNV, Fugro,
K2 Management, Natural Power, Oldbaum and ZX Measurement.
Key facts
Measurement systems are installed at the project location to collect wind and
other relevant meteorological data. Meteorological sensors measure wind speed
(with instruments at a number of heights or measuring over a range of heights
with one sensor), wind direction, temperature, pressure, humidity, solar radiation
and visibility. Measuring wind speeds at different heights provides critical
information about the wind speed profile at the site, aiding decisions about the
turbine and floating substructure design. Wind speed data is required to at least
the proposed hub-height of the wind turbines, which is 130 m or more above sea
level for a 15 MW turbine. Metocean buoys are installed in and around the
floating offshore wind farm site to collect metocean data. Metocean sensors
include wave, sea level and current sensors (for example acoustic Doppler
current profiler) which are sometimes sea bed positioned. These record the full
Figure 10 Example of a floating lidar used to capture atmospheric data.
wave data spectrum including velocity, direction, and period. Multiple sensors
Image courtesy of EOLOS. All rights reserved.
are used to provide spatial coverage and redundancy. This information is crucial
in establishing whole system dynamics including substructure design types,
turbine ratings, vessel types and operations and maintenance (O&M) strategies.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 33

In comparison to fixed offshore wind farms, floating offshore wind farms require Wind and metocean measurement systems require power supply to run sensors,
the same assessments of wind data but require more metocean data for data storage and telemetry. For low power systems this is often achieved with
modelling whole system dynamics. solar PV panels, small wind turbines and battery storage. Larger systems use
Long-term reference datasets are required to describe the climatology of the diesel generators or hydrogen fuel cells.
proposed site over a longer period typically more than 15 years. Data is usually Current state of the art campaigns integrates measurement and modelling
collected for a period of at least one year to reflect seasonal variation in wind techniques across both oceanographic and wind resource disciplines. The study
resource and metocean conditions. can be further broadened to look at further issues such as turbulence,
These combined data sets are used in the floating offshore wind farm system atmospheric stability conditions and the influence of neighbouring floating
design process, the turbine selection process and to predict the annual energy offshore wind farms on the proposed site wind conditions.
production (AEP) of the floating offshore wind farm. Metocean data is also used Resource and metocean systems require maintenance, including inspection,
to inform the vessel selection and operational strategies for the site and is made cleaning, and refuelling (where diesel generators or hydrogen fuel cells or similar
available to vessel operators and marine planners during the construction and are used). Maintenance visits are typically carried out two to four times per year.
operational phases. Systems are designed to operate autonomously, with onboard power, data, and
A key interface exists in determining the long-term site conditions between wind communications systems.
resource and metocean disciplines. The output from this interface is the extreme Sensors provide data on meteorological and oceanographic conditions at the
wind and wave climate for the proposed site. site of interest. Data loggers provide data storage, processing, and remote
Fixed offshore wind farms have traditionally used hub-height wind masts which communications capability.
are fixed to the sea bed requiring a subsea structure, but the trend is towards the What’s in it
use of floating lidars. Floating offshore wind farms are likely to use floating lidars
• Anemometers
instead of fixed met masts.
• Buoys
Lidars are a type of remote sensing anemometry device which uses lasers to
measure wind speed and direction at up to 300 m above sea level. Floating lidars • Data loggers
are moored buoys on which lidars are mounted. This allows the lidars to be • Lidar systems
deployed and change location as per demand. • Maintenance
When using lidar as the primary measurement instrument, supplementary • Meteorological sensors
modelling may be used to inform site conditions such as turbulence and
• Metocean sensors
horizontal wind gradients.
• Wave measurement sensors

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 34

P.4 Geological and hydrographical Offshore wind development typically requires more data collection over larger
areas, but the technical approaches are like other sectors, such as oil and gas.

surveys The move to auction-based systems, such as Contract for Differences (CfD) in
the UK, has placed a greater emphasis on geological and hydrographical
Function surveys as developers require greater cost (and hence design) certainty earlier
in the development process.
Sea bed surveys analyse the sea bed environment of the proposed floating
offshore wind farm site and export cable route to assess its geological condition What’s in it
and engineering characteristics. The data collected is utilised in a wide range of • P.4.1 Geophysical surveys
engineering and environmental studies through the design and development
• P.4.2 Geotechnical surveys
phase.
• P.4.3 Hydrographic surveys
What it costs
About £4 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
CMS Geoscience, EGS, Fugro, Gardline, Horizon Geosciences and MMT.
Key facts
Sea bed surveys consist of two main parts: non-invasive geophysical surveys of
sea bed features and bathymetry, and invasive geotechnical surveys of the sea
bed characteristics.
Sea bed surveys are an important component of the development process and
aid several processes, such as optimising the mooring system designs and
floating offshore wind farm layout, as well as minimising risk during installation
activities.
Environmental and sea bed surveys and data collection (geotechnical and
geophysical) can start five years or more before the planned operation of the
floating offshore wind farm.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 35

 Geophysical surveys can be used to identify UXO on or below the sea bed.
P.4.1 Geophysical surveys Geophysical surveys may also consider marine archaeology that may be present
Function in the floating offshore wind farm site. This is typically dealt with by specialist
archaeological survey companies and is offered as a service in conjunction with
Geophysical surveys establish sea floor bathymetry, sea bed features, water
geophysical surveys.
depth and soil stratigraphy, as well as identifying hazardous areas on the
seafloor and human-made risks such as unexploded ordnance (UXO). What’s in it
What it costs • P.4.1.1 Geophysical survey vessels

About £1.1 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.

Who supplies this
Acteon, Argeo, Fugro, Gardline, G-tec, Horizon Geosciences, Magseis Fairfield,
MMT, PanGeo Subsea and TGS.
Key facts
Geophysical surveys are non-intrusive and include remote sensing techniques
such as seismic methods, echo sounding and magnetometry.
The techniques used consist of bathymetry (water depth) mapping with
conventional single or multibeam echo soundings or swathe bathymetry, sea
floor mapping with side scan sonar, magnetometer for UXO, acoustic seismic
profiling methods and high-resolution digital surveys.
Surveys run along transects across zones within the proposed floating offshore
wind farm site and cable routes.
Information from geophysical surveys is used to aid the design and
implementation of the benthic and geotechnical surveys, so they are often
undertaken near the beginning of the development process.
Data from geophysical surveys are also used to produce charts, models, and
maps for GIS systems, which are then used for site layout design.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 36

 Crew work 12-hour shifts with rotations month by month to enable a constant
P.4.1.1 Geophysical survey vessels
flow of data collection, processing, and interpreting.
Function What’s in it
Specialist vessels are used to carry out geophysical surveys of the sea bed.
• Specialist crew
• Survey and analysis equipment

Figure 11 A specialist geophysical survey vessel. Image courtesy of

Fugro. All rights reserved.
Who supplies this
Fugro, Gardline, Horizon Geosciences and MMT.
Key facts
Geophysical vessels are typically about 30 to 70 m in length. The vessels must
provide a stable platform even in unfavourable sea and weather conditions.
Multiple crews, including highly specialised equipment operators, are used and
the vessel has sleeping berths and living quarters to allow the vessel to have an
operational endurance of up to a month.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 37

 Offshore laboratories are used to obtain basic soil parameters and samples are
P.4.2 Geotechnical surveys taken there for detailed testing once they have been collected. Often soil
Function dynamics tests are performed to monitor the soil behaviour under the constant
dynamic loading on the foundation by the wind, waves and current.
Geotechnical site investigations are conducted following the geophysical survey
to use the information obtained to target soil and rock strata boundaries, Resultant data from the geotechnical surveys are combined with results from the
engineering properties and specific sea floor features. geophysical survey, to improve the geological model prior to the design and
installation of anchors. Geotechnical data is also used later in combination with
What it costs
heavy lift jack-up vessel information to determine the risks and feasibility of
About £2.1 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. conducting heavy lift construction activities.
Who supplies this Fixed offshore wind farms require geotechnical data to depths of 50 to 70 m to
Fugro, G-tec, Gardline and Horizon Geosciences. inform the design of monopile or jacket foundations. Floating offshore wind farms
use anchors which are typically not installed as deep as monopiles, although this
Key facts
does depend on the type and design of anchor selected (see B.3.1 for further
Geotechnical studies are predominantly intrusive and include methods like information). This means that geotechnical surveys are generally needed to
drilling boreholes to collect soil and rock samples, and cone penetration testing shallower depths for floating offshore wind farms compared to fixed.
(CPT).
In the early floating offshore wind projects, developers are expected to be
Geotechnical investigation is generally the most expensive part of floating cautious and conduct geotechnical surveys for every anchor placement. The
offshore wind farm survey work, making it a substantial at-risk investment for sample and survey frequency may decrease in time as developers gain
developers. Typically, the geotechnical surveys are performed in phases to add confidence and experience.
value to the project risk mitigation process.
What’s in it
Geotechnical surveys require specialised equipment and skilled personnel. The
• P.4.2.1 Geotechnical survey vessels
scope of the investigation depends on the type of foundation being considered
and the variability in the sea bed characteristics.
Boreholes and CPTs are carried out to investigate the physical characteristics of
the sea bed. Surface push CPTs are also used as a rapid method to gather sea
bed soil stratigraphy. Cable routes are typically investigated using vibro-cores
and CPTs to a depth of 5 m.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 38

 •
P.4.2.1 Geotechnical survey vessels Survey and analysis equipment

Function
Specialist vessels carry out geotechnical surveys of the sea bed.
Who supplies this
Fugro, G-tec, Gardline and Horizon Geosciences.
Key facts
The vessels are typically 60 to 100 m long and typically operate their drilling
systems through a central moon pool. Some sea bed systems are deployed over
the side or stern via A-frames or heavy lift cranes. The vessels are able to
operate independently in remote locations.
Jack-up vessels can also be used (albeit smaller than those used for foundation
and turbine installation) where water depth and sea bed conditions are suitable.
The vessels must be able to position themselves at specific locations for
borehole sampling using dynamic positioning or anchors and must be able to
withstand unfavourable sea and weather conditions.
The vessels provide a stable platform for the acquisition of samples and in-situ
testing. Due to the expense of hiring these vessels, multiple crews, including
highly specialised equipment operators, are used and the vessels have sleeping
berths and living quarters to allow the vessel to have an operational endurance
of over a month.
Offshore laboratories also allow for data acquisition and processing onboard.
Crew rotations month by month enable a constant flow of data collection,
processing, and interpreting.
What’s in it
• Specialist crew

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 39

P.4.3 Hydrographic surveys P.5 Engineering and consultancy
Function Function
Hydrographic surveys examine the impact of the floating offshore wind farm Front-end engineering and design (FEED) studies address areas of floating
development on local sedimentation and coastal processes such as erosion. This offshore wind farm system design and develop the concept of the floating
is often part of the geophysical survey. These surveys are also part of the post offshore wind farm in advance of procurement, contracting and construction.
construction monitoring during the operations phase.
What it costs
What it costs
About £4 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
About £800,00 for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Who supplies this
Arup, DNV, Gavin & Doherty Geosolutions, Kent, Mott MacDonald, ODE, OWC,
Specialist hydrographic survey companies: Fugro, Gardline and MMT. Ramboll, Wood and Worley.
Impact modelling consultants: ABPmer and HR Wallingford. Key facts
Key facts Earlier on in the process, concept and pre-FEED studies are used to develop an
Understanding the sedimentation environment of the proposed site is of outline concept of the project for the purposes for defining the consent envelope
particular importance as it informs the scour characteristics of the site and and to inform environmental surveys.
subsequent protection measures required. The FEED study is continually refined through the development process and is
What’s in it ultimately used to inform substantial engineering and procurement decisions.

• Crews Key parameters such as turbine size, substructure type, mooring system design,
wind farm layout, substation design, electrical system, and grid connection are
• Survey equipment
considered in order to minimise project LCOE. Some projects consider
• Vessels integrating floating offshore wind turbines with co-located batteries, green
• Analysis and reporting hydrogen generation or the powering of oil and gas production facilities.
FEED studies also include the planning of onshore and offshore operations, port
and vessel strategies, determining contracting methodologies and the
development of key risk management and health and safety procedures.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 40

The FEED study seeks to understand the total wind farm system in an integrated What’s in it
way and to consider the impact of engineering decisions on the LCOE, and to
• Electrical design strategy
ensure that engineering decisions take full cognisance of environmental and
• Foundation type selection
consenting risks and impacts.
The FEED study is a multi-disciplinary process that requires extensive • Health and safety planning
communication and coordination, often across multiple teams and organisations. • Installation methods
Engineers normally use industry-specific standards to guide the design process • Interface management
for components including, but not limited to, the floating substructure. The most • Layout design and optimisation
complete standards for floating offshore wind are IEC 61400‐3‐2 and DNV‐ST‐
• Operational strategy
0119. Other standards used on current floating offshore wind projects include
• Turbine selection
ABS 195/206, NKRE-GL-FOWT01 and BV NI572.
The outputs of FEED studies are used to procure and construct the floating
offshore wind farm.
The move to auction-based systems such as CfD in the UK has placed a greater
emphasis on FEED studies as developers require greater cost certainty earlier in
the development process.
Developers of early floating offshore wind projects are likely to conduct more
detailed FEED studies, and hence incur higher FEED costs, because floating
offshore wind project norms have not yet been established. The detail and cost
of FEED studies will decrease as developers gain more experience and designs
and operational practices become more established.
Project certification is an independent process used to give confidence to parties
such as the developer’s senior management, lenders or insurers, that the design,
manufacture and installation of the whole project has been carried out to
appropriate standards. It is not a regulatory requirement in the UK but is normally
used for offshore wind projects. Certification schemes applicable to floating
offshore wind include IECRE OD‐502, DNV‐SE‐0190 and DNV‐SE‐0422.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 41

P.6 Project management •
•
Construction phase project management
Financial management
Function • Stakeholder engagement
This involves the management of various activities as part of wind farm
development. This includes managing the collection and interpretation of
surveys, submission of planning consents and any design work, and managing
the construction of the project through to COD.
What it costs
About £20 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Predominantly undertaken in-house by wind farm developers. The project
management of specific activities can also be managed externally by
consultancies or as part of EPCI contracts.
Key facts
Development phase project management includes end to end management of all
surveys, assessments, design studies, stakeholder and supply chain
engagement, and securing a route to market.
Construction phase project management includes the management of each of
the different construction packages.
Financial project management includes the management of budgets, accounting,
project financing, insurance, and the organisation of power purchase
agreements (PPAs) and CfDs.
What’s in it
• Securing a route to market
• Development phase project management

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 42

T Wind turbine
Floating offshore wind projects use the same turbine models that are used for
fixed turbines, with minor variations:
• The control system tuned to jointly optimise the loads and energy production
Function for the particular combination of turbine, floating substructure and metocean
The turbine converts kinetic energy from the wind into three-phase AC electrical conditions.
energy. • Tower stronger and heavier to compensate for the increased loads and
What it costs different resonant frequencies experienced by the floating structure.

About £20 million for a 15 MW floating offshore wind turbine. This includes • Downwind variants have not been developed yet by the established suppliers
components, factory assembly and some elements of installation and by the established, as there is not yet enough demand.
commissioning, plus warranty provision. The elements of installation and Up to 2030, the ratings of turbines used on floating projects may lag a few years
commissioning included in this cost are mainly the supplier’s logistics and staff behind the turbines used on fixed offshore wind projects. This is because
costs at head office, at the construction port, on the installation vessel and on suppliers will want to have greater confidence in the response of each turbine
the turbine, mechanical and electrical completion, testing, and pre-handover model to the dynamic loads of the floating substructure before they are used on
checks and trouble shooting. These costs typically exceed £1.5 million per floating projects.
turbine. Wind turbine suppliers are systems integrators. Blades are typically
Who supplies this manufactured in-house, along with a few other components in some cases,
depending on the industrial strength and breadth of the supplier.
Western suppliers: GE Renewable Energy, Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy
(SGRE) and Vestas. There are fewer offshore turbine suppliers than onshore turbine suppliers. The
high investment costs, large project sizes but relatively low overall sales volumes
Asian suppliers: CSIC Haizhuang, Doosan, Dongfang Electric Corporation,
make it difficult for new suppliers to challenge the incumbents.
Envision, Goldwind, Hitachi, MingYang, Shanghai Electric, Sinovel and XEMC
Windpower. Typically, after a new turbine model is developed, variants of this model are
offered to the market with higher ratings and/or larger diameter rotors, whilst
Key facts
many of the original systems and components remain unchanged. These
Most designs have upwind, pitch controlled, variable speed rotors with three variants become possible once the loads and factors of safety are better
blades. Compared to onshore wind turbines, offshore turbines are larger and understood. This extends sales lifetime of a given model while minimising
there is an increased focus on reliability and maintainability and a decreased development costs.
focus on noise, visual and transport constraints.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 43

Wind turbine suppliers prefer to operate just one or two nacelle assembly
facilities and blade manufacturing facilities for the European offshore market, to T.1 Nacelle
avoid adding complication and cost to their supply chains. The choice of site Function
depends on the size of the local market, the locations of key suppliers, skills
The nacelle supports the rotor and converts the rotational energy from the rotor
availability, and support for local job creation.
into three-phase AC electrical energy.
The design life of an offshore turbine is 25 years. The trend for longer design life
on all turbines is due to the maturing of the industry. Asset owners now expect to
operate wind farms for such periods without the technology becoming obsolete
or unsupported by suppliers. The design driver for many components is fatigue
loading when generating. Extreme loads due to storms, abnormal events and
faults during operation can also be critical. Typically, an offshore turbine will be
turning over 90% of the time.
Asian suppliers are typically offering turbines optimised to lower average wind
speed wind regimes with larger rotors for a given turbine rating.
Type certification for turbines is provided by third parties. This confirms that the
wind turbine type is designed, documented and key features of performance
verified in conformity with specific standards and other technical requirements.
This certification also covers the suppliers of the key components.
Health and safety requirements are encouraging safety by minimising or avoiding
designs where people need to be put in hazardous environments.
What’s in it
• T.1 Nacelle
• T.2 Rotor
Figure 12 GE’s Haliade X 12 MW nacelle. Image courtesy of GE
• T.3 Tower
Renewable Energy. All rights reserved.
• T.4 Electrical system
What it costs
About £11 million for a 15 MW floating offshore wind turbine.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 44

Who supplies this The yaw bearing connects the nacelle and tower, enabling the yaw system to
turn the nacelle to any wind direction during operation. The yaw system orients
Nacelles are assembled by the wind turbine supplier, using components
the rotor and nacelle to the wind direction during operation.
generally sourced from a range of external suppliers.
Other nacelle components include the:
Key facts
• Bedplate which supports the drive train and the rest of the nacelle
Typical dimensions for a 15 MW turbine are 21 to 25 m long, 9 to 12 m wide and
components and transfers loads from the rotor to the tower
10 to 12 m high for transport, with masses of 600 to 700 t including the hub.
• Main shaft which transfers torque from the rotor to the gearbox or, for direct
Key nacelle components include the main bearing, gearbox (where used),
drive designs, the generator
generator, yaw bearing and yaw system.
• Control system which provides supervisory control (including health
The main bearing supports the rotor and transfers the rotor loading to the nacelle
monitoring) and active power and load control in order to optimise wind
bedplate. Several bearing arrangements exist for offshore wind turbines including
turbine life and revenue generation, while meeting externally imposed
a single bearing supporting the generator and rotor. Another approach is to
requirements, and
support the main shaft with a bearing at each end.
• Condition monitoring system which provides additional health checking and
Where used, a gearbox converts rotor torque at a speed of 4 to 8 r/min to a
failure prediction capability.
speed of up to about 600 r/min for a medium speed gearbox. The gearbox is a
critical item in the wind turbine drive train, with particular attention given to the Nacelle mass is kept as low as reasonably possible to help with overall system
long-term reliability. dynamics and minimise logistics costs. To keep nacelle mass down, turbine
designs may have the transformer and much of the power electronics in the
There has been a move away from gearboxes with conventional high-speed
tower base. Mid-grade steels and cast spheroidal graphite (SG) iron are used
generators for offshore turbines. For example, GE Renewable Energy and SGRE
rather than low-grade materials as they offer the lowest cost per unit fatigue
have opted for direct drive turbines without a gearbox. Instead, they use a larger
strength.
and more complex low-speed generator. Vestas has opted for turbines with a
gearbox and medium speed generator. Before dispatch, the nacelle undergoes a functional test before being prepared
for transport and storage. It is also typically tested with its power take-off
The generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. Most generators
hardware.
use permanent magnets that need no excitation power. This keeps efficiency
high, mass low and dimensions small, lowering transport and installation costs New designs of offshore turbines place a high emphasis on maintainability. This
but does rely on the supply of rare-earth alloys. is being achieved through modular designs for large components so more
subcomponents can be replaced using the nacelle crane. The use of jack-up
vessels is not an option at depths suited to FOW.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 45

The nacelle incorporates high levels of remote monitoring, health checking and
control. T.2 Rotor
There are no major differences in the nacelles designed for floating or fixed Function
offshore wind farms. Adjustments are needed to the control system to make the
The rotor extracts kinetic energy from the air and converts this into rotational
turbine suitable for application in floating.
energy in the drive train.
What’s in it
• Bedplate
• Condition monitoring system
• Control system
• Gearbox
• Generator
• Main bearing
• Main shaft
• Nacelle auxiliary systems
• Nacelle cover
• Small engineering components
• Structural fasteners
• Yaw bearing and actuator system

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 46

 What it costs
About £6 million for a 15 MW floating offshore wind turbine.
Who supplies this
Wind turbine rotors are usually designed and supplied by the wind turbine
supplier as part of the complete wind turbine. Independent blade manufacturers
are used by some wind turbine suppliers.
Key facts
A rotor for a 15 MW turbine has a mass of about 230 t and a diameter of about
224 m.
The rotor consists of blades, a hub casting, blade system, bearings, and pitch
system.
Blades are typically made from fibreglass and epoxy resin. There are variations
between designs, with some using carbon fibre and others using polyester
resins. New resin systems are being developed and tested to enable the
recovery and reuse of blade materials at the end of life.
Higher tip speeds typically lead to more efficient energy capture, and tip speeds
offshore are higher than those used onshore, but these are limited by design to
avoid blade leading edge erosion. This is where repeated impact by raindrops,
particulate matter, hail, ice, and salt erodes the blades, causing surface
roughness and change in aerodynamic shape to the outer part of the blade’s
leading edge. This reduces the performance of the blade and increases its sound
emissions. If left unrepaired, the damage will continue until it affects the
structural integrity of the blade.
Reducing the risk of leading edge erosion is an important focus for innovation.
Figure 13 Example of an offshore wind turbine blade. Image courtesy of One approach is developing better coatings. Another is to incorporate leading
LM Wind Power. All rights reserved. edge protection plates similar to those used in helicopter blades that are flexible
enough to cope with the deflections seen in wind turbine blades.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 47

Each blade is bolted to a blade bearing that is bolted to a central hub on the There are no major differences in the rotors designed for floating or fixed offshore
main shaft. The blade bearing enables the pitch mechanism to adjust the blade wind farms.
pitch angle to control power output from the turbine, minimise loads and start or What’s in it
stop turbine as required.
• Blades
Each blade has its own independent pitch system that allows the turbine to be
• Blade system and bearings
controlled should one pitch system fail. Pitch systems are either hydraulically or
electrically operated, with little external difference in functionality. • Hub casting
Typically, the blade pitch angle is adjusted almost constantly in medium-to-high • Pitch bearing and actuator system
winds to regulate rotor speed while the turbine is extracting maximum (rated) • Rotor auxiliary systems
power. In lower winds, the pitch system operates to maximise aerodynamic
efficiency, which requires substantially less movement.
There is potential for larger offshore wind rotors, though for the same design,
mass increases faster than the additional energy generated. This is because
energy capture is proportional to the two-dimensional swept area (square of
blade length), but the blades increase in size and mass in three dimensions
(cube of blade length). Substantial improvements in blade technology have kept
the actual increase in mass nearer the square than the cube of blade length as
wind turbines have increased in size.
Capacity factors of over 50%, are expected for 15 MW offshore turbines on good
offshore sites. This compares with capacity factors of about 40% for good
onshore sites.
As turbine rotor diameter increases, with the same limit on tip speed, the
rotational speed decreases. Lower rotational speeds make it more difficult to
design a support structure that avoids resonant frequencies excited by loading
from waves and operation of the turbine itself.
Rotor speeds are 4 to 8 r/min, resulting in a maximum tip speed of over 100 m/s.
In the UK, rotor clearance must be at least 22 m above mean high water spring
(MHWS) tides.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 48

 What it costs
T.3 Tower
About £3 million for a 15 MW floating offshore wind turbine.
Function Who supplies this
The tower is typically a tubular steel structure that supports the nacelle. It also
CS Wind, Gestamp Renewable Industries, GSG Towers, Haizea Wind Group,
provides access to the nacelle, houses electrical and control equipment, and
Titan Wind Energy, Windar and Welcon.
provides shelter and storage for safety equipment.
Key facts
Fabricators manufacture towers to designs provided by wind turbine suppliers,
sometimes using free-issue materials (both steel and internal components).
Towers are normally made at coastal locations.
Once fabricated, the tower sections are shot-blasted, metal sprayed and painted
before fit-out with other internal components then prepared for transport and
storage.
The hub height is about 135 m above mean sea level minimum depending on the
rotor diameter, so each tower is about 120 m high and has a mass over 800 t.
Towers on early stage floating projects have had almost double the mass of the
towers of equivalent fixed offshore wind turbines. This is to cope with the
increased loads and different resonant frequencies experienced by the floating
structure (wind turbine and floating substructure) including excitation from wave
loading. Improved floating foundation designs and wind turbine control
algorithms could reduce this additional mass.
About 90% of the mass is steel plate with forged steel flanges making up most of
the rest.
Towers are generally tapered, with a top diameter of about 6 m and a base
Figure 14 Offshore wind turbine towers being stored at the quayside of a diameter of about 10 m for a 15 MW turbine.
port. Image courtesy of TMS. All rights reserved. Design is driven by fatigue and extreme loading, plus natural frequency
requirements and avoidance of bucking.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 49

The optimum tower height is normally as low as is needed to comply with
maritime safety regulations for blade clearance above the water. This is because T.4 Electrical system
the wind shear is low offshore (the wind speed does not increase significantly Function
with increasing the hub height), meaning there is not enough cost benefit to use
The electrical system receives electrical energy from the generator and adjusts
a taller tower. The tower height to achieve blade clearance does not need to take
voltage and frequency for onward transfer to the wind farm distribution system.
account of the tidal range for floating offshore wind turbines using semi-
submersible floating substructures because they rise and fall with the tides. What it costs
Permitting at some sites has required taller towers to reduce the risk of bird The electrical system cost is included in that of the nacelle.
strikes.
Who supplies this
Integrated design of substructures and towers is increasingly seen as desirable
Cables: Nexans, NKT and Prysmian.
with the transition from substructure to tower predicted to be less distinct. The
tower continues to be a discrete component supplied with the wind turbine. Electrical components: ABB, AVK SEG, Crompton Greaves, GE Power
Conversion, Ingeteam, S&C, Schneider Group, SGB, Siemens Power
Towers for floating substructures that yaw around a single mooring point, or have
Transmission and Distribution and The Switch.
more than one rotor, have the potential to be significantly different from the
established norm. Key facts
The tower internals provide means of access, lighting and safety for maintenance All wind turbines have a control panel at the tower base to facilitate on-site
and service personnel, plus means of transferring hand tools and components to control of the turbine by maintenance staff without climbing the turbine. For many
the nacelle. They provide support for control and electrical cables and housing of turbines, the space near the base of the tower is used to mount various elements
switchgear, transformers, and other elements of power take-off. of the power take-off including convertor and cooling systems.
Tower internals also provide storage for survival equipment. A tuned damper Most wind turbines have variable speed generators connected to the array
may be located at the top of the tower to aide damping of tower and structure cables via AC-DC-AC power converters. There is a range of different
resonances. generator/converter architectures used. With high power density, insulated-gate
What’s in it bipolar transistor (IGBT)-based power converters frequently are water-cooled.
Critical in the design of power converters are the requirements imposed by grid
• Corrosion protection
operators for wind turbines to support and stabilise the grid during grid faults and
• Tower internals
to provide or consume reactive power on demand (see B.4 and B.5 for further
• Tower structure information). Some convertors may be split between nacelle and lower tower
section to reduce tower head mass.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 50

Where the turbine voltage rating does not match that of the wind farm array, • Switchgear
transformers are often placed in the nacelle, or sometimes at the base of the
tower. Typically, they transform from low kV (0.69 kV to 3.3 kV) to 66 kV for
distribution around the wind farm array and must meet detailed corrosion,
environmental and combustion requirements.
Converters and transformers are expected to be located at the tower base when
the floating market is larger, as there is a higher premium on tower-head mass
than for fixed offshore wind turbines.
Switchgear is designed specifically for wind turbine applications, for example
gas-insulated for compactness and safety at up to wind farm distribution voltage.
Down-tower cabling is routed to enable the cables to twist, allowing the nacelle
two complete revolutions of movement by the yaw system before an untwisting
operation is required.
The only access to the inside of the tower base is via the access door, so if the
transformer is mounted in the tower base, it is essential to be able to replace it
via the door in case of failure.
If sensitive electrical systems are placed at the tower base, then these are
protected by a local air conditioning system.
Electrical components and cables are generally supplied by the turbine supplier
to the tower manufacturer for fit-out.
What’s in it
• Cables
• Communications system
• Control system
• Power converter
• Transformer

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 51

 What’s in it
B Balance of plant • B.1 Cables

Function • B.2 Floating substructure

• B.3 Mooring system
The balance of plant includes all the components of the floating offshore wind
farm except the wind turbines. It also includes the transmission assets built as a • B.4 Offshore substation
direct result of the wind farm. • B.5 Onshore substation
What it costs
About £760 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
See relevant sections below.
Key facts
Much of the benefit of larger wind turbines on a wind farm is realised by the
reduction in balance of plant costs per MWh, as larger wind turbines mean fewer
structures and less cable.
Balance of plant costs for floating offshore wind farms are higher than for fixed
offshore wind farms, mainly because of the increased substructure costs and
more costly dynamic cables.
Balance of plant costs for floating offshore wind farms are lowest in water depths
between approximately 100 and 150 m:
• Costs increase at greater water depths because of the increased mooring
and cabling requirements, but this increase is not as pronounced as for fixed
offshore wind farms.
• Costs also increase in water depths less than approximately 100 m, as
floating substructure and mooring costs increase due to the interaction of
waves with the sea bed at these depths.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 52

B.1 Cables • Semi-wet, with a polyethylene sheath over a non-fully impervious metallic
screen, and
Function • Wet design, without a sheath over a non-fully impervious metallic screen.

The cables deliver the power output from the wind turbines to the transmission Wet designs have the advantage of being lighter and more flexible. Currently,
network. cables with voltages above 66 kV are only available as dry designs.

What it costs The terms for voltage ratings are not formally defined by the industry. Low
voltage (LV) typically refers to cables rated up to 11 kV, medium voltage (MV)
About £140 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
typically refers to cables rated up to 66 kV, high voltage (HV) typically refers to
Who supplies this cables rated up to 220 kV and extra high voltage (EHV) typically refers to cables
Hellenic Cables, JDR Cable Systems, LS Cable & System, Nexans, NKT, rated higher than 220 kV.
Prysmian, Sumitomo Electric and TKF. HV and EHV cables are generally associated with transmission networks and
There are other cable manufacturers based in China and Japan, but they have export cables, whereas MV is associated with array cables. The wind turbines
yet to be used widely for UK projects. generate at LV with a transformer at the base of the tower stepping up exported
power to MV.
Key facts
Cables have a specified minimum bend radius. Failure to maintain this during
Offshore wind farms use array cables to deliver power from the wind turbines to
transportation, installation, and operation greatly increases the risk of damaging
the offshore substation, and export cables to deliver power from the offshore
the cable, potentially leading to cable faults.
substation to the onshore substation. Subsea cables are used for the array
Floating offshore wind farms make extensive use of dynamic cables. These are
cables and the offshore section of the export cable. Onshore cables are used for
designed to be exposed in the water column and to withstand the movement of
the export cable section between the shore and the onshore substation.
floating substructures, subjecting them to greater fatigue loading than static
A standard subsea cable used in offshore wind is made up of a stranded, profiled
cables. Compared to static cables, dynamic cables have:
conductor with a combination of sealing layers, insulation, fillers, and protective
• Sheathing over insulation using materials other than lead
armouring. Subsea AC cables have three cores (one for each phase). Onshore
AC cables have single cores and are laid in groups of three. DC cables (land and • An additional layer of armouring, and
subsea) have single cores (two, one positive and one negative, for each circuit). • Polyethylene outer sheath instead of polypropylene yarn.
There are three main insulated power core design types: Cable suppliers have invested significantly in dynamic designs to support the
• Dry, with an extruded lead sheath over the insulation development of the floating offshore wind sector.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 53

What’s in it B.1.1 Array cable
• B.1.1 Array cable
Function
• B.1.2 Export cable
The network of array cables transfers power from the wind turbines to the
• B.1.3 Cable accessories
offshore substation. It also provides auxiliary power to the turbines when they are
not generating and provides fibre communications.

Figure 15 Dynamic array cable. Image courtesy of JDR. All rights

reserved.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 54

What it costs 2. Dynamic lengths at each turbine connected to a static length in between
using either field joints or connectors, or
About £32 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
3. A single cable assembly using dynamic cable at each end with a length of
Who supplies this
static cable in between, assembled using factory joints (so manufactured
Hellenic Cables, JDR Cable Systems, LS Cable & System, Nexans, NKT, and installed as a single length of cable).
Prysmian, Sumitomo Electric and TKF.
The final choice depends on the trade-off between the relative costs of static and
There are other cable manufacturers based in China and Japan, but they have dynamic cables, the additional costs of using field joints or connectors, and the
yet to be used widely for UK projects. introduction of additional potential points of failure at field joints or connectors.
Key facts In deep water array cables could be suspended across their whole length. This
Array networks are most often designed as “strings” which connect several would put greater loading on the cable due to water current-induced movement
turbines to the substation. They can also be designed in loops to increase of the cable but would reduce the length of cable required. Floating projects to
redundancy. date have not used this approach so the water depth at which this becomes
attractive is not well understood, but it is likely to be in water depths of around
Each turbine is linked to the next with at least 1.5 km of array cable, assuming a
500 m.
15 MW turbine with 224 m rotor diameter and seven times diameter spacing
between turbines. Array cables are typically rated at 66 kV. In the next few years, array cable
voltages are expected to increase to 132 kV. This is to accommodate more
Array cables have a dynamic cable length between the sea bed and the floating
efficiently turbines rated at and above 16 MW and to reduce the number of array
substructures. The dynamic cable length typically follows a lazy wave
cable strings required.
configuration to accommodate dynamic movement of the floating substructure,
including lateral excursion (the horizontal movement of a floating offshore wind Array cables are typically supplied by the manufacturer with cable accessories,
turbine). It must also accommodate the loads resulting from the cable being although the production of accessories may be outsourced. Cable protection
exposed to the whole water column, as well as withstanding abrasion from the may be included in the array cable supplier’s scope, but it is more often part of
sea bed. At the sea bed, the cable is either buried or sits on the sea bed the installer’s scope.
anchored using rocks or protective matting (see I.2 for further information). Some larger cable manufacturers have cable installation equipment and vessels
The dynamic section of array cable for floating offshore wind farms is (see I.2 for further information), but EPCI array cable packages have typically
incorporated in one of three ways: been led by marine contractors.

1. A single length of dynamic cable between turbines What’s in it

• B.1.1.1 Array cable core

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 55

• B.1.1.2 Array cable outer

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 56

Figure 16 Floating offshore wind dynamic cable system. An actual system would not use all of these elements at the same time. The horizontal distance
between the floating substructure and the touchdown point is typically around 200 m. Image courtesy of BVG Associates. All rights reserved.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 57

 Lead has historically been used for sheathing static subsea cable, but it does not
B.1.1.1 Array cable core
have the fatigue resistance to cope with the additional mechanical stresses
Function placed on cables in a dynamic environment. Alternatives are being researched to
The cable core contains the conductor through which power is transferred. The develop HV dynamic cables. Environmental concerns around the use of lead are
rest of the core consists of screens, insulation, and sheathing to protect the also driving research into alternative sheathing materials. MV 66 kV cables can
conductor and prevent short circuits. be wet-designed and so do not require water-blocking barriers.

Who supplies this The cable should at least have a conductor cross-section adequate to meet the
system requirements for power transmission capacity. Energy losses can be
Cable cores are typically manufactured by the cable manufacturer. Usually,
reduced by using a larger conductor with a greater current carrying capacity but
complete cable cores are manufactured and assembled at the same site to
at a greater capital cost.
reduce transportation costs of the different components.
A 66 kV AC subsea cable conductor typically has a cross-sectional area of
Key facts between 150 mm2 and 800 mm2 with 13 mm of insulation.
The conductor may be stranded copper or aluminium. Both have low resistance, What’s in it
excellent conductivity, are ductile, and are relatively resistant to corrosion.
• Conductor
Copper has a higher conductivity, 60% greater than aluminium for the same
cross section, but is more expensive and the price is more volatile. Aluminium is • Conductor screen
lighter, and therefore easier to handle. • Insulation screen
Copper has better fatigue performance than aluminium, and small diameter • Sheath
strands have greater flexibility (hence resistance to fatigue) than larger strands. • XLPE insulation
These are important considerations for the dynamic array sections.
The conductor screen is a semiconducting tape that surrounds the conductor,
maintains a uniform electric field, and minimises electrostatic stresses on the
cables.
Most subsea cables used in offshore wind are insulated with cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE). This is due to its excellent strength and rigidity. Ethylene
propylene rubber (EPR) has also been used for array cable insulation. It is more
flexible than XLPE but has higher dielectric losses.
Surrounding the insulation is a further screen, similar to the conductor screen.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 58

 Dynamic cables use a polyethene sheath on the outer layer rather than
B.1.1.2 Array cable outer
polypropylene yarn. This is to provide additional fatigue resistance to the cable.
Function At least one fibre optic cable is integrated into the power cable for
The cable outer surrounds the core and contains materials to protect the cable communications. The cable is multimodal, meaning that it can carry a wide range
and house the fibre optic cable. of data at different frequencies, typically for voice, turbine, switchgear, condition
monitoring and security information. A fibre optic cable typically has 48 strands.
Who supplies this
Materials: Commodity suppliers. What’s in it
Fibre optic manufacturers: Hexatronic and Huber+Suhner. • Armouring wire

Fibre optic jointers and systems: Aceda and CCL UK. • Bitumen

Key facts • Fibreoptic cable

• Polypropylene yarn
For a three-core cable, the cores are surrounded by non-conductive filling and
packing material made from polypropylene. Its purpose is to maintain the cable’s
shape and structure. All are then bound together with tape into a single cable.
A layer of polypropylene string is applied over the assembly as bedding for the
armour wires.
The armouring is usually made up of helical metal wires surrounding the cable.
Armouring wires are usually made from either stainless steel or non-magnetic
galvanised steel. The choice of armouring is important as impacts the cable’s
protective, handling, and electrical properties.
Dynamic cables require two layers of armouring, compared to a single layer for
static cables. This is to provide the cable with additional fatigue resistance.
Bitumen may be applied over the armouring to protect against corrosion and to
provide additional adhesion.
Static cables use a layer of polypropylene yarn over the armour, to provide
resistance to abrasion and to reduce friction during laying. It is applied with a
black and yellow pattern to make the cable visible during laying.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 59

 What it costs
B.1.2 Export cable
About £88 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm with cable lengths
Function described in Table 1.
The export cable connects the offshore and onshore substations to transmit Who supplies this
power from the wind farm to shore. It also provides auxiliary power to the wind
Hellenic Cables, LS Cable & System, Nexans, NKT, Prysmian and Sumitomo
farm when it is not generating and provides fibre communications.
Electric.
There are other cable manufacturers based in China and Japan, but they have
yet to be used widely for UK projects.
Key facts
As dynamic export cables are not yet proven, fixed offshore substations with
static export cables are expected to be used for early floating projects, and this
is the scenario described in this report.
Floating offshore wind farms using floating offshore substations will require a
dynamic section of export cable. This is connected at the sea bed to a static
length of export cable, which will run the majority of the cable length to shore.
Soon after landfall, the subsea export cable is jointed to the onshore export
cables in a transition joint bay (see I.3 for further information). Onshore export
cables run from the transition joint bay to the onshore substation. Onshore
export cables are manufactured and laid as single-core cables, meaning that
three individual onshore cables are jointed to a subsea three-core cable.
High voltage alternating current (HVAC) export cables are now typically rated at
220 kV, allowing the export of approximately 300 MW per three-core subsea
cable. Future wind farms may use higher voltages of up to 275 kV. The voltage
chosen balances the cost of the cable, the number of circuits required, and the
number of offshore substations required. Wind farms tend to have more than one
Figure 17 Static export cable. Image courtesy of JDR. All rights reserved. export cable circuit for redundancy.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 60

Medium voltage alternating current (MVAC) cables may be used for export for The first commercial scale HVDC projects in UK, for example the fixed Dogger
small wind farms close to shore. Their use for commercial-scale projects in the Bank projects, are using 320 kV export cables. A pair of single-core 320 kV
future is therefore unlikely, but MV export is attractive for demonstration projects. cables can export up to 1,200 MW per pair. In time, the voltage may increase to
High voltage direct current (HVDC) connections are used to connect larger 525 kV for even larger projects.
projects, typically those of more than 1 GW installed capacity, and those located A static 220 kV three-core copper AC export cable has a mass of approximately
further from shore, typically further than 80 to 100 km. For example, there are 110 kg/m.
already 10 HVDC substations operating in German waters. Floating projects that Two static 320 kV single-core copper DC export cables have a mass of
are large and/or located far from shore are also expected to use HVDC approximately 80 kg/m.
connections.
HV dynamic export cables are not yet available but are the subject of industry
HVDC significantly reduces losses caused by high levels of reactive power that is research.
seen in long distance HVAC cables, which increases the net annual energy
Several cable manufacturers have cable installation equipment and vessels (see
production. The full capacity of the cable system can be used for transferring
I.2 for further information) and typically lead export cable EPCI packages.
active power because there is no reactive power flow in DC systems and the
current flows at a constant level rather than fluctuating as a sine wave. What’s in it
HVDC converter stations are expensive, and the savings from the use of HVDC • B.1.2.1 Export cable core
cable are not realised until the cable route between the substations is 80 to • B.1.2.2 Export cable outer
100 km. Even beyond 100 km, project-specific considerations can make the final
choice complex in deciding between HVAC and HVDC. New technology is
steadily reducing the cost of HVDC.
A subsea HVAC export cable is a three-core design, whereas a typical subsea
HVDC system has a bipolar design with two single-core cables, a positive and a
negative. For a given capacity, HVDC cables are lighter with positive implications
for the ease and cost of installation. This is because the voltage is at a steady
maximum - it is not at a lower average value because it is alternating - and none
of the cable’s capacity is taken up by carrying reactive power. Overall export
cable costs, therefore, for an HVDC offshore wind farm are usually lower than for
an HVAC wind farm.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 61

 •
B.1.2.1 Export cable core Insulation screen
• Sheath
Function
• XLPE insulation
The cable core contains the conductor through which power is transferred. The
rest of the core consists of screens, insulation, and sheathing to protect the
conductor and prevent short circuits.
Who supplies this
Cable cores are typically manufactured by the cable manufacturer. Usually,
complete cable cores are manufactured and assembled at the same site to
reduce the transportation costs of the different components.
Key facts
An export cable core has the same components as an array cable core and uses
mostly the same materials.
HVAC and HVDC export cables are also typically insulated with XLPE. HVDC
systems have traditionally used mass impregnated cables with paper-based
insulation as they can be manufactured and installed in long lengths and are
available at higher voltages. Modern HVDC cables mostly now use XLPE
insulation as XLPE can operate at a higher temperature and are lighter so easier
to handle during installation.
A 220 kV AC subsea cable conductor typically has a cross-sectional area of
between 800 mm2 and 1,600 mm2 with 23 mm of insulation.
A 320 kV DC cable conductor typically has a cross-sectional area of between
1,000 mm2 and 2,500 mm2 with 25 mm of insulation.
What’s in it
• Conductor
• Conductor screen

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 62

B.1.2.2 Export cable outer B.1.3 Cable accessories
Function Function
The cable outer surrounds the core and contains materials to protect the cable Cable accessories provide electrical termination and mechanical support for
and house the fibre optic cable. cables both during and after installation.
Who supplies this What it costs
Materials: Commodity suppliers. About £20 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Fibre optic manufacturers: Hexatronic and Huber+Suhner. Who supplies this
Fibre optic jointers and systems: Aceda and CCL UK.
See details of individual components below.
Key facts Key facts
An export cable outer has the same components as an array cable core and
Array and export cable systems require a range of different accessories to
uses the same materials.
connect cables to structures, protect cables at vulnerable locations, maintain
What’s in it dynamic cable configurations, and connect lengths of cable together.
• Armouring wire Cable accessories are usually included in either the cable supply or cable
• Bitumen installation scope.

• Fibre optic cable What’s in it

• Polypropylene yarn • B.1.3.1 Interface
• B.1.3.2 Cable protection
• B.1.3.3 Buoyancy
• B.1.3.4 Connectors and joints

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 63

B.1.3.1 Interface Who supplies this
Balmoral, MacArtney, Oceaneering, Subsea Energy Solutions, Tekmar and WT
Function
Henley.
Cables require several different products at the floating substructure and
Key facts
offshore substation interfaces.
Hang-off clamps are installed where the cable connects to the floating
substructure (dynamic hang-offs) and the offshore substation (static hang-offs).
Hang-off clamps ensure the cable is mechanically secured after installation, to
make certain that the mechanical stresses are safely borne by the cable
armouring and not by the core.
Pull-in heads enable the safe installation of the cable to a floating or fixed
foundation (see I.2.5 for further information). They typically connect directly to
the cable armouring to ensure that all mechanical forces associated with pulling
the cable are borne by the armour rather than the core. They are usually made
from machined steel and are hot dipped galvanised and zinc plated.
Terminations connect the cable conductors to the electrical switchgear above
the hang-off assemblies. Terminations connect to inline or T-connectors at the
switchgear.
Cable tubes (J-tubes or I-tubes) route the cables from the outside to the inside of
floating substructures and substation foundations and protect the cables from
wave action.
What’s in it
• Cable connectors, T-connectors
Figure 18 Cable hang-off clamp and cable pull-in head. Images courtesy
• Cable cleats
of Tekmar and Oceaneering. All rights reserved.
• Cable trays
What it costs
• Hang-off clamps
About £4 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
• Interface plugs

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 64

B.1.3.2 Cable protection Key facts
Cable protection systems ensure the cable is not subjected to excessive loading
Function
along the cable route.
Cable protection helps to preserve the cables at vulnerable locations from wave
Bend stiffeners and bend restrictors reduce the bending moments applied to
and tidal action. For dynamic cables, this is typically where the cable enters and
cables. Connection points between cables and floating substructures use
exits floating substructures and offshore substations, the touch down point, and
dynamic bend stiffeners. These are conical devices that limit the movement of
where the cable lies exposed on the sea bed.
the cable to a permitted range (dependent on the cable’s minimum bend radius).
Connections between cables and fixed structures (including fixed offshore
substations or the sea bed) use static bend restrictors. These are rigid devices
that force the cable to follow a constant bend radius to prevent overbending.
Dynamic cables can also require tether and anchor systems to reduce the
movement of the current loading on the dynamic cables at the touch down point.
Abrasion protection and touch down protection are provided by protection
matting and protection sleeves. These protect the cable where it lies exposed on
the sea bed, where it enters or exits the sea bed, or where it crosses other cable
routes.
What’s in it
• Abrasion protection
Figure 19 Cable bend stiffener. Image courtesy of Kaylan Offshore. All • Bend restrictors
rights reserved. • Bend stiffeners
What it costs • Tether and anchor systems
About £7.7 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. • Touch down protection
Who supplies this
Balmoral, CRP Subsea, First Subsea, MacArtney, Subsea Energy Solutions,
Tekmar and WT Henley.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 65

B.1.3.3 Buoyancy What it costs
About £2.5 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Function
Who supplies this
Buoyancy and ballast modules are required to maintain certain cable shapes in
the water column to reduce cable fatigue from the movement of the Balmoral, CRP Subsea, DeepWater Buoyancy, SBT Energy and Tekmar.
substructure. An example is the “lazy wave”. Key facts
Buoyancy and ballast modules hold the dynamic cable in its designed shape, to
reduce cable fatigue. Buoyancy modules are attached to points of the subsea
cable to provide uplift, which reduces tension in the cables and maintains wave
configurations. Ballast modules provide weight to points of the subsea cable for
damping stability.
Buoyancy and ballast modules are both typically clamped to the outside of the
cable during installation (see I.2 for further information).
What’s in it
• Ballast modules
• Buoyancy modules

Figure 20 Buoyancy modules stored on a vessel prior to installation.

Image courtesy of Balmoral. All rights reserved.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 66

 They can be either dry mate or wet mate. Dry mate connectors are a mature and
B.1.3.4 Connectors and joints
proven technology, but the connection must take place out of the water, usually
Function on board a vessel or the floating substructure. Wet mate connectors can be
Connectors are pluggable connections between two segments of cable or disconnected and reconnected underwater but are not currently available at 66
between the cable and a floating substructure. kV and are a current area of research.

Joints are fixed connections between two segments of cable. Not all floating offshore wind farms require connectors, and this is largely depend
on the maintenance strategy of the developer. Disconnection of the floating
substructure and the dynamic cabling system is required for a tow-to-port
maintenance strategy meaning that connectors could be beneficial. Once 66 kV
wet mate connectors have been developed and proven for array cables, they are
likely to be used at each turbine for projects using a tow-to-port maintenance
strategy. An in-situ maintenance strategy allows the turbine-floating substructure
assembly to remain in place and so connectors may not be required.
Floating substructure designs that pivot downwind of a turret require a rotating
connector.
Figure 21 Dry mate connector and wet mate connector. Images courtesy Cable joints typically sit on the sea bed. There are two types:
of MacArtney. All rights reserved. • A factory flexible joint connects individual segments of cable core into one
What it costs continuous length during the lay-up process. Crucially, the joint must have
the same electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties as the rest of the
About £5.8 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
cable and result in a joint that does not hamper installation or increase the
Who supplies this risk of cable failure.
First Subsea, MacArtney, Pfisterer, Power CSL, SBT Energy and Subsea Energy • A field rigid joint is a manufactured product. It may be supplied to the wind
Solutions. Factory joints are installed in-house by cable manufacturers during the farm owner or the offshore transmission owner (OFTO) with the cable in
manufacturing process. case of failure during operation or supplied as a planned joint to link sections
Key facts of cable. In floating offshore wind farms field rigid joints could be used to
connect dynamic and static array cable sections, or to connect dynamic and
Connectors allow cables to be disconnected and reconnected and can either sit
static export cable sections if a floating offshore substation is used.
on the sea bed or on the floating substructure.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 67

Field rigid joints have generally been bespoke products because of the
substantial variations in cable design between wind farms. There is growing B.2 Floating substructure
interest, particularly by OFTOs, in developing joints that are suitable for a range Function
of cable designs.
The floating substructure provides buoyancy to the turbine and, in conjunction
What’s in it with the mooring system, maintains the turbine’s verticality and movements
• Dry mate connectors within acceptable limits. It also provides secondary functions of allowing access
• Factory joints from vessels and accommodating ancillary equipment.

• Field rigid joints

• Wet mate connectors

Figure 22 Semi-submersible floating substructures used at the WindFloat

Atlantic project. Photo of the WindFloat Atlantic project courtesy of
Principle Power/Ocean Winds.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 68

What it costs The substructure can move along three axes (heave: up/down, sway: right/left,
and surge: forwards/backwards) or rotate about three axes (pitch: tilt from front
About £430 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
to back, roll: tilt from side to side, and yaw: rotate when seen from above).
Who supplies this Accelerations from all six degrees of freedom contribute to the loads on the wind
Floating innovators: BW Ideol, Principle Power, Saitec, SBM Offshore and turbine, so it is vital that the substructure (in combination with the mooring
Stiesdal. system) controls these to within acceptable limits for a range of metocean and
Engineering consultants: Kent and Ramboll. wind turbine load cases.

Project developers: Equinor. Once the wind turbine and the substructure type have been selected, a process
of jointly optimising the substructure, mooring system, wind turbine and its
Steel fabricators: Bladt, EEW, Eiffage, Harland & Wolff, Lamprell, Navantia, Sif,
control algorithms is carried out. Joint optimisation is a complex process and
Smulders and Welcon.
takes many months, but it is expected to shorten with experience.
The contract for supply may be directly with the steel fabricator, or it can be
Designs are based on those used successfully in the oil and gas market, but
through an EPCI contractor such as Aker Solutions, DEME, or Jan de Nul.
significant developments have been necessary to address the different loads and
Key facts requirements of floating offshore wind turbines, and to optimise for serial
There are four main types of floating substructures: manufacturing, installation, and support operations.
• Semi-submersible The diverse fabrication requirements and the logistical challenges of producing
• Barge such large structures in volume may result in supply from several different
locations or suppliers, with the final floating substructure assembly at the wind
• Spar buoy, and
farm construction port.
• Tension leg platform (TLP).
The high labour requirements of floating substructures, particularly concrete
Semi-spar is the term sometimes used to describe a semi-submersible with a designs, may make them an attractive opportunity for providing local content.
suspended mass to provide additional stability. In this Guide, it is considered to
be a subset of semi-submersibles.
What’s in it
This section of the Guide describes a steel semi-submersible with three columns • B.2.1 Primary structure
because this type is the most developed type to date. • B.2.2 Secondary steel
A typical steel semi-submersible for a 15 MW turbine has an unballasted mass of • B.2.3 Substructure auxiliary systems
about 3,500 t and dimensions of about 80 × 90 × 35 m. • B.2.4 Corrosion protection

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 69

 Who supplies this
B.2.1 Primary structure
Large steel or concrete floating substructures and their major components must
Function be produced by specialists capable of fabricating large and heavy items, which
The primary structure consists of the large structural elements which provide requires the manufacturing facility to be located port-side. If the final assembly of
buoyancy and resist the loads from the mooring system and the base of the wind the floating substructures is in a different location this must also be located port-
turbine tower. side to move complete substructures into the water. Experience in batch volume
production is highly desirable for orders of many units, which limits the choice of
supplier options.
Fabricators: Aker Solutions, Bladt, EEW, Harland & Wolff, Lamprell, Navantia, Sif,
Smulders and Welcon.
Key facts
The primary structure is made of the following main components:
• Columns
• Pontoons
• Trusses, and
• Transition piece.
Semi-submersibles typically have a triangular arrangement, with three columns
connected by horizontal pontoons at the base, with further trusses (also known
Figure 23 The final assembly of the primary structure of a steel semi- as braces) between them. The major structural elements are:
submersible floating substructure. Photo of the WindFloat Atlantic • Columns and pontoons: provide most of the buoyancy, and because they
project courtesy of Principle Power/Ocean Winds. are located away from the centre of the substructure, they provide stability.
The pontoons may have square edges and heave plates to reduce heave
What it costs
motion (up and down) in the water by creating drag.
About £360 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
• Trusses: the triangular shapes made by trusses, in conjunction with the
columns and pontoons, provide rigidity.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 70

• Transition piece: some designs include a transition piece to distribute the What’s in it
concentrated loads from the base of the tower into the floating substructure.
• Castings, for complex structural joints
On a semi-submersible substructure the turbine may be positioned on one
• Forged rings, for the flange to the base of the turbine
corner, in the centre, or halfway along one of the sides. A centrally-mounted
• Prefabricated box sections
turbine results in the most symmetrical loading and reduces the need for active
ballasting to maintain verticality. A disadvantage is the longer crane reach • Prefabricated steel tubes
needed to assemble the turbine onto the substructure. • Steel plate - sometimes purchased cut to shape with its edges profiled to
Important considerations for efficient manufacturing include the space required, make fabrication easier; larger plate sizes reduce the total amount of welding
the cycle time (a shorter cycle time allows a higher delivery rate), and the total needed
manufactured cost.
Some designs seek to use manufacturing processes and facilities developed for
other purposes to reduce manufacturing costs, like tubular fabrication used for
turbine towers (for example Stiesdal Offshore’s TetraSpar) or panel production
lines used for shipbuilding (for example Gusto MSC’s Tri-Floater). The latter may
result in columns with square or hexagonal cross-sections.
Some designs are fully welded whereas others use joints for the final assembly of
the major items of the floating substructure. A design suited to final assembly
allows manufacturing firms to focus on major component manufacture and
suitably located ports to focus on the final assembly of the floating substructure.
The mass of a typical primary structure, at 3,500 t, is greater than the maximum
lift capacity of the largest mobile cranes. Rail systems or self-propelled modular
transporters are options for moving them on land. Ring cranes, vessel-mounted
cranes, or semi-submersible barges can be used to move a primary structure
from land into the water. A dry dock addresses both issues at the same time, but
large dry docks are scarce (see I.5 for further information).
Some fabricators are exploring the use of electron beam welding to reduce the
time, cost, and energy consumption associated with the more commonly used
submerged arc welding.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 71

 Key facts
B.2.2 Secondary steel
The mass of secondary steel in a 15 MW steel semi-submersible is approximately
Function 100 t.
Provides access to, from, and within the substructure for personnel and Examples of secondary steel components include:
equipment. Accommodates ancillary equipment.
• Boat landings
• Personnel access ladders
• Work platform
• Internal platforms and walkways
• External walkways
• Baffles to control the movement of water (ballast) and noxious gases (due to
internal component corrosion), and
• Support structures for sacrificial anodes.
Secondary steel is normally subcontracted to a fabricator which does not have
the high overhead costs of the fabricator of the primary structure.
Advances in personnel access systems, such as walk-to-work gangways or
systems which lift personnel from a vessel, may avoid the need for boat landings.
Aluminium, fibre glass, or concrete may be used instead of steel for some
Figure 24 Secondary steel elements on the floating substructures used at components. For example, pre-cast concrete work platforms are used for some
the Kincardine project. Photo of the Kincardine Offshore Wind Farm fixed offshore wind projects.
project courtesy of Principle Power.
What’s in it
What it costs
• Floorplates
About £30 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
• Railings
Who supplies this • Welded steel structures fabricated from smaller steel sections and plates
Hutchinson Engineering, Kersten, Smulders, Vallourec and Wilton Engineering. (these are frequently galvanised and painted)

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 72

 achieve sufficient stability for the final assembly of the wind turbine, then for
B.2.3 Substructure auxiliary systems towing to the site, and finally for wind turbine operation. Some designs of semi-
Function submersible use a large mass suspended by chains, rather than water.

The substructure auxiliary systems support the substructure to provide its An active ballast system maintains the verticality of the tower, taking account of
primary function and ensure compliance with regulatory requirements. the eccentric positioning of the turbine on the substructure and the overturning
moments caused by the interaction of the wind with the wind turbine, which vary
What it costs
with wind speed and direction. As the active ballast system may fail, the
About £26 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. substructure and mooring system need to be designed to cope for failure load
Who supplies this cases. Not all floating substructure designs require active ballast systems.

Ballast systems: Seaplace. While it is convenient to have equipment in place offshore for when it is needed,
some types of equipment need to be periodically inspected, otherwise, they
Condition monitoring sensors: HBM and Strainstall.
cannot be used (see O.2.3 for further information). There is a trade-off,
Davit cranes: Granada, Palfinger Marine and Protea Group.
therefore, to determine what is worth installing offshore, for example lifting
Navigation lights and markers: Oxley and Sabik Offshore. equipment.
Personnel winching systems: Limpet Technology and Pict Offshore. Information from condition monitoring sensors is used in the short term to
Key facts validate design models and predict lifetimes. In the future, this information has
the possibility of being used within control systems to actively manage loads.
Auxiliary systems include:
• Ballast system, to pump sea water into or out of the floating substructure.
What’s in it
• Davit crane, for lifting modest loads on and off vessels. • Various marine “catalogue items” configured into systems. Some, such as
davit cranes, are similar to those used for fixed offshore wind
• Personnel winching systems.
• Navigation lights and markers.
• Condition monitoring sensors, such as strain gauges, accelerometers, tilt
and water level sensors.
• Small light and power for the above-mentioned systems.
Ballast makes a semi-submersible floating substructure sit lower in the water
which increases its stability. Ballast may be added in steps, for example, first to

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 73

 Parts of the substructure in the submerged zone use cathodic protection
B.2.4 Corrosion protection systems to provide corrosion protection. The application of a negative current to
Function the steel structure reduces the voltage on the structure to a level at which
oxidation, and hence corrosion, is suppressed. There are two types of cathodic
One or more forms of corrosion protection can be used to protect the
protection systems:
substructure from corrosion to the extent that is required, such as a paint barrier
with cathodic protection. • Galvanic anode cathodic protection systems (GACP) comprise several
sacrificial anodes made of aluminium or zinc-based alloys that are fixed to
What it costs
the steel structure below the waterline. These can be designed to be
About £22 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. replaced periodically to extend the lifetime of the corrosion protection.
Who supplies this • Impressed current cathodic protection systems (ICCP) use an external
Cathodic protection systems: Corrosion, Imenco, Impalloy and Metec Cathodic power source and rectifier to supply a negative current to the steel structure
Protection. and a corresponding positive current to non-consumed anodes mounted
adjacent to the structure. An ICCP is substantially lighter and causes less
Corrosion protection coatings: Hempel, Hutchinson Engineering, International
drag in the water than GACP but requires a reliable power supply and
Paint and Jotun.
additional instrumentation.
Key facts
The chemical reactions that cause corrosion can generate noxious gases which
In offshore wind, corrosion predominantly occurs when sea water interacts with accumulate inside a floating substructure. The lower deck of the substructure is
metallic surfaces. This can lead to oxidation (or rusting) of metallic surfaces, sealed for the safety of maintenance technicians working above, whilst gas
which can compromise the strength and performance of metal structures such detection and ventilation systems may be used to monitor and safely vent the
as substructures. Corrosion protection mitigates general and localised wall loss concentrations of the gases.
in steel substructures and is a prerequisite for attaining the fatigue of the
In closed internal structural compartments of the floating substructure which are
structure. Corrosion can also occur from microbiological activity.
welded shut, corrosion may be mitigated by humidity control or oxygen
Methods for corrosion protection include corrosion protective coatings and depletion.
cathodic protection. The in-built corrosion resistance of the material and allowing
What’s in it
an additional material thickness for corrosion are also considered.
• Impressed current cathodic protection systems
The external surfaces of the atmospheric and splash zones are normally coated
with high performance marine coatings that reduce corrosion. • Paints and thermal metal spray coatings
• Zinc or aluminium based sacrificial anodes

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 74

B.3 Mooring system
Function
The mooring system provides the station keeping capability for the floating
offshore wind turbine and contributes to the stability of the substructure and
turbine.
What it costs
About £80 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Bridon-Bekaert, Bruce Anchor, Delmar Vryhof, InterMoor, MacGregor, NOV and
Vicinay.
Key facts
Figure 25 High-level mooring system options: plain catenary, multi-
There are four major mooring system options for a semi-submersible structure,
catenary, buoyant semi-taut and taut, clockwise from top left. Image
shown in Figure 25 which provide compliance in different ways. The optimum
courtesy of BVG Associates. All rights reserved.
design for each site is a technical and economic trade-off.
• Plain catenary: A system that uses free hanging chain mooring lines, whose
self-weight leads to the catenary shape. These connect the substructure to
the anchors. A length of ground chain means that the anchors are loaded
almost horizontally and, where ground conditions allow, use drag
embedment anchors. It is the simplest mooring system design, with the least
expensive anchor type, and is used at shallower sites. The radius from
turbine to anchor is approximately six to eight times the water depth.
• Multi-catenary: A system that uses chain mooring lines and may include rope
sections. Compliance is provided first by the catenary chain sections and by
the elasticity of the rope section, where used. The compliance properties can
be tuned by the addition of clump weights and floats. Where ground
conditions allow, it is expected to be used with drag embedment anchors.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 75

• Buoyant semi-taut: A system that uses a combination of chain at the top and • A taut or semi-taut mooring line provides some compliance, depending on its
bottom with a rope mid-section on each line. The ground chain ensures that length and material properties.
the loads seen by the anchors are predominantly horizontal and buoyancy • In-line dampers and other load reducing devices are being developed for use
modules lift the rope sectors above the sea bed to prevent damage. with taut and semi-taut moorings, which are typically located in the upper
Compliance is provided predominantly by the elasticity of the rope section. section of the line.
• Taut: A system that uses rope lines connected under tension between Mooring system designs can also be “restrained”, which means that they
substructure and anchors. Short sections of chain may be used at the top minimise motions.
and bottom to make connections and adjust tension. Compliance is achieved
A typical design value for excursion is 30 to 35% of the water depth. This means
through the properties of the rope section and from a load reduction device,
that the substructure could move up to 30 to 35 m away from its station, for a
if used. This option sees higher loads including high vertical loads on the
water depth of 100 m, and systems such as the dynamic array cables have to
anchors and so piled or suction anchors of greater capacity are needed. It
cope with this movement.
has a smaller footprint than other mooring systems with a radius from turbine
A three-line mooring system has been the preferred design on early
to anchor of approximately two times the water depth.
demonstration projects.
Mooring solutions for floating offshore wind turbines have been developed from
Redundancy is a commonly used term, but one which can be misunderstood in
technology proven for floating oil and gas platforms. They differ as, generally,
the context of mooring system design – it does not mean that no failures will
floating offshore wind turbines are located in shallower water, have a different set
occur. The relevant standards for floating offshore wind turbine moorings provide
of loads, and have lower consequences of failure as there is no oil spillage risk.
guidance. It is up to engineers to either design by following the guidance or to
Mooring lines connect to a substructure at an angle to the vertical. The
persuade insurers that their novel mooring system designs are fit for purpose,
horizontal component of tension keeps the substructure on station and the
which in turn will give confidence to investors and lenders.
vertical component of tension provides a restoring force that contributes to the
The minimum cost of a mooring system is seen at depths of about 100 to 150 m.
stability of the substructure and turbine.
At shallower depths, the cost increases as complexities to do with relative wave
Most early mooring systems have been designed to be compliant and so reduce
height to water depth increase and substructure compliance is harder to
the extreme loads. Compliance can be achieved in several different ways:
manage. At greater depths, the cost increases because the lengths of mooring
• A catenary shape straightens out and lengthens under increasing load, line are greater.
according to its mass.
The mooring system restricts certain types of activity within the wind farm, such
• The length of ground chain progressively lifts with increasing load, according as fishing, depending on its detailed design.
to its mass.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 76

The mooring system design must allow for ease of installation and hook-up, and
ease of disconnection to allow for any major repair events.
What’s in it
• B.3.1 Anchors
• B.3.2 Mooring lines
• B.3.3 Jewellery
• B.3.4 Topside connections

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 77

Figure 26 Typical mooring system components for floating offshore wind turbines. An actual system would not use all of these at the same time. Image
courtesy of BVG Associates. All rights reserved.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 78

 Who supplies this
B.3.1 Anchors
Bruce Anchor, Delmar Vryhof, Global Energy Group, RCAM Technologies,
Function Subsea Micropiles and Swift Anchors.
The anchors of a mooring system provide fixed points in the sea bed which can Key facts
resist the loads from the mooring lines for the lifetime of the project. The
Anchors are used across many different industries and so the existing design
reference configuration includes three anchors, one for each mooring line.
types are well established, although new devices are coming on to the market at
low technology readiness levels, providing the opportunity to anchor in a wide
range of ground conditions. The anchor types expected to be used most for
floating offshore wind turbines are:
• Drag embedment
• Driven pile, and
• Suction pile.

Figure 27 Suction pile anchor, drag embedment anchor and driven pile
anchor. Images courtesy of Acteon, Principle Power and Acteon. All
rights reserved.
What it costs
About £17 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm using drag
embedment anchors.
Difficult ground conditions require the use of piled or suction anchors which
could result in anchor costs that are several times higher.
Vertical and multi-directional loading from other foundation types, or shared
anchors also increase anchor costs.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 79

Table 2 Description of major types of anchors expected to be used by Floating offshore wind introduces larger numbers of anchors per site than are
floating offshore wind turbines. used by other markets and so the total installed cost is a major consideration.

Drag embedment Driven pile Suction pile An array of floating turbines has the potential to share some anchors, which
would reduce the overall cost, as has been demonstrated at Hywind Tampen
Where used Best suited to Can be used in a Requires sea bed
where 11 turbines share 19 anchors. Shared anchors must be designed to resist
cohesive wide range of conditions that
loading from multiple directions, and the consequence of cascade effects
sediments that conditions, are firm enough
resulting from single/multiple line failures needs to be addressed.
are not too stiff to including where to hold suction
impede there are but not so hard A drag embedment anchor for a 15 MW turbine has a typical mass of 35 to 50 t.
embedment. boulders or hard that penetration What’s in it
Used where ground. is impeded
• Fabricated steel plate
possible as
• Pipes and valves (for suction anchors)
lowest cost.
Loading Uni-directional, Multi-directional, Multi-directional,
horizontal only horizontal, and horizontal, and
vertical vertical
Installation Simple, requires Driving by vibro- Relatively simple
pre-tensioning or impact- process: self-
hammer causes weight starts
noise embedment,
followed by
suction
Removal Are designed to Difficult to Removal is the
be recoverable remove reverse of
installation
The choice of which type of anchor to use is driven primarily by the set of loads it
will encounter and ground conditions.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 80

 What it costs
B.3.2 Mooring lines
About £50 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Function
Who supplies this
The mooring lines connect and transfer loads from the substructure to the
Bexco, Bridon-Bekaert, Dynamica Ropes, Lankhorst and Vicinay.
anchor system for station-keeping and stability. The reference configuration uses
three mooring lines. Key facts
A mooring line is unlikely to be made of the same material and specification
along its full length. It can be thought of as having three sections:
• The upper section, which attaches to the substructure, is subject to the
splash zone and sees the greatest loads.
• The middle section, in the free hanging section, is not subject to the splash
zone or thrash zone.
• The ground line, which normally rests on the sea bed and attaches to the
anchor. It needs to be heavy and stand up to the abrasion from movement
across the sea bed under heavy loads, known as the thrash zone.
Typical pre-tension loads in a catenary system are 200 to 300 t.
Steel chain considerations:
• Stud-link chain is stronger and heavier than stud-less chain and better at
preventing knot formation. Stud-less chain is cheaper for a given load and is
less sensitive to fatigue loading.
• Steel chain specifications, for example, R2, R3, R4 and R5, determine the
strength and material properties, although higher ultimate strength material
will not necessarily have higher fatigue strength.
Figure 28 Mooring chains stored on the quayside of a port. Image • Chain needs to be larger in the upper section, which sees the greatest loads.
courtesy of Acteon. All rights reserved. In addition, the link in a chain stopper receives higher loads than the rest of
the chain.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 81

• Steel chain is manufactured to several standard sizes, defined by the • A typical synthetic rope mooring line made from nylon, polyester or HMPE is
diameter of the steel rod it is made from, according to its loading and to significantly lighter, per metre, than a steel chain line for the same load.
enable compatibility with other mooring system components. Wire rope considerations:
• Steel chain has considerable size and mass for the 185 to 220 mm diameter • Wire ropes are lighter than chains with the same breaking load, have higher
chains expected to be used for floating offshore wind turbines. For example, elasticity than chain and are easier to handle. The higher strength to weight
a single link of a 220 mm diameter chain has a mass of 700 kg and is over a ratio makes wire rope a potential alternative for deep water mooring
metre long. systems. However, the drawbacks are its lower stiffness in the water column
• Steel chain’s high mass limits its use to shallower sites, generally less than caused by its low weight and structural degradation when laid onto the sea
200 m deep. bed without additional protection.
Synthetic fibre rope considerations: • A high-density polyethylene or polyurethane jacket is normally used to
• Nylon has a long history of use in mooring systems. It is the most compliant provide corrosion protection and some resistance from damage.
synthetic mooring material, which could help to limit loads at shallow sites What’s in it
but would lead to larger excursions. There are concerns about its ability to
• Drums, on which mooring lines are supplied
accommodate fatigue loads and recent advances are focused on extending
• Steel chain, either studded or stud-less
its lifetime.
• Steel rope, spiral wound
• Polyester is expected to be used most often in the near term as it is more
proven for permanent moorings than high modulus polyethylene (HMPE) and • Synthetic fibre, including polyester, nylon and HMPE
nylon. Polyester has a moderate level of compliance.
• HMPE is stiffer than polyester and offers high load capacity. It is ideally suited
to taut mooring designs.
• Spliced eyelets are made at the end of each section of synthetic fibre rope,
and steel eyelets are introduced. This is a high-skill process which allows
connection using shackles or H-links to adjacent mooring components.
• A high-density polyethylene or polyurethane jacket is used to provide
resistance from abrasion, in conjunction with a sand barrier to prevent
abrasive sand particles from entering the body of the rope.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 82

 Who supplies this
B.3.3 Jewellery
• Connectors: Hydrosphere, InterMoor, and The Crosby Group.
Function
• Clump weights: FMGC, Hydrosphere and InterMoor.
Jewellery is the term used to describe a range of items that are attached to
• In-line tensioners: Delmar Vryhof, Macgregor, and Flintstone Technology.
mooring lines either to connect sections of a line or items that may be connected
along the length of the line. • Load reduction devices: Dublin Offshore, Intelligent Mooring, TfI Marine.
• Mid-line buoyancy elements: Balmoral, DeepWater Buoyancy, InterMoor and
SBT Energy.
Key facts
The major items include:
• Clump weights: these are masses, which can be several tonnes each, and
are attached to mooring lines to tune the compliant response. They could be
fitted to the mid or upper-section to resist substructure uplift, to the mid-
section to form a multi-catenary shape or be added to the ground-section to
convert vertical forces into horizontal forces at the anchor.
• H-links: used to join two sections of the mooring line together. This could be
between dissimilar materials or the same material of a different size.
• In-line tensioners: this is a simpler alternative to a powered winch to adjust
the tension in a mooring system which would sit on the sea bed for the life of
Figure 29 Clump weights, buoyancy elements, load reduction device, and the project. For example, Delmar Vryhof’s Stevadjuster is positioned in the
floating substructure and mooring line connector (clockwise from top mooring line close to one of the anchors and is adjusted using a vertical pull
left). Images courtesy of Hi-Sea Marine, Balmoral, Dublin Offshore and from a bollard. A complete three-line mooring system can be tensioned using
First Marine Solutions. All rights reserved. a single tensioner on one leg.

What it costs • Load reduction devices (LRDs): components within the load path that modify
the mooring stiffness response to reduce mooring dynamic loads. By
About £8.6 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
delivering engineered compliance, LRDs allow the mooring to be optimised
for both cost and risk. LRDs come in a variety of forms including:

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 83

 o Gravitational devices using weight and buoyancy (such as the Dublin • Shackles, H-links, and swivels (made from forged steel)
Offshore LRD)
o Elastomeric devices using high-strain tensile materials (such as TFI
Marine’s SeaSpring)
o Compressive devices using high-strain materials
o Compressive devices using hydraulic systems.
• Mid-line buoyancy elements: these are flotation devices, which can provide
several tonnes of uplift each, and are attached to mooring lines. Their
function is either to lift the lower section of the mooring line above the sea
bed to prevent damage or to fine tune the compliant response by forming a
multi-catenary shape.
• Shackles: used to attach each end of the mooring line to the anchor and
substructure, respectively.
• Swivels: used to stop twist in the mooring line.
• Tri-plates: flat plates with three holes, used to allow connection of two
sections of mooring line with a clump weight or buoyancy element.
Most of these items are expected to be catalogue items used in other marine
industries, initially, but could become more specialised to floating offshore wind’s
needs over time, particularly for volume and cost reduction.
What’s in it
• Clump weights (made from cast iron)
• In-line tensioners (made from fabricated steel with some forged components)
• Load reduction devices (expected to be made from steel fabrications, glass
fibre components, synthetic materials and/or hydraulic elements, depending
on the type and specific design)
• Mid-line buoyancy elements (made from synthetic materials)

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 84

 The topside connection sees greater loads than any other part of the mooring
B.3.4 Topside connections line as it carries the weight of the mooring line and jewellery in addition to the
Function dynamic loads from the substructure.

The topside connection connects the upper section of the mooring line to the The detailed design of the topside connector is vital to ensure that it does not
floating substructure. introduce stress concentrations that could add to the fatigue loading of the chain
that is expected to be used in the upper section of the mooring line.
What it costs
The topside connector must allow the connection and disconnection of the
About £3 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
mooring lines.
Who supplies this Winches have been used on early demonstration projects, but they are not
First Subsea, Hydrosphere, InterMoor, Macgregor and The Crosby Group. expected to be used on commercial-scale projects.
Key facts What’s in it
The major items may include: • Chain stoppers
• A chain stopper which stops the chain and which is normally be used with a • Connectors
fairlead, which provides a “fair”, or good, “lead-in” for the anchor chain onto • Padeyes
the substructure which helps reduce chafe and damage during connection
• Steel plate
and disconnection.
• A pull-through connector that fits around a chain and can be readily made
and unmade. An example is Macgregor’s pull-through connector.
• A ball and taper connection that is easy to make and unmake. An example is
First Subsea’s Ballgrab® connector.
• A fixed padeye is the simplest type of topside connection. It is a plate welded
to the floating substructure with a hole, or “eye”, through which a shackle
can be fitted.
The topside connector must either allow for the continuous dynamic motion of
the floating substructure for a safe lifetime of at least 30 years or be subject to
planned replacement.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 85

 What it costs
B.4 Offshore substation
About £67 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm, considering an
Function HVAC system.
The offshore substation connects the array cable system to the export cables. It Who supplies this
contains a step-up transformer and power factor compensation equipment to
See details of individual components and systems below.
reduce losses. For longer export cables the substation may also convert the
power from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) to minimise losses Key facts
further. It also provides switchgear to protect the grid from the wind farm, and A fixed offshore substation is the scenario described in this Guide, as dynamic
vice versa, for fault conditions. export cable is not expected to be sufficiently proven for a project reaching FID
in 2025. This will need to be in water depth of up to 100 m.
Offshore substations consist of a main electrical power system, auxiliary
systems, a topside structure to house the systems, and a foundation. Offshore
substations are often delivered as one element of a contract to connect the wind
farm generating assets to the onshore transmission grid.
An HVAC substation topside (everything above the substructure) weighs
between 1,200 and 3,000 t. A 450 MW wind farm is likely to have one offshore
substation. Single HVAC substations of up to approximately 700 MW have been
used.
An HVDC substation topside weighs between 12,000 and 18,000 t. A 1 GW
wind farm would only have one HVDC offshore substation but could be
connected to the turbines by several AC convertor stations which would
transform the 66 kV output from the turbines up to 132 kV or higher to feed the
HVDC substation. It is unlikely to be commercially attractive to use an HVDC
connection for a single 450 MW wind farm that is 60 km from shore.
A developer typically works closely with its chosen HV engineer after the turbine
has been chosen to optimise the export system as a key opportunity to reduce
Figure 30 One of the fixed offshore substations used at the Hornsea One
the cost of energy. By reducing the number of circuits, the substations need less
project. Image courtesy of Ørsted. All rights reserved.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 86

switchgear and fewer transformers. This provides an opportunity to dispense
with a substation or to reduce topside and foundation costs.
B.4.1 HVAC electrical system
Standardisation of offshore substation design offers the potential to lower costs, Function
although few developers have the project pipelines to justify the upfront costs. An HVAC system converts and transmits the electrical power generated by the
With 66 kV subsea cables, near-shore wind farms up to 300 MW can be built wind turbines, at say 66 kV, to the onshore substation through the export cables
without an offshore substation. at say 220 kV.
A typical HVAC platform is about 25 m above the sea and has an area of 800 m². What it costs
Although many offshore substations are not being used primarily as service About £20 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
platforms, they will still have a modestly equipped workshop and frequently a
Who supplies this
helideck.
GE Grid Solutions, Hitachi Energy and Siemens Energy.
In the UK, the offshore substation is ultimately owned and operated by a
transmission operator (OFTO), although the wind farm owner has access and Key facts
responsibility for the array cable entry and wind farm switchgear. Key components of an HVAC system include:
Floating offshore wind projects connected to offshore oil and gas facilities may • HV switchgear sets to isolate and protect each array and export connection
not need an offshore substation, for example, Hywind Tampen. to the substation
What’s in it • Transformers to transform to a higher voltage for onward transmission. A
• B.4.1 HVAC electrical system typical offshore substation has two or more transformers to improve
availability. Transformers are oil cooled, requiring the use of fire and blast
• B.4.2 HVDC electrical system
protection
• B.4.3 Auxiliary systems
• Passive and active reactive power compensation, typically large coils and
• B.4.4 Topside structure
power electronics, to improve the stability of the local grid system
• B.4.5 Foundation
• Earthing systems including lightning protection connecting electrical
components and the substation structure
• Cable trays, tracks, clamps and supports to protect electrical items.
An HVAC transmission system, including the export cables and offshore and
onshore substation, typically offers a lower lifetime cost (when also taking into

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 87

account electrical losses) than the equivalent HVDC system for wind farms
where the distance to the onshore substation is less than about 80 to 100 km.
B.4.2 HVDC electrical system
The factors used in choosing between HVAC and HVDC, however, are complex. Function
Technology is being developed to allow AC transmission to be used over longer An HVDC system converts and transmits the electrical power generated by the
distances, such as lower frequency AC transmission. Some wind farms have wind turbines, at 66 kV AC, and transformed to say 132 kV AC by AC convertor
used additional reactive power compensation equipment, located on offshore stations, to the onshore substation through the export cables at say 320 kV DC.
platforms part way along the offshore cable route, or in onshore substations Equipment in the onshore substation converts the voltage back to say
close to the coast. 400 kV AC for connection to the onshore transmission grid.
HVAC electrical systems use standard technology and systems, which may be Who supplies this
customised for use in a marine environment.
GE Grid Solutions, Hitachi Energy and Siemens Energy.
What’s in it
Key facts
• Auxiliary electrical, control and monitoring systems
Key components of an HVDC system include:
• Cable trays, tracks, clamps, and supports to protect electrical items
• HV switchgear sets to isolate and protect each array and export connection
• Earthing systems
to the substation
• HVAC switchgear
• Converters to convert AC to DC at a higher voltage for onward transmission
• Industrial waterproof enclosures
• Earthing systems including lightning protection connecting electrical
• Passive and active reactive power compensation components and the substation structure, and
• Transformers • Cable trays, tracks, clamps, and supports to protect electrical items.
An HVDC transmission system, including the export cables and offshore and
onshore substations, typically offers a lower lifetime cost (when also taking into
account the lower electrical losses of an HVDC system over these distances)
than the equivalent HVAC system for wind farms where the distance to the
onshore substation is greater than about 80 to 100 km. The factors used in
choosing between HVAC and HVDC are, however, complex.
HVDC systems use relatively new technology and systems that are custom
designed for the transmission of high power, say over 750 MW, over long

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 88

distances. HVDC systems currently only operate point-to-point and require the
use of a matched pair of converters at each substation (one onshore and one
B.4.3 Auxiliary systems
offshore). Function
Cost reductions have been seen in recent years and are expected to continue, Auxiliary systems are facilities that support the operation and maintenance of the
driven by new technology and the increase in the use of interconnectors, as well substation and enable some wider wind farm maintenance activities.
as by offshore wind.
What it costs
What’s in it
About £3.4 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
• Auxiliary electrical, control and monitoring systems
Who supplies this
• Cable trays, tracks, clamps, and supports to protect electrical items
Communications and networks: Atos, Cisco and Semco Maritime.
• Converters
Cranes: Demag, Granada and Kenz Figee.
• Earthing systems
Diesel generators: Aggreko, Caterpillar and Energyst.
• HVAC and HVDC switchgear
Fire and blast protection: InterDam and Mech-Tools .
• Industrial waterproof enclosures
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning: Halton, Heinen & Hopman and Johnson
Controls.
Helicopter fuelling systems: Imenco, Swire Energy Services.
Key facts
Like any other complex industrial facility, this offshore building needs fire
detection and suppression systems along with security, safety, communications,
and other monitoring systems.
Fire and blast protection is required because the transformers contain oil and
coolants and present a fire risk. They need to be protected from fires elsewhere
on the platform.
A standby generator is required to provide auxiliary power and lighting in the
event of loss of connection to the onshore substation and to provide power to
restart and reconnect to the onshore substation.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 89

Also required are a control room, health and welfare and refuge for visiting
crews, clean and black water systems, fuel tanks, LV power supplies,
B.4.4 Topside structure
navigational aids, and safety systems. Function
What’s in it The topside structure provides support and protection for the electrical and
• Auxiliary electrical systems auxiliary systems.

• Clean and black water systems (normally for HVDC substations) What it costs
• Communication systems About £32 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
• Control room & refuge Who supplies this
• Crane Helideck: Aluminium Offshore and Bayards.
• Fire and blast protection systems Structure: Babcock, Bladt, Chantiers De l'Atlantique, Heerema, Hollandia, HSM
• Fuel tanks (normally for HVDC substations) Offshore, Sembcorp Marine and Smulders.
• Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning equipment Key facts
• Monitoring systems The topside is a complex steel structure, incorporating many safety
• Standby generator (normally for HVDC substations) considerations and services.
A helideck is generally specified to enable helicopter landing (see O.4.4 for
further information). Offshore helidecks are generally aluminium to minimise
corrosion and weight. An accident during take-off or landing can result in
hundreds of litres of jet-fuel spilling from ruptured fuel tanks so stringent safety
regulations are in place with the requirement for an integrated fire-fighting
system. The use of helicopters for crew transfer is an integral part of
maintenance and service operations for some but may only be used for
emergency access or egress by others.
What’s in it
• Helideck
• Heliwinch

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 90

• Steel structure
B.4.5 Foundation
Function
The offshore substation foundation supports the topside structure.

Figure 31 Offshore substation jackets. Image courtesy of Ørsted. All

rights reserved.
What it costs
About £12 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm, using a jacket
foundation for an HVAC offshore substation.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 91

Who supplies this
B.5 Onshore substation
Bladt, Chantiers De l'Atlantique, Hollandia, HSM Offshore, Lamprell, Navantia,
Sembcorp Marine and Smulders. Function
Key facts The onshore substation transforms power to grid voltage, for example up to
400 kV. Where a HVDC export cable is used, the substation converts the power
Offshore substations can either be supported by fixed foundations or floating
to three-phase AC. It also provides switchgear to protect the grid from the wind
substructures. Fixed offshore substation foundations are likely to be jackets.
farm, and vice versa, for fault conditions.
These are steel lattice structures with usually three or four legs that are anchored
to the sea bed using pin piles or suction buckets. Floating offshore substations
can use any of the same substructure types available to support turbines, that is
barge, semi-submersible, spar, or TLP (see B.2 for further information).
Floating offshore substations are yet to be commercially proven. For this reason,
we expect early floating offshore wind farms to use offshore substations with
fixed jacket foundations. We expect floating offshore substations to be adopted
once the technology is proven.
What’s in it
• Pin piles or suction buckets
• Secondary steel
• Steel jacket

Figure 32 Onshore substation. Image courtesy of ScottishPower

Renewables. All rights reserved.
What it costs
About £37 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
They are generally contracted to the same main contractor as the B4 Offshore
substation.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 92

Key facts What’s in it
There are no fundamental differences between onshore substations for fixed or • B.5.2 Buildings, access, and security
floating offshore wind farms. • B.5.1 Electrical system
The onshore substation is often the first part of the wind farm to be built, about a
year before offshore construction. In some cases, work may start ahead of FID
for the wind farm to mitigate the risk of stranded generation assets.
Typically, they are two parts to the substation: the wind farm side owned by the
offshore transmission owner (OFTO in the UK) and the grid side owned by the
relevant grid operator (National Grid Electricity Transmission in England and
Wales, SSE Networks or SP Energy Networks in Scotland, or Northern Ireland
Electricity Networks).
The wind farm side of the substation is larger, consisting of the majority of the
electrical system and a building with a control room, office and storage. The grid
side of the substation may be an extension to an existing facility or a new one if
this is not practical.
Many of the electrical components are similar in specification to the offshore
substation, but constraints on weight and space are not as critical. The
substation will contain metering equipment to measure electricity exported to the
grid.
The onshore substation is ideally located close to the offshore export cable
landfall to limit the length of the onshore cable route, but it may be up to 60 km
from landfall.
The area of the onshore substation is likely to be about 5 ha for an HVAC system
and 7.5 ha for an HVDC system.
The onshore substation is likely to be contracted to a supplier of transmission
systems with a substantial amount of the work contracted to a civil engineering
contractor.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 93

B.5.1 Electrical system B.5.2 Buildings, access, and security
Function Function
The onshore substation electrical system converts the power generated from the Buildings, access, and security provide physical protection and security for the
wind farm into a form that can be integrated into the wider transmission network. onshore electrical equipment that connects the wind farm to the onshore
What it costs transmission network.

About £26 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm, considering an What it costs
HVAC system. About £11 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this Who supplies this
GE Grid Solutions, Hitachi Energy and Siemens Energy. The buildings, access, and security can be contracted to any suppliers with
Key facts suitable track records of supplying to similar types of civil engineering projects.

The onshore substation has the same types of electrical system components as Key facts
the offshore substation. This typically includes switchgear, transformers (if The buildings and associated compounds are custom designed to suit the
HVAC), converters (if HVDC), reactive power compensation and earthing specific technical and planning requirements of the project.
systems. For an HVAC substation, indoor space is required for housing some of the
What’s in it switchgear, monitoring systems, and associated LV systems and welfare facilities
for visiting technicians. Often about the same area of outdoor space is required
• B.4.1 HVAC electrical system
for compounds for outdoor HV switchgear, termination of HV overhead lines,
• B.4.2 HVDC electrical system
storage, and car parking.
For an HVDC substation, indoor space, typically at least two storeys high,
houses the HVDC converter, monitoring systems, and associated LV systems
and welfare facilities for visiting technicians. Outdoor space is also needed for
compounds for outdoor HV switchgear, termination of HV overhead lines,
storage, and car parking.
What’s in it
• Auxiliary and LV systems

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 94

• Monitoring systems
• Welfare facility

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 95

I Installation and
3. Onshore export cable installation
4. Anchor and mooring pre-installation
5. Floating offshore wind turbine assembly, and
commissioning 6. Floating offshore wind turbine installation.
The installation period for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm is typically three
Function years from the start of onshore works.
Includes all installation and commissioning of turbines, offshore balance of plant Weather downtime is a key cost consideration for any offshore activity with a
and onshore balance of plant. This starts with the shipping of major items to the third of time often lost through waiting on weather.
construction port and ends when the fully commissioned assets are handed over
Significant wave height (Hs) is the most widely used measure of limitation for
to operational teams.
offshore activity. In practice this needs to be combined with wave periodicity,
What it costs direction, persistence (the length and frequency of suitable weather windows),
About £170 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. This includes the wind speed, wind direction and tidal flow to determine workability for different
installation of the turbines and balance of plant, with related offshore logistics. It activities.
also includes developer’s insurance, construction project management and Sites farther from shore are typically associated with more adverse weather
spent contingency (not itemised in sections below). conditions and higher weather downtime.
Who supplies this Weather windows of sufficient duration are required for tow-out and hook-up to
moorings and array cable. Hook-up operations at site such as cable pull-in
Companies capable of engineer, procure, construct and installation services
require more benign conditions compared to fixed wind farms, however offshore
(EPCI) for significant installation scopes are expected to include Boskalis,
lifts are avoided as final assembly of the turbine with the floating substructure is
Heerema, Maersk, Saipem, Subsea 7, TechnipFMC and Van Oord.
completed in port.
Installation contractors for smaller scopes are listed in relevant sections.
The opportunity for innovation to reduce costs is substantial. Decreasing offshore
Key facts cycle times and increasing the operating range of offshore operations is key as
The typical installation process is as follows, noting there are parallel operations this increases vessel utilisation and accelerates project delivery. Addressing
where possible: health and safety considerations also needs to remain a focus, as new
1. Offshore substation installation innovations specific to floating offshore wind are introduced.

2. Offshore cable installation

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 96

Installation services are supplied on a day rate or lump sum basis, principally for
the vessel or vessels and the crew and equipment onboard. Additional costs are I.1 Offshore substation installation
fuel and harbour dues. Function
For floating projects, developers may opt for a single foundation and balance of
The installation of the offshore substation consists of the transfer of the
plant installation contract, because of the multiple potential interface risks and
substation from its quayside fabrication site and the installation on the
that installation processes need to be engineered around the floating
foundation.
substructure design.
What’s in it
• I.1 Offshore substation installation
• I.2 Offshore cable installation
• I.3 Onshore export cable installation
• I.4 Anchor and mooring pre-installation
• I.5 Floating offshore wind turbine assembly
• I.6 Floating offshore wind turbine installation
• I.7 Inbound transport
• I.8 Construction port
• I.9 Offshore logistics

Figure 33 Topside structure of an offshore substation being lifted onto a

jacket foundation. Image courtesy of ScottishPower Renewables. All
rights reserved.
What it costs
About £11 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 97

Who supplies this I.1.1 Substation installation vessel
Boskalis, DEME, Heerema, Saipem, Scaldis Salvage & Marine, Seaway 7, Van
Oord and ZPMC. Function
Offshore substation installation often forms part of the substation supply The substation installation vessel transports and lifts the offshore substation into
contract. position on a pre-installed foundation.

Key facts What it costs

Fixed offshore substation installation is a heavy lift operation (minimum of This is included in the substation installation contract.
2,000 t) requiring vessels with sufficient crane capacity. Vessels with the • Day rates for most substation installation vessels are about £230,000.
necessary lift capacity often do not have the deck space to accommodate a • Semi-submersible vessels may have day rates greater than £450,000 but if
substation platform. The substation is therefore floated out of the fabrication the oil and gas market is quiet then rates may be more competitive.
facility on a barge, usually directly to the wind farm site.
Who supplies this
The substation foundation, which is installed prior to the topside structure, may
Bonn & Mees, Heerema, Huisman, Saipem, Scaldis Salvage & Marine, Seajacks,
be a monopile or a jacket.
Seaway 7 and ZPMC.
The installation process for floating offshore substations will be similar to the
process described for installing floating substructures for floating offshore wind Key facts
turbines (see I.6 for further information). There are four main types of substation installation vessel:
What’s in it • Barge
• I.1.1 Substation installation vessel • Heavy lift vessel
• Semi-submersible vessel, and
• Sheerleg crane vessel.
The choice of vessel is likely to be driven by market factors and, in many cases, if
vessels serve other markets. As a result, there has been little investment in
vessels for the offshore wind market specifically.
Heavy lift vessels used in offshore wind include Rambiz, Sleipnir, Stanislav Yudin
and Samson.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 98

Crane ratings required for substation installation vessels are from 900 t to over
3,000 t. I.2 Offshore cable installation
What’s in it Function
• Auxiliary cranes The installation of the offshore array and export cables allows the power transfer
• Crane from each turbine to the onshore export cables.

• Dynamic positioning system What it costs

• Gangway About £63 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. This includes the
• Helideck cable-laying vessel (CLV), cable lay and burial, cable pull-in and electrical testing
and termination. It also includes survey works, route clearance and the
• Propulsion systems
installation of cable protection systems.
Who supplies this
Marine contractors: Boskalis, DEME, DeepOcean, Global Marine, Global
Offshore, Huisman, Jan de Nul, Oceanteam, Seaway 7 and Van Oord.
Cable manufacturers with installation capabilities: Nexans, NKT and Prysmian.
Key facts
All offshore cable installation activities are preceded with a survey to define the
route and identify any unexploded ordnance (UXO). This is followed by a pre-lay
grapnel run (or alternative method) to clear debris from the cable route.
Offshore cable installation involves cable laying, and in some cases cable burial
and trenching. This typically involves one or two runs depending on the ground
conditions, the equipment available and the preferences of the developer and
contractor.
Test and inspection typically include independent observation of all cable
handing and laying operations, often with subsea video recording.
To avoid unnecessary handling, it is preferred that subsea cables are loaded
directly onto an installation vessel from the factory. Lengths may be pre-cut.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 99

Cable protection typically falls within the installer’s scope of work (see B.1.3.2 for
further information). Other techniques like rock dumping and mattresses are also
I.2.1 Export cable installation
used to ensure burial and protection on cable crossings. Function
What’s in it The installation of export cables enables the connection between the offshore
• I.2.1 Export cable installation substation and the onshore export cable.

• I.2.2 Array cable installation The site definition assumes the use of a fixed substation, so the export cable
installation processes described in this section is the same as that for a fixed
• I.2.3 Cable-laying vessel
offshore wind farm.
• I.2.4 Cable-laying equipment
• I.2.5 Cable pull-in
• I.2.6 Electrical testing and termination

Figure 34 Offshore export cable transitioned to shore. Image courtesy of

Jan de Nul. All rights reserved.
What it costs
About £20 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. This includes the
CLV, and cable lay and burial. It also includes survey works, route clearance and
the installation of cable protection systems.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 100

Who supplies this What’s in it
Marine contractors: Boskalis, DEME, DeepOcean, Global Marine, Global • B.1.3 Cable accessories
Offshore, Huisman, Jan de Nul, Oceanteam, Seaway 7 and Van Oord. • I.2.3 Cable-laying vessel
Cable manufacturers with installation capabilities: Nexans, NKT and Prysmian. • I.2.4 Cable-laying equipment
Key facts • I.2.5 Cable pull-in
Export cable installation starts with the shore pull-in (first-end pull-in) (see B.1.2 • I.2.6 Electrical testing and termination
for further information). The CLV then moves off, laying the cable as it goes. • B.1.2 Export cable
Export cables are laid in sections which are as long as possible to avoid • O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle
expensive subsea joints.
Export cables are typically buried 1 to 4 m below the sea bed. Burial usually
takes place simultaneously as the cable is laid using a cable plough, as
immediate burial and protection is obtained in a single pass which reduces costs.
A two-stage process may also be used where the cable is first laid on the sea
bed, after which a vessel with a trenching remotely operated vehicle (ROV), and
a vertical injector and jetting sled, undertakes the burial. The approach taken
depends on a number of factors including the availability of equipment, cost and
ground conditions.
At the offshore substation, the cable is either set down and wet-stored for
subsequent pull-in to the substation, or immediately pulled-in which is preferred.
Electrical terminations are made after pull-in. Static export cables are used from
shore up to the fixed offshore substation and pulled-in through J-tubes.
Floating substructures may be used in the future to support offshore substations
and will require dynamic lengths of export cable. These will be installed in a
similar way to dynamic array cables.
Most export cable manufacturers have CLVs and install export cables
themselves.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 101

 •
I.2.2 Array cable installation The cable is then laid away using the CLV towards the next turbine. The
buoyancy and ballast modules attached to the cable create the lazy wave
Function shape for the dynamic cable section. After the cable touches down, it is
either laid on the sea bed or buried using a cable plough or a trenching ROV.
The installation of array cables enables the connection of the installed floating
offshore wind turbines to the offshore substation. • The cable is pulled-in at the next turbine to complete the single array length.

What it costs Array cable installation where array cables are pre-installed prior to floating
offshore wind turbine installation:
About £34 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. This includes the
• Pre-installing array cables allows as much work as possible to be completed
CLV, and cable lay and burial. It also includes survey works, route clearance and
ahead of the installation critical path, so that electrical connection of the
the installation of cable protection systems.
floating offshore wind turbine can be completed faster.
Who supplies this
• The array cables are installed using the method described above but the
Marine contractors: Boskalis, DEME, DeepOcean, Global Marine, Global cable ends are laid on the sea bed for wet storage with a marker buoy
Offshore, Huisman, Jan de Nul, Oceanteam, Seaway 7 and Van Oord. attached.
Cable manufacturers with installation capabilities: Nexans, NKT and Prysmian. • At the point of hook-up, each cable end is picked up using an ROV and
Key facts handled by a support vessel. The support vessel attaches accessories,
manages the cable pull-in and termination at the turbine or offshore
Array cables can either be installed after the floating offshore wind turbine has
substation.
been installed or can be pre-installed. The advantage of pre-installation is that
cable laying is removed from the installation’s critical path. There are challenges Array cable installation with joints or connectors (see B.1.3.4 for further
to store the dynamic section with its jewellery on the sea bed and recovering it information):
without damage, so it has not become established practice yet. • Some array cable designs use different cable for the static part on the sea
Array cable installation after the floating offshore wind turbine installation: bed, and for the dynamic part. If factory joints are used offshore connectors
can be avoided and the installation process is almost unchanged from laying
• This starts with the cable pull-in at the offshore substation, if it is the first
a continuous section of cable.
connection in the array loop or string, otherwise it starts at a floating offshore
wind turbine. • Where designs use a connector between sections of static and dynamic
• Cable accessories such as bend stiffeners and buoyancy modules are array cable:
attached to the cables on the CLV. o Dry mate connectors require the connection between static and dynamic
cable sections to take place on the deck of a vessel.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 102

 Wet mate connectors allow for connections to be completed underwater
o
using ROVs.
I.2.3 Cable-laying vessel
Array cables are usually installed by marine contractors. Function
What’s in it The cable-laying vessel (CLV) lays the cables between the floating offshore wind
turbines and offshore substation, and between the offshore substation and the
• B.1.1 Array cable
onshore transition joint pit at cable landfall.
• Buoyant junction boxes
• B.1.3 Cable accessories
• I.2.5 Cable pull-in
• I.2.3 Cable-laying vessel
• I.2.6 Electrical testing and termination
• I.2.4 Cable-laying equipment
• O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle

Figure 35 Cable-laying vessel. Image courtesy of Jan de Nul. All rights

reserved.
What it costs
This is included in the offshore cable installation contract.
A typical day rate for a CLV is about £150,000.
Who supplies this
Marine contractors: Boskalis, DEME, DeepOcean, Global Marine, Global
Offshore, Jan de Nul, Oceanteam, Seaway 7 and Van Oord.
Cable manufacturers with installation capabilities: Nexans, NKT and Prysmian

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 103

Key facts I.2.4 Cable-laying equipment
The same vessels may be used for export and array cable installation, although
CLVs used to install export cables typically have larger carousels to Function
accommodate longer cables. CLVs may need to have shallow drafts to install the The equipment ensures that the cable is safely deployed from the vessel to the
export cables in shallow water close to shore. sea bed.
Simultaneous lay and burial can be carried out with a variety of burial tools. In What it costs
that case, the cable is buried during the lay to obtain immediate protection.
This is included in the offshore cable installation contract.
Otherwise, a post-lay burial is required.
Who supplies this
CLVs are characterised as follows:
Cable-laying equipment is usually provided by the cable installation contractor; in
• Up to 30 m (breadth) by 140 m (length) and can operate at a speed up to
that case, it is either part of the vessel or must be mobilised.
14 kn (transit speed).
Equipment manufacturers: Ecosse Subsea, Fraser Hydraulic Power, Hulst Cable
• Accommodation for a crew of up to 90.
Equipment, MacArtney, Osbit, Royal IHC, SMD and Sparrows.
• The current capacity of carousels is of up to 10,000 t. Some contractors
Equipment rental providers: Caley Ocean Systems, CWind, Demanor, Drammen
offer vessels with a double carousel which can increase carrying capacity
Yard, Ecosse Subsea and RentOcean.
(for example Jan de Nul’s Isaac Newton).
• Likely to be equipped with a 3D motion compensated crane with up to 25 t Key facts
capacity and a 25 t A-frame. Cable handling equipment is designed to protect the cable’s integrity and to
• Generally equipped with a motion-compensated personnel transfer gangway ensure the cable is deployed in a controlled manner at the correct speed.
and a helideck. The cable is stored either on a carousel, in a static tank or on a reel. To exit the
storage area, a tensioner is used to grip and move the cable toward the chute
What’s in it
where the cable is deployed onto the sea bed whilst ensuring no bending takes
• I.2.4 Cable-laying equipment place below the cable’s minimum allowed bend radius.
• Carousel During a second-end pull-in or pull-in at the offshore substation, a quadrant is
• Crane used to deploy the end of the cable on the sea bed before it is pulled in.
• Personal transfer gangway What’s in it
• O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle • Cable highway or rollers

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 104

• Chute
I.2.5 Cable pull-in
• Quadrant
• Tensioners Function
For the array cable, the pull-in consists of the pulling of the cable into the
offshore substation, floating offshore wind turbine or buoyant junction box.
For export cables, the pull-in consists of pulling the cable into the onshore
transition joint pit as well as into the offshore substation.
What it costs
About £5 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
The cable pull-in is usually provided by the offshore cable installation contractor.
Key facts
The installation of the export cable starts with the onshore pull-in at the beach,
during which the CLV is anchored offshore. A pull-in head is attached and the
cable winched on floats or through a pre-laid duct to the onshore transition joint
pit, where it is eventually jointed to the onshore cable. The CLV then moves off,
laying the cable as it goes. Depending on the landfall site, some projects require
horizontal directional drilling which may extend to the first short length of burial
offshore. In other cases, the cable may be transferred to a third-party shallow
draft barge or amphibious vehicle to bring the cable to shore.
At the offshore substation, it is preferred to pull-in the export cable to the
substation immediately after it has been laid by the CLV. It may however be
necessary to wet store the cable if, for example, the substation is not yet installed
or if the CLV is not equipped to conduct the second-end pull-in at the substation.
The offshore pull-in process is normally as follows:
• End-fitting and pull-in head is installed onto the cable end

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 105

• Bend stiffener is installed onto the end-fitting and the cable • Float
• The cable is lowered into the sea • Horizontal directional drilling
• A messenger wire that was placed in the I-tube/J-tube is attached to the pull- • Messenger wire
in head using an ROV • Quadrant
• Pull-in head is pulled into the I-tube/J-tube using a winch, and • O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle
• End fitting is connected to the hang-off at the substation or the floating • Winch
substructure.
The post-lay array cable installation process, where the array cable is laid after
the floating offshore wind turbine has been installed, starts with the pull-in at the
substation using a similar process to that described above. Pull-in at the floating
substructure is carried out in a similar way. In addition, buoyancy devices and
bend stiffeners are attached to the dynamic part of the cable before it is
deployed. Once the cable has been pulled-in the CLV then moves off to the next
location, laying the cable as it goes and pulling it in once it arrives at the following
location. For second-end pull-ins, a quadrant is generally used.
For pre-lay array cable installation, the cable laid to rest on the sea bed for pull-in
once the floating offshore wind turbine has been towed to site.
New methods for pre-and post-lay array cable installation are expected that will
allow faster cable installation in a wider range of metocean conditions, for
example:
• Array cables can also be pulled-in, terminated and connected in a buoyant
junction box or buoyant connector which is then connected to the floating
offshore turbine. This solution allows for easier connection to, and
disconnection from, the floating offshore wind turbine.
What’s in it
• Barge

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 106

 stripped back and the cores are connected to a termination plug. The plug is
I.2.6 Electrical testing and termination then interfaced into a designated junction box or switchgear using a connector.
Function A similar procedure is conducted for the fibre optic cable.

Electrical testing is designed to test and prove cable integrity whilst termination Terminating high-voltage cables is a highly skilled process that takes time to
enables a reliable connection to be made. learn.

What it costs Prior to making terminations, a series of electrical tests are performed to prove
the cable’s electrical integrity. These include low frequency tests, insulation
About £4 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
resistance tests, time-domain reflectometry tests and optical time-domain
Who supplies this reflectometry.
Electrical testing and termination is usually provided by the offshore cable After the cable is pulled into the transition joint pit on shore, it is terminated at the
installation contractor. beach joint.
Manufacturers of electrical testing equipment and termination tools: 360 Wind, What’s in it
Axess Group, Baur, JDR, Megger, Pfisterer, Tekmar, V&SH Offshore and WT
• Cable trays
Henley.
• Connection cables
Key facts
• Hang-off clamp
Cables undergo a series of tests before dispatch from the manufacturer,
• Power supply
dependent on the cable type and voltage class, including:
• Test and diagnostics device
• Cable (and accessories) pre-qualification tests and type tests
• Termination plug
• Cable (and accessories) type tests
• Cable routine electrical tests on each manufacturing length before jointing
and armouring
• Sample tests
• Routine factory splice tests, and
• Tests on complete cable lengths including factory installed joints (if any).
Terminations are made after the cable has been pulled into the offshore
substation or floating substructure. The armouring and insulation of the cables is

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 107

I.3 Onshore export cable installation The subsea cables terminate a short distance inland at the transition joint pit.
This could be located on the beach, behind a sea defence, or up to 1 km inland.
Function Onshore cabling is generally underground to address local concerns over the
siting of overhead power lines.
The installation of the onshore export cable completes the connection between
the offshore export cable and the onshore substation. There are a range of local services used before and during the cable installation.
These include wheel washing, road cleaning, traffic management, signage and
temporary bridges over rivers and ditches.
At least one site compound is established along the cable route. These sites
provide equipment storage, car parking and welfare facilities for staff. Typically,
they are around 1 ha in size.
Before construction, site investigation and environmental work is undertaken to
plan the installation and minimise impact on the surroundings.
A cable corridor is used during installation, which comprises the cable trench,
storage for spools and access road.
Installation is carried out using open trenches, typically around 1 m wide and up
to 1 km in length (depending on the cable) or by placing ducts into the trenches
and covering them over more quickly. With ducting, it is typical to use medium
Figure 36 Onshore export cable trenching process. Image courtesy of
density polyethylene (MDPE) ducts which are laid in the trench and the cable
Ørsted. All rights reserved.
pulled through the ducts at a later time in up to 1 km lengths. This option allows
What it costs excavation, duct installation and backfilling to be completed in sections of up to
About £3 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm, depending on 120 m in a day. This minimises the amount of excavation left open outside
distance and complexity of route. working hours, which can help reduce environmental and safety concerns.

Who supplies this Where the cable crosses obstacles such as roads or railways, or encounters
difficult or highly sensitive conditions, directional drilling may be used to route
Construction companies: Balfour Beatty, J Murphy and Sons, NKT and Nexans.
and pull the cable under the obstacle without the need for trenching.
Marine contractors: DeepOcean and Global Offshore.
Specialist drilling equipment creates a bore that passes the obstacle and can be
Key facts up to 1 km in length. Drilling mud is used as lubrication, and this is recycled

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 108

through a temporary mud lagoon during construction and disposed of after
construction. Once drilled, a cable duct is then pulled through and the cable is I.4 Anchor and mooring pre-installation
then pulled through again using specialist equipment. Function
The cable is tested to ensure a complete circuit is in place. Once fully installed,
The pre-installation and testing of anchors and mooring lines at site. Completing
an energised test is carried out to verify operation at or close to the intended
as much pre-installation as possible ahead of the installation critical path allows
voltage.
the hook-up of the floating offshore wind turbine to be completed faster.
Care is taken to reduce the impact on endangered species such as newts, bats,
What it costs
and dormice, which might require specialist environmental monitoring and
mitigation. About £31 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.

What’s in it Who supplies this

• Drilling equipment Bourbon Offshore, Bridon-Bekaert, First Subsea, Kvaerner/DOF Subsea JV,
Lankhorst, PSG Marine & Logistics, Strainstall, TechnipFMC and Tronds Marine
• Onshore cable-laying equipment
AS.
• Trenching equipment
Key facts
The pre-installation begins by installing an anchor on the sea bed. The process
depends on the anchor type (see B.3.1 for further information):
• Drag embedment anchors are installed by placing the anchor on the sea bed
and using the pulling force of the anchor-handling vessel (AHV) to obtain the
necessary embedment which is normally between 1 and 2 m.
• Suction embedment anchors are installed by lowering a suction pile to the
sea bed which self-penetrates part-way into the sea bed under its own
weight. The piles are then embedded to their full depth by evacuating
seawater from inside the pile using a pump on the anchor operated by a
specialised ROV.
• A piled anchor is installed by lowering a pile to the sea bed which penetrates
the sea bed under its own weight. A pile hammer is then used from the AHV

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 109

 to obtain the required penetration depth. Piled anchors can also be drilled
and grouted into place, depending on ground conditions.
I.4.1 Anchor-handling vessel
Anchors are proof loaded for 15 to 30 minutes, according to the standard used, Function
using the pulling force of the AHV to ensure sufficient holding capacity. The use AHVs are specialist vessels used for the pre-laying of anchors and mooring lines,
of an in-line tensioning device to pull against a temporary reaction anchor, or an and the tow-out and hook-up of floating offshore wind turbines.
opposing anchor of the mooring system, substantially reduces the bollard pull
required.
The lower section of the mooring line, often anchor chain, is connected to the
anchor during installation:
• For drag embedment anchors it is attached before the anchor is embedded,
as the attachment point is below the sea bed once it is embedded.
• For suction and piled anchors, it is attached after the anchor is installed.
If there is a section of synthetic fibre rope in the mooring line, this section would
not be connected at this time.
A submersible marker buoy is connected to the end of the mooring line to
support retrieval for later hook-up operations.
What’s in it
• I.4.1 Anchor-handling vessel
• B.3.1 Anchors
• Marker buoys Figure 37 Anchor-handling vessel. Image courtesy of Vryhof. All rights
• B.3.2 Mooring lines reserved.
What it costs
This is included in the anchor and mooring installation contract.
The typical day rate for a 200 t bollard pull AHV is about £50,000. Smaller AHVs
have a typical day rate of between £20,000 and £30,000.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 110

Who supplies this • O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle

Boskalis, Bourbon Offshore, Damen, DOF Subsea, Maersk, MMA offshore, Siem
Offshore, SEACOR Marine, Solstaad Offshore and Vard Marine.
Key facts
The same vessels may be used for anchor and mooring pre-installation, and tow-
out operations.
AHVs have sufficient deck space to carry between four to six anchors per trip,
depending on the design of the anchors. AHVs are classed by their dynamic
positioning or station keeping abilities and bollard pull capacity.
Large AHVs are characterised as follows:
• Up to 25 m (breadth) by 95 m (length) and can operate at a speed up to
20 kn (transit speed)
• Accommodation for a crew of up to 60
• Maximum cargo capacity of 800 t
• Minimum bollard pull of 200 t, and
• Likely to be equipped with towing and anchor-handling winches, stern roller,
knuckle boom cranes, towing and stopper pins.
For tow-out and hook-up operations the main towing AHV should have a bollard
pull of 200 t. A vessel of similar bollard pull is required for installing drag
embedment anchors. Two smaller AHVs usually support tow-out and hook-up
operations. These vessels have a bollard pull capacity of between 50 to 100 t.
What’s in it
• Anchor-handling cranes
• Anchor-handling winches
• Towing and stopping pins

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 111

 Key facts
I.4.2 Installation equipment
An AHV is typically equipped with a stern roller, crane, and winches.
Function
• Anchor-handling winches, and a stern roller are used to launch drag
Installation equipment used on board vessels and in the sea to pre-install embedment anchors and mooring chains.
anchors and mooring lines, and to tow-out and hook-up floating offshore wind
• Cranes are used to place suction and piled anchors on the sea bed. Pumps
turbines.
are used to evacuate water for suction anchors. Pile hammers, drill and grout
spreads are used for piled anchors.
• Towing winches are used during tow-out of floating offshore wind turbines
and have a holding load of approximately 600 t.
Further installation equipment carried depends on the operation.
• Winches and ROVs are used for retrieval of mooring lines during hook-up
operations. ROVs are used to locate submerged marker buoys and support
connection to the winch when tensioning mooring chains. Cranes also
support connection of the mooring to synthetic fibre lines and eventual hook-
up to the floating offshore wind turbine.
• Tensioners are used to obtain the necessary tension in the mooring line to
test anchors and to pre-tension mooring systems.
• Marker buoys are used to indicate positions of submerged materials. Some
designs can automatically rise to the surface when instructed.
Figure 38 Stevtensioner and Stevadjuster. Images courtesy of Vryhof. All
rights reserved. What’s in it
What it costs • I.4.1 Anchor-handling vessel
• Cranes
This is included in the anchor and mooring installation contract.
• Drills
Who supplies this
• Grout spreads
CAPE Holland, DEME, Fistuca, Huisman, IQIP, Menck, PVE, NOV, Sumitomo
and W3G Marine. • Marker buoys

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 112

•
•
Pile hammers
Pumps
I.5 Floating offshore wind turbine
• O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle assembly
• Stern rollers
Function
• Winches
The assembly, pre-commissioning, and storage of floating offshore wind turbines
that are ready for tow-out and installation.

Figure 39 Floating offshore wind turbine final assembly taking place at

port. Photo of the Kincardine Offshore Wind Farm project courtesy of
Principle Power.
What it costs
About £31 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 113

Who supplies this The floating substructure is brought from wet storage to the quayside using
harbour tugs.
This work is usually contracted to either the wind turbine supplier, or to a wind
turbine installation and commissioning contractor. The contractor normally The major turbine components are then assembled onto the floating
provides supervisory input and subcontracts the work to a technician services substructure in a process known as final assembly or turbine integration. This
company. activity can either be completed with a landside crane located on the quayside or
by a temporary jack-up crane vessel alongside the quay. Ballasting the
Key facts
substructure so that it rests on a mattress laid on the sea bed improves its
Offshore wind developers have become used to assembly and installation rates stability for lifting activities.
of about two turbines per week for fixed wind farms, enabling the turbines for a
We expect towers to be assembled onto the floating substructure one section at
1 GW fixed offshore wind farm to be installed in a single season. An output rate
a time, to avoid creating a load on the lifting equipment that is even greater than
of at least one floating offshore wind turbine per week is needed for a 450 MW
the nacelle weight. If lift capacity is not a restriction, the tower could be
wind farm with 30 turbines to be installed in one season, given typical constraints
assembled on the quayside and lifted as one unit. The next stage is to install the
including weather.
nacelle and finally the turbine blades, normally one at a time.
Some designs of semi-submersible floating substructures need pre-assembly at
The assembled floating offshore wind turbine is pre-commissioned at port to the
the construction port. The mass of a primary structure, typically in excess of
greatest possible extent to reduce offshore commissioning work. This involves
3,500 t, is greater than the maximum lift capacity of the largest mobile cranes.
mechanical and electrical testing of the various subsystems.
Rail systems or self-propelled modular transporters (SPMTs) are options for
Wet storage is required prior to tow-out of assembled floating offshore wind
moving on land. Ring cranes, vessel-mounted cranes, or semi-submersible
turbines. Developers typically plan for a stock of around 20% of the completed
barges can be used to move a primary structure from land into water. A dry dock
project in wet storage, so that offshore installation can proceed smoothly and
addresses both issues but large dry docks are scarce. Other components, such
take best advantage of weather windows. This is in addition to the wet storage
as secondary steel or transformers, may be pre-assembled at the construction
required for inbound floating substructures.
port too.
The major turbine components are moved to the quayside, normally using What’s in it
SPMTs. Some pre-assembly work is expected to be performed at this stage, for • I.8 Construction port
example installing electrical equipment in the base of the turbine tower. Major • Jack-up crane vessel
turbine components have such high mass that they are normally stored, and pre-
• Quayside crane
assembly work carried out, on specially reinforced pedestals.
• Tower pedestal

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 114

• Transport and storage frames for major components including nacelles,
blades, and tower sections
I.5.1 Heavy lifting and moving equipment
Function
Equipment to move and lift major turbine components for pre-assembly, and for
assembly with the floating substructure at the quayside of the construction port.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 115

 What it costs
About £13 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Land-based cranes and moving equipment: Ainscough, Mammoet, Sarens and
Weldex.
Jack-up cranes: DEME, Fred. Olsen, Jan de Nul, Seajacks, Seaway 7, and Van
Oord.
Key facts
Heavy loads are generally moved around port quaysides using SPMTs.
The main options for lifting turbine components onto floating substructures are
either land-based ring cranes or using vessel-mounted cranes (on jack-up
vessels). The height and reach requirements to lift a nacelle onto the tower of a
floating substructure are significant and push mobile cranes to the limits of their
lifting capabilities. A minimum crane capacity of 800 t with a hook height of
approximately 160 m and reach of 30 m from the quayside is required to lift
15 MW nacelles into place on the reference semi-submersibles.
We expect that most floating offshore wind construction ports will use a wind
turbine installation jack-up vessel in port for heavy lifting operations of turbine
components. Older jack-up installation vessels or barges may be used providing
they have sufficient reach and crane capacity. Additional hook height can
sometimes be provided by jack-up legs depending on their length with respect to
the depth of the quayside. The sea bed at the quayside should be levelled and
have sufficient load bearing capacity for the jack-up legs.
Some ports might invest in landside cranes. Landside cranes can either be semi-
Figure 40 A landside crawler crane lifting a nacelle onto a floating permanent ring cranes or crawler cranes.
substructure. Image courtesy of Port Pictures / Danny Cornelissen. All
rights reserved.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 116

Specialised lifting equipment is required under the hook to ensure that loads are
level when lifted, wind-induced movement is minimised, and final alignment is
I.5.2 Technician services
accurate. For nacelles, blades and towers, this equipment is normally designed Function
and provided by the wind turbine supplier.
Skilled personnel operating plant, such as cranes and SPMTs, for pre-assembly
What’s in it and assembly of the turbine with the floating substructure. Dedicated personnel
• Crawler crane complete pre-commissioning in port and final commissioning at site once the
floating offshore wind turbine has been towed-out and hooked-up.
• Jack-up, or barge-mounted crane
• Ring crane What it costs
• Specialised lifting equipment About £2 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.

• SPMTs Who supplies this

Global Wind Service, James Fisher Marine Services, Semco Maritime, Swire
Energy Services, Windhoist and Worley Services.
Key facts
Turbine pre-assembly and assembly onto floating substructures is undertaken
jointly by the turbine supplier technicians and the installation contractor. The
turbine supplier is usually responsible for the lifts of the turbine components
along with mechanical and electrical completion and final commissioning.
Members of the turbine supplier team are expected to travel with the turbine on
board the AHV to monitor the transit and accelerations of the turbine during tow-
out and hook-up.
What’s in it
• Specialist assembly equipment including bolt tensioning, bolt torquing and
electrical testing
• Landside generators
• Technicians

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 117

 Who supplies this
I.6 Floating offshore wind turbine
Boskalis, Bourbon Offshore, Maersk, Saipem and Seajacks.
installation Key facts
Function Floating offshore wind turbines are towed from the construction port to the
offshore site with a primary AHV and smaller support vessels.
Tow-out of an assembled floating offshore wind turbine to site, hook-up to
The floating offshore wind turbine is hooked-up to a pre-installed mooring spread
mooring lines and array cables, and the final commissioning of the installed
once it arrives at site with the aid of the towing vessels.
floating offshore wind turbine.
The array cable is either connected to the floating offshore wind turbine once it
arrives at site or later during post lay operations.
Tow-out and hook-up is expected to be performed by an offshore EPCI
contractor, because the vessels are the largest part of the cost build up.
Final commissioning involves commissioning the assembled floating substructure
with its mooring and array systems, and the final commissioning of the wind
turbine. It is expected to be split between the EPCI contractor for the hook-up
and floating substructure, and the wind turbine supplier for the wind turbine.
What’s in it
• I.6.1 Tow-out
• I.6.2 Mooring line hook-up
• I.6.3 Array cable hook-up
• I.6.4 Final commissioning
Figure 41 An assembled floating offshore wind turbine starting its tow-
out for the WindFloat Atlantic project. Photo of the WindFloat Atlantic
project courtesy of Principle Power/Ocean Winds.
What it costs
About £24 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 118

 Prior to tow-out, the floating substructure is normally ballasted to add stability in
I.6.1 Tow-out a location with adequate water depth for the increased draft. As the reference
Function design is a steel semi-submersible, this involves pumping water onboard.

Tow-out of the assembled floating offshore wind turbine from the construction A constraint during transportation and installation is the nacelle acceleration limit
port to the offshore wind farm site. defined by the turbine supplier to avoid damaging the turbines and invalidating
warranties. This is typically about 0.5 g.
What it costs
The channel depth between the port and the project site is one factor which
This is included in the floating offshore wind turbine installation contract.
influences the choice of substructure type and construction material.
The tow-out operation is usually completed by three AHVs that have a combined
What’s in it
day rate of about £130,000.
• I.4.1 Anchor-handling vessel
Who supplies this
• Support tugs
Boskalis, Bourbon Offshore, DOF Subsea, Maersk and Saipem.
• I.5.2 Technician services
Key facts
The floating offshore wind turbine is towed out to site using a primary towing AHV
with minimum bollard pull of around 200 t.
These operations are usually supported by two trailing AHVs during tow-out and
positioning activities at site.
The operation is usually completed in fair weather with a maximum significant
wave height (Hs) of between 1 and 1.5 m and mean wind speeds below 14 m/s.
A weather window of sufficient length is required, so that the assembled floating
offshore wind turbine could be towed back to port in the case of problems with
hook-up. Transit speeds of between 3 and 4 kn are used. This is limited by a
number of factors including vessel fuel consumption, towing capacity and
weather.
Transit distance is a limiting factor in the tow-out of floating offshore wind
turbines and this is a key consideration for construction port and wind farm site
selection.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 119

 third line slowly passes through the tensioner mechanism. The active side is
I.6.2 Mooring line hook-up lowered, disconnected, and laid to rest on the sea bed once the required line
Function tensions are reached. The use of an in-line tensioner can significantly reduce the
tug bollard pull required to reach the mooring line pre-tension, depending on the
Hook-up and tensioning of mooring lines to the floating substructure in its final
geometry of the mooring system and the position of the tensioner.
position.
What’s in it
What it costs
• I.4.1 Anchor-handling vessel
This is included in the floating offshore wind turbine installation contract.
• In-line tensioner
Who supplies this
• B.3.2 Mooring chains
Boskalis, Bourbon Offshore, DOF Subsea, Maersk and Tronds Marine AS.
• O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle
Key facts
• Support tugs
A three-column semi-submersible typically has a three-point mooring spread, as
• I.5.2 Technician services
a minimum, and at least one of these lines includes an in-line tensioner.
• Vessel crane
Any sections of mooring line that have not been pre-installed are installed. For
example, codes do not allow fibre rope lines to be laid on the sea bed for • Winch
extended periods, so they cannot be installed a year in advance. ROVs are used
to make any remaining connections between mooring line sections and support
the connection to the anchor-handling winch to bring the upper section of
mooring chain on deck. The upper chain is connected to one of the three
mooring points on the floating substructure and the winch slowly feeds the chain
back out into the water and is eventually disconnected from the mooring chain.
This same process is completed for the second and third mooring lines. At this
point there is some slack in the lines.
To tension the system, the free end of the active lower chain section is retrieved
from the sea bed with the support of an ROV, as before. Vertical loads are
applied to the active side using the winch and crane of the AHV. This gradually
increases tension throughout the entire mooring spread as the active side of the

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 120

 mated to the corresponding part of the junction box on the floating substructure.
I.6.3 Array cable hook-up Electrical connection is made in the junction box.
Function In cases where wet or dry mate connectors are used, dynamic cable lengths
Hook-up and connection of the array cables to the floating substructure. This may be installed at the array cable hook-up stage. This requires a support vessel
may take place directly after mooring hook-up or later if array cables are laid with a cable carousel of sufficiently capable carrying pre-cut dynamic lengths.
after the floating offshore wind turbine has been hooked up to its mooring • If a dry mate connecter is used the vessel needs to retrieve the static cable
system. or pre-installed connector from the sea bed. The crew on board the vessel
What it costs then make all connections within the connector, including power and
communications, before lowering the made-up connector back to the sea
This is included in the floating offshore wind turbine installation contract.
bed.
Who supplies this • For wet mate connections it is expected that the pre-laid static cable end will
Boskalis, Bourbon Offshore, DOF Subsea, Global Offshore, Maersk, Société de have a connector pre-installed. A second connector plate is connected to
Dragage International, Subsea 7 and Tronds Marine AS the dynamic cable end and lowered to the sea bed for connection with ROV.
Key facts Two pull-ins, terminations and connections are completed at each floating
offshore wind turbine where a turbine is located in the middle of a string, for the
Array cables are either pulled directly into the floating substructure, or into a pre-
incoming and outgoing array cables.
installed buoyant junction box.
Pre-laid dynamic or factory jointed cables that were left to rest on the sea bed What’s in it
are retrieved with ROVs and transferred to the crane and winch of the support • B.1.1 Array cable
vessel. Buoyancy modules are attached at this point to form the lazy-wave shape • Buoyant junction box
of the dynamic section.
• I.2.5 Cable pull-in
Platform supply vessels or multipurpose offshore vessels with a motion
• B.1.3.4 Dry mate connector
compensated gangway are suitable. Crews are transferred to the floating
offshore wind turbine via the gangway to complete cable pull-in, termination, and • Electrical testing and termination
connection within the turbine. • Motion compensated gangway
For pre-laid cables that are connected using buoyant junction boxes, the ROV • O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle
and support vessel retrieves the buoyant junction box which is then pulled in and • Support vessel
• I.5.2 Technician services

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 121

• Vessel crane
I.6.4 Final commissioning
• B.1.3.4 Wet mate connector
• Winch Function
Final commissioning is a set of mechanical and electrical checks and tests on the
installed floating offshore wind turbine. It results in all systems having been put to
work in a safe manner prior to handover of the installed floating offshore wind
turbine to the client.
What it costs
This is included in the wind turbine supply contract and substation supply
contract.
Who supplies this
Final commissioning is expected to be split between the EPCI contractor for the
array cable installation and hook-up, and the wind turbine supplier for the wind
turbine.
Key facts
As much pre-commissioning as possible is performed on the various subsystems
prior to offshore installation, to minimise the time and cost of final commissioning
offshore.
The key steps in final commissioning the offshore substation and cabling include
visual inspection, mechanical testing, protection testing, electrical insulation
testing, pre-energisation checks, trip tests and load checks.
The key steps of the final commissioning of the turbine include:
• Check of installation activity and documentation
• Mechanical and electrical completion
• Check of communication systems (SCADA, VHF radio)

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 122

•
•
Energisation of all subsystems
Testing of each link in safety and emergency system chains
I.7 Inbound transport
• Exercising of all safety-critical and auxiliary systems Function
• Slow rotation of the rotor to confirm balance and smooth operation of the Shipping of major items from their manufacturing ports to the construction ports.
drive train These include nacelles, blades, towers, floating substructures (either complete
• Overspeed sensor and other safety-critical checks or as major sections), moorings, anchors, cables, and offshore substations.

• First rotation then first generation and checks on normal operation of all What it costs
systems, and About £3.9 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
• Checks on critical components and connections after a period of attended Who supplies this
operation, then after a longer period of unattended operation.
Blue Water Shipping, Bourbon, Boskalis, Cadeler, Coordinadora Internacional
If the installed floating offshore wind turbine has not been connected to the grid De Cargas, DEME, Jumbo Shipping, Roll Group, SAL Heavylift, Saipem, Seaway
then final commissioning of the turbine can be carried out using a generator and 7, TechnipFMC, and United Wind Logistics.
a load bank, or power from a service operation vessel (SOV).
Key facts
Even after first generation, it is routine to have several outstanding work lists for
each turbine and substation detailing issues that need to be addressed before Turbine components are brought from several manufacturing locations to the
handover to the customer. Handover also normally requires demonstration of construction port. Turbine suppliers operate dedicated transport vessels. These
performance and reliability over an agreed length of time. vessels are becoming increasingly specialised as blades and nacelles increase in
size and mass.
What’s in it
Load-in operations depend on the component and the transport vessel type.
• Electrical testing equipment Turbine suppliers and subsidiary manufacturers often use roll-on roll-off (ro-ro)
• Generator vessels to minimise crane lifts during load-in. SPMTs are often used to transport
• Load bank components to the quayside and are sometimes used to move them onto
vessels. Alternatively, land-based cranes may be used, or some vessels have
• I.5.2 Technician services
their own cranes (see I.5.1 for further information).
Complete floating substructures are transported to the construction port either
by towing with AHVs or on floating semi-submersible cargo vessels.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 123

• For towing, a minimum of two AHVs are required, and towing can only • Ro-ro vessels have short turnaround times and may be used in more
commence if there is an accessible port in case of an emergency within the challenging seas. Some are specifically designed to suit particular wind
shipping weather window. turbine suppliers’ needs.
• Semi-submersible vessels can reduce the overall transit time but require • Cargo vessels are generally larger, with higher capacities, and are used for
careful load-out at the assembly port and load-off by submerging the delivery deep-sea shipping. Sea fastenings need to be stronger for rougher seas.
vessel at the construction port, where sufficient depth of around 20 m is Transport, ro-ro and lifting operations are overseen by turbine supplier
required. As production rates increase it is expected that steel semi- representatives, vessel crew and port stevedores to guard against damage.
submersibles will be shipped in sections for assembly at the construction
What’s in it
port, due to their large footprints. It is expected that concrete semi-
submersibles will be manufactured close to the construction port as their • Barges
high mass will increase the cost of shipping. • Cargo vessels
• Harbour tugs or small AHVs position the floating substructure in the wet • Landside cranes
storage area and hook-up to pre-laid mooring spreads. Alternatively, the • Ro-ro vessels
floating substructure is moved directly to the quayside in preparation for final
• Semi-submersible vessels
assembly.
• SPMTs
Floating substructures can also be transported to the construction port in
sections or components, where final assembly takes place (see I.5 for further • Stevedores
information). • Trucks and trains (for smaller components)
Other components that are too large for transport by road and rail use barges,
ro-ro vessels or cargo vessels. The choice is driven by the size of the load and
the sea conditions expected. These include parts for the anchor and mooring
system, the dynamic array cable system, and items that might be pre-assembled
into the floating substructure such as secondary steel, transformers, and circuit
breakers.
• Barges are suited to inshore shipping and calmer offshore waters but have
relatively small capacities.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 124

I.8 Construction port
Function
The construction port is where inbound components are marshalled and stored,
the turbine is pre-assembled, and the turbine is finally assembled with the
floating substructure. Wet storage areas are required for the marshalling of
floating substructures and for marshalling of assembled floating offshore wind
turbines. A construction port is one that is only used for marshalling components.

Figure 42 The Port of Cromarty Firth used as the construction port for
part of the Kincardine project. Image courtesy of Port of Cromarty Firth.
All rights reserved.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 125

What it costs Large areas of land are required due to the space taken when turbines are
stored lying down on the ground.
This is included in installation contracts.
Sites with greater weather restrictions or for larger scale construction may
Who supplies this
require an additional lay-down area of up to 30 ha.
Construction ports used for early pre-commercial floating projects: Aberdeen
Wet storage is required to temporarily store floating substructures delivered to
(UK), Cromarty Firth (UK), Dundee (UK), Ferrol (ES), Lorient (FR), Nouvelle (FR),
the construction port before final assembly with the turbine at the quayside. This
Rotterdam (NL), Skipavik-Gulen (NO) and Stord (NO).
storage can also be used prior to tow-out of the assembled floating offshore wind
Key facts turbines with seafaring AHVs.
Construction port requirements for a 450 MW project are typically: Separate ports may be used to fulfil the functions of a construction port for the
• Between 15 and 20 ha suitable for lay down and pre-assembly of turbines floating offshore wind turbine, the mooring system and the cable system.

• Between 10 and 12 ha of wet storage for storing floating substructures prior Different construction ports may be used to feed floating substructures and wind
to final assembly, and for storing assembled floating offshore wind turbines turbines, separately, to a wind farm if new methods are introduced for final
prior to tow-out assembly of turbines directly onto moored floating substructures at site. This
would require semi-submersible or capable monohull heavy lift vessels to install
• Quayside length of around 500 m with load bearing capacity ranging from 40
the turbine as site water depths are not suitable for jack-up installation vessels.
to 100 t/m2 and adjacent access
An alternative to using quayside final assembly of turbines and floating
• Quayside water depth of between 12 and 20 m to accommodate the draft of
substructures is to assemble them in a dry dock, but there are few dry docks
floating substructures and semi-submersible transport vessels
which have suitable width for a typical three-column semi-submersible.
• Water access to accommodate delivery vessels for floating substructures
and turbine components. These are up to 160 m length, 45 m beam and 6 m
What’s in it
draft with no tidal or other access restrictions • Bunkering facilities
• No air draft restrictions, to allow tow-out of assembled floating offshore wind • Cranes
turbines with tip heights of about 250 m, and • Jetties for crew transfer vessels (CTVs) (if required to support installation)
• As close as possible to the installation site to minimise the time to tow-out • Lay-down area
and sensitivity to weather windows, although the distance depends on many
• Personnel facilities
factors including the location of ports relative to the site, the cost to upgrade
• Pre-assembly area
ports (where necessary) and the cost of fuel.
• Quay

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 126

•
•
Wet storage area
Workshops
I.9 Offshore logistics
Function
Offshore logistics involves coordination and support of offshore installation and
final commissioning activities.
What it costs
About £1 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Asco, DNV, Global Wind Service, LOC Renewables, Osprey, Rhenus Group,
PSG Marine & Logistics, SeaRoc, Schmidbauer and Ventolines.
High-level coordination is typically undertaken by the developer.
Key facts
Offshore logistics covers all the work needed to ensure that construction
proceeds smoothly, safely and on time.
Construction management covers a wide range of services including contract
management, health and safety and marine coordination. In many cases
contractors are embedded in the construction management team, and this may
include sole traders. In addition, to fulfil the insurer’s requirements, a marine
warranty surveyor (MWS) has to be appointed. The MWS ensures that all
activities are compliant with the approved procedures and delivers the Certificate
of Approval.
Specialist software tools are available to plan and monitor offshore activity.
Weather and metocean forecasting services provide visibility of weather windows
a few days in advance. While meteorological buoys are typically owned and
operated in the UK by the Met Office, third-party providers with their own
forecasting algorithms also offer services.

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Support vessels include guard vessels (potentially drawn from local fishing
fleets), CTVs and accommodation vessels. These vessels may be contracted by
I.9.1 Sea-based support
the developer or the marine contractor. Function
What’s in it A number of vessels are used to support the installation process. These may
• I.9.1 Sea-based support include AHVs, CTVs, ROV handling vessels, SOVs and walk-to-work vessels.

• I.9.2 Marine coordination What it costs

• I.9.3 Weather forecasting and metocean data About £640,000 for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
• I.9.4 Marine safety and rescue Who supplies this
Vessel manufacturers: Alicat, Arklow Marine Services, Damen, Diverse Marine,
Integrated Wind Solutions, Maersk, Wagenborg and Wight Shipyard.
Vessel operators: Fred. Olsen, HST Marine, Mainprize Offshore, Maersk, Turner
Iceni, Siem Offshore, Van Oord, Wind Energy Marine, and Windcat Workboats.
Key facts
Specialist vessels are used for crew transfer to the wind farm for installation and
commissioning tasks. CTVs are used if the wind farm is close to shore. Wind
farms farther from shore use SOVs. Both types of vessels are regularly used in
offshore wind farm maintenance.
ROV support vessels are 80 to 100 m long DP2 vessels with a moon pool and
deck crane.
What’s in it
• Barge
• O.4.1 Crew transfer vessels
• O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 128

 •
I.9.2 Marine coordination Marine management system software

Function
Marine coordination is necessary to manage heightened marine traffic as well as
multi-vessel activity on an offshore construction site.
What it costs
About £210,000 for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Marine coordination is usually carried out by the developer or a subcontractor.
Suppliers of marine coordination: Asco, James Fisher Marine Services, Royal
Dirkzwager, SeaRenergy, SeaRoc, Specialist Marine Consultants, Systematic,
VisSim and WindandWater.
Key facts
A marine coordinator, usually located at the base harbour or operations base, is
responsible for the coordination, control, and exchange of information between
all contractors working on the site. A marine management software system is
used to plan and monitor vessel and personnel movements.
The main tasks of the marine coordinator include:
• Monitoring all vessel and personnel movement (as well as helicopter) from,
to and inside the offshore wind farm perimeter
• Ensuring no conflict from simultaneous operations
• Ensuring the authorisation and access of appointed persons on the site, and
• Communicating with all vessels and helicopters.
What’s in it
• Marine coordination centre

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 129

 activities have weather limits within which they can be conducted safely and
I.9.3 Weather forecasting and metocean exceeding these would be unsafe.
data Weather forecasts are generated through global meteorological models that may
be improved in their accuracy with finer resolution local models and feedback of
Function actual data.
Weather forecasts are needed for short-term planning of offshore activities, for The weather forecast supplier usually offers several options, both in the number
example vessel transfers and lifts. The closer the forecast is to the activity, the of forecasts per day as well as forecasts for the different locations. For example,
more reliable it gets. Metocean data recordings are used to provide real time forecasts for the base harbour and the offshore site or a complete forecast for
data to support offshore activity, to verify forecast tools and to resolve disputes base harbour, the offshore site and transit route.
regarding weather downtime.
Forecasts usually include several different meteorological parameters (for
Key metocean parameters that impact installation and commissioning activities example wind speeds at different heights, wave and swell height and wave
are wind speed, wave height and current. period) as well as general weather information (for example visibility, lightning
What it costs risk, fog, water and air temperature and rain). The forecasts are used to plan
shipping, lifting and other installation activities based on when weather windows
About £70,000 for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
are available.
Who supplies this
Wind parameters are usually measured with a lidar (on a fixed or floating
Anemometers and lidars: AXYS Technologies, EOLOS, Gill Instruments, meteorological station) or an anemometer (rotary or ultrasonic) on a fixed
Leosphere, ZX Lidars and Wood Group. metrological station with tall mast. The advantage of the lidar is that wind speed
Current and wave buoys: AXYS Technologies, OSIL Partrac and RS Aqua. and direction at different heights can be determined.
Weather forecast services: Fugro, Met Office, Kjeller Vindteknikk, MetoGroup, Ocean parameters can be measured with a wave buoy or current meter
StormGeo and Vento Maritime. although there is a trend towards complete systems that combine both wave and
In addition, the vessel contractor generally provides wind measurements (for current measurements.
example via anemometer mounted on crane boom or lidar). What’s in it
Key facts • Anemometer
Weather plays a crucial role in offshore installation and commissioning activities • Current meter
as it has an influence on the sequence and duration of planned activities and • Lidar
may lead to delays, which result in elevated costs. This is because all offshore
• Wave buoy

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 130

• Weather forecast report (and online access)
I.9.4 Marine safety and rescue
Function
A set of capabilities used to assure the safety of the workforce and offshore
assets during marine operations.
What it costs
About £100,000 for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Esvagt, MRT, Resolve Marine, Seacroft Marine, Systematic, Ultramap and Viking
Life Saving Equipment.
In the UK NFFO Services, the commercial division of the National Federation of
Fishermen’s Organisations, provides guard vessel services using the fishing
vessels of its members.
Key facts
Safety is a crucial factor in any marine operation in offshore wind. All vessels
carry and adhere to general safety and emergency response plans, both for
general vessel activity and for project-specific activities. The vessel conducts
frequent safety drills to ensure crew are prepared for emergencies.
Guard vessels are used on site to spot vessels which should not be there
because they pose a risk to the assets or the activities taking place.
Various software solutions have been developed to assist the safe planning and
tracking of marine activities. These include:
• Tracking the location of each member of the offshore workforce
• Planning and tracking the movement of vessels working on the project, and

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 131

• Tracking other vessels’ speed and location via Marine AIS data and
proactively contacting the vessel or its owner should the activity suggest a
risk from anchoring or collision.
Remote emergency medical services consist of a remote doctor or paramedic
who can provide 24/7 support to onsite first aiders via voice and video calls.
Actual rescue services for injured personnel are carried out by either small
vessels or helicopters. Emergency medical and rescue service providers can
cover multiple wind farms and developers.
New technologies are emerging to improve marine safety and rescue. This
includes systems to automatically identify people in the water and technology to
retrieve them onto a vessel.
What’s in it
• Emergency medical rescue services
• Emergency medical support services
• Guard vessels
• Specialist marine planning and tracking software

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 132

O Operations and
intermediate arrangement where turbine technicians transfer to the wind farm
owner at the end of the warranty period.
Key facts
maintenance The focus of O&M is to maximise the financial return from the owners’
investment. Owners aim to optimise the balance between operational
Function expenditure and turbine yield. By scheduling downtime during the low wind
Operations and maintenance (O&M) are the combined functions which, during speed summer months, owners can secure high availability during the winter
the lifetime of the wind farm, support the ongoing operation of the wind turbines, months when wind speeds and energy outputs are typically higher. Contractual
balance of plant and associated transmission assets. O&M activities formally arrangements which award energy production are increasingly common.
start at the wind farm construction works completion date. Turbine availability is the percentage of time the wind turbine is ready to produce
The focus of these activities during the operational phase is to ensure safe power if the wind speed is within the operational range of the turbine. Modern
operations, to maintain the physical integrity of the wind farm assets and to onshore turbines have a technical availability of around 98%. The performance of
optimise electricity generation. offshore wind turbines has improved with optimised design, and offshore turbines
often have availabilities in a similar range to onshore. The planning of logistics
What it costs
and access is vital to securing high availabilities. Where there are access
About £32 million per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. This restrictions then availability may be in the range 95 to 98%.
includes insurance, environmental studies, compensation payments and other
Operational support is provided to the wind farm 24/7, 365 days a year including
internal asset owner costs (not itemised in sections below).
responding to unexpected events and turbine faults, weather monitoring and live
Who supplies this turbine monitoring. Outside normal operating hours this support is provided from
The wind farm owner oversees and fulfils overall site operations activities. remote control rooms which monitor wind farm SCADA data.

In terms of wind turbine planned maintenance in response to faults, wind turbines Maintenance includes scheduled and unscheduled activities and requires the
are typically under warranty for the first three to ten years of operations and the regular transfer of personnel and equipment to the wind turbines and offshore
wind turbine suppliers offer a service level agreement during this period to substation. Safe access to the turbines is a critical area for further focused
provide turbine maintenance. innovation.

After this initial warranty period, the wind farm owner may maintain the wind farm Repairs and replacement of major turbine components, including the blades, are
using an in-house team, contract to a specialist company, or develop an carried out by the turbine supplier or, less commonly, by specialist 3rd party
providers.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 133

In the UK, transmission assets (substations and export cables) are transferred to
an Offshore Transmission Owner (OFTO) within 18 months of wind farm O.1 Operations
commissioning. The OFTO may contract some maintenance functions to the Function
wind farm owner because it has onsite personnel and has a strong interest in
Operations is the management of the asset such as health and safety, control
minimising transmission downtime. In other European territories, typically a
and operation of the asset including wind turbines and balance of plant, remote
transmission operator is responsible for building the offshore transmission.
site monitoring, environmental monitoring, electricity sales, administration,
What’s in it marine operations supervision, operation of vessels and quayside infrastructure,
• O.1 Operations management of spares and equipment, and other back-office tasks.
• O.2 Maintenance What it costs
• O.3 Major repair About £11 million per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. This
• O.4 Offshore vessels and logistics includes training, onshore, and offshore logistics support and management,
• O.5 O&M port overheads, health and safety inspections and insurance.
Who supplies this
The owner of the wind farm typically creates a special-purpose vehicle to operate
the project. This may have several shareholders, one of which is likely to take a
lead role.
Operations tasks for offshore wind farms are typically provided by the majority
wind farm owner.
Some aspects of wind farm operations are contracted to companies such as
Deutsche Windtechnik, James Fisher Marine Services, Natural Power, and
Worley.
Key facts
An onshore control room provides access, via SCADA and other systems, to
detailed real-time and historical data for the wind turbines, substation, met
station, offshore crew, and vessels. Systems ensure that the operations duty

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 134

manager knows where all personnel and vessels are located. This control room • O.1.3 Onshore logistics
is often responsible for the monitoring of multiple sites.
Wind farms are monitored remotely on an ongoing basis using SCADA and
condition monitoring systems and periodically by way of active inspections,
including inspections of subsea infrastructure.
A senior authorised person (SAP) is available at all times with coordination
responsibility for the switching operations of all high voltage equipment.
Review of SCADA data and prognostic condition monitoring can help to highlight
preventative maintenance before failure occurs. The industry is steadily adopting
more advanced data-driven approaches to maximising asset value, including the
increased use of performance analytics, performance benchmarking, digital
twins, and integrated digital systems.
In addition to hardware-related activity, environmental monitoring to understand
the effect of the wind farm on the local environment and wildlife is also carried
out.
Wind farms can be broadly categorised as operating primarily from an onshore
base using CTVs for access, or from an SOV. In both cases, helicopters may
also be used in addition to CTVs and SOVs.
In practice, wind farm operators adopt a flexible approach, particularly during
peaks of activity. Careful planning of routine and unscheduled activities with due
consideration of weather conditions and availability of spares and specialist
vessels is critical.
For groups of smaller wind farms located in the same geographical area, it can
be cost effective to monitor and control them all from a single operation base.
What’s in it
• O.1.1 Operations control centre
• O.1.2 Training

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 135

 Weather watch, and
O.1.1 Operations control centre o
o Work planning.
Function • A set of specialist software applications is used to help them perform their
The operations control centre monitors the performance of the wind farm and co- roles in the most effective manner.
ordinates any maintenance work required.
What’s in it
What it costs • Qualified staff with experience in co-ordinating marine operations,
About £540,000 per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. infrastructure monitoring and onshore logistics
Who supplies this • Specialist software applications
Wind farm owners establish their own operations control centres for each wind
farm.
Key facts
The operations control centre requires a team of people with skills and
experience in:
• Marine operations
• Monitoring of the wind turbines, floating substructure, mooring system, and
array connections, and
• Onshore supporting roles, including:
o Equipment management
o Grid/OFTO interface
o Health and safety
o Logistics management
o Marine coordination
o Monitoring and resetting
o Parts management

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 136

 •
O.1.2 Training Working in confined spaces, and
• Working at height.
Function The technical training required is dependent on the requirements of the client,
Training ensures that O&M personnel are qualified to fulfil the roles needed by but as a minimum covers specific technician training for the relevant turbine
the wind farm while ensuring their own safety and those of colleagues. model.
What it costs Other key training qualification requirements includes operational safety rules for
high voltage switching and wind turbine operations
About £1 million per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this What’s in it
• Certification
AIS, ARCH, B&FC, CWind, Heightec, Maersk Training, MRS Training and
Rescue, National Wind Farm Training Centres, Offshore Marine Academy, • Training courses
ProntoPort and RelyOn Nutec. • Training examinations
The Global Wind Organisation (GWO) training standards are now widely adopted
in the offshore wind industry. The GWO is a non-profit body founded by leading
wind turbine suppliers and operators.
Key facts
Training is related to both technical aspects and to health and safety skills and
awareness.
Health and safety certificates required by personnel on the wind farm site
include:
• Electrical safety awareness
• Emergency first aid and advanced medical training
• Lifting and hoisting
• Manual handling
• Offshore survival training, including marine transfer
• Wind turbine rescue

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 137

 As well as the port facility, operators use remote land-based support, such as
O.1.3 Onshore logistics specific engineering advice and support, performance monitoring and 24/7
Function control room monitoring.

Onshore logistics provides parts and equipment to support wind farm operations, An onshore base consists of:
using quayside infrastructure, warehousing, lifting equipment, logistics and • Administration facilities and operations room
operational planning. • Lifting equipment, for example forklifts (600 kg) and small cranes (1 t) to
What it costs move components from the harbour to the vessel
About £540,000 per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. • Workshop facilities, workbench areas and tool storage

Who supplies this • Stores, with small components that do not need specialist vessels to facilitate
use
Onshore logistics are coordinated by the wind farm operators. The wind farm
owner typically occupies quayside facilities, operating on a long-term lease with • Wet and dry rooms, with space for personal protection equipment
the owner of the port infrastructure, to provide onshore logistics services. • Oil store, gas bottle store and waste management facilities

Key facts • Fuel bunker, and

Port facilities are required to be flexible to accommodate variable demand with • Parking spaces.
maintenance campaigns and site activities. Ideally, the warehousing and logistics What’s in it
buildings are close to the quayside to minimise the time loading support vessels.
• Facilities management
24/7 access from a chosen port in all states of tide increases flexibility to perform
maintenance operations without delay to enable weather windows to be
exploited. This can require port agreements to include requirements for dredging
to maintain adequate water depths.
A 450 MW wind farm employs up to about 50 people onsite, of which about half
are turbine technicians. The availability of skilled and experienced technicians is
a crucial factor in the successful operation of an offshore wind farm for wind farm
owners and operators. O&M facilities need 24/7 access, 365 days a year.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 138

O.2 Maintenance O.2.1 Turbine maintenance
Function Function
Maintenance activities ensure the ongoing operational integrity of the wind Effective turbine maintenance ensures the long-term productivity of the turbines.
turbines and associated balance of plant in response to faults, either proactively What it costs
or reactively.
About £14 million per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
What it costs Who supplies this
About £20 million per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
The wind turbine supplier, during the defect notification period (DNP) and for the
Who supplies this duration of any agreed contract beyond the DNP.
Maintenance activities are provided by a combination of the owner’s in-house The wind farm owner may seek to bring maintenance and repair capability in-
resources, wind turbine suppliers and third-party service providers. house or to engage an independent service provider (ISP). This typically requires
Key facts agreement with the manufacturer for the supply of spares, software systems and
specialist expertise.
There is considerable focus in the industry on optimising maintenance activities
ISPs include Deutsche Windtechnik, James Fisher Marine Services, Swire
to reduce OPEX whilst also achieving the targeted levels of availability and
Energy Services and Worley.
reliability. This optimisation is best achieved by taking a lifetime view of the
project economics, focussing on the LCOE. Operational management teams Key facts
consider the whole operational system to achieve this. The requirements for turbine maintenance are similar for floating and fixed
What’s in it offshore wind turbines. Conducting maintenance in a moving floating offshore
wind turbine presents additional challenges for health and safety when moving
• O.2.1 Turbine maintenance
items and motion-induced sickness. These issues are more significant at height
• O.2.2 Balance of plant maintenance
where any low frequency movement of the floating substructure is amplified.
• O.2.3 Statutory inspections
The initial service agreement typically covers the period of the turbine defect
warranty, which is usually five years. During this period, turbine technicians are
typically employed by the wind turbine supplier. The service agreement may
specify that technicians’ contracts are transferred to the wind farm owner on
expiry. This ensures continuity of staffing and removes technicians’ disincentive

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 139

to relocate to the wind farm site. Some owners employ their own technicians to
O.2.1.1 Blade inspection and minor repair
deliver a proportion of turbine maintenance from the start to build in-house
knowledge and capability, in agreement with the provider of the initial service Function
agreement. Blade inspection and minor repair consists of the inspection of the condition of
Activity is divided into preventive maintenance (scheduled) and corrective repair blades and repairing minor blade issues in a timely and cost-effective manner.
(unscheduled). The bulk of preventive maintenance is typically carried out during
periods of low wind speeds (usually the summer months) to minimise the impact
on production. However, this is not always achievable in practice.
Corrective repair is performed in response to unscheduled outages and is often
viewed as more critical, due to accruement of downtime until the fault is
resolved. The primary skills required are mechanical or electrical engineering,
with further turbine-maintenance training often provided by the relevant turbine
provider.
Typical maintenance includes inspection, checking of bolted joints and
replacement of worn parts (with design life less than the design life of the
project).
Unscheduled interventions are in response to events or failures. These may be
proactive (before failure occurs) for example responding to inspections or from
condition monitoring, or reactive (after failure that affects generation has
occurred).
Figure 43 Blade inspection and minor repair being carried out by a rope-
What’s in it
access technician. Image courtesy of Altitec. All rights reserved.
• O.2.1.1 Blade inspection and minor repair
Who supplies this
• O.2.1.2 Unmanned aerial vehicle
Repair service suppliers: Bladefence, Deutsche Windtechnik, GEV, Global Wind
Service, Mistras and Worley.
Inspection technology suppliers: ABJ, Cornis, Scoptico and SkySpecs.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 140

Key facts O.2.1.2 Unmanned aerial vehicle
Blade inspection and minor repair is an area of specific focus in the offshore wind
Function
industry. Issues such as leading-edge erosion have been the source of
availability issues in the industry, and proactive blade inspection and Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) provide low cost and safer external
preventative repair is now widely pursued in response. inspections of turbines.

Blade inspections are performed by drones equipped with high-resolution Who supplies this
cameras, by rope-access technicians or by high-resolution camera equipment Manufacturers: Aerial Vision, ASV Global, DJI and SkyFront.
located on the transition piece or vessel.
Operators: Cyberhawk, Esvagt, Force Technology, Perceptual Robotics and
Where minor repairs are required, this is sometimes possible using rope-access SkySpecs.
teams often using a blade platform suspended from the hub.
Key facts
Where a blade cannot be repaired in-situ or replaced at site, it is expected to be
Most UAVs for wind turbine inspection are multi-rotor copter drones.
towed back to port where the major repair or replacement can be undertaken
using either an onshore crane or a jack-up vessel. Drones are typically provided by specialist operators and are rented with
qualified pilots.
Blade inspection work typically requires the turbines to be stationary, therefore
there is a focus on performing inspection work during the less windy periods of Drones can perform an inspection in a fraction of the time required for a
the year to minimise lost energy production. traditional rope-access inspection.

Specialist expertise is required to undertake damage diagnostics and repair The drone can be equipped with a digital camera, a thermographic camera, or a
activities. combination, depending on the scope of the inspection task. A digital camera
provides proof of the visual failures and damages to the tower, nacelle, rotor
Automation of blade inspection and damage diagnostics is an active area of
blades and bolt jointing.
innovation, as is the ability run the diagnostics on an operating turbine (that is,
without the need for the rotor to be stationary). Thermographic inspection is a non-contact and non-destructive inspection
method that makes it possible to examine a large area of the blade for structural
What’s in it
defects and weaknesses in the blade. With infrared thermography, the drone
• Unmanned aerial vehicle monitors variations in the surface temperature of the blades.
• Rope-access technicians A number of specialist suppliers supply the industry with integrated drone
inspection, image diagnostics and data archiving services.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 141

What’s in it O.2.2 Balance of plant maintenance
• Data diagnostics, storage, and archiving
Function
• Flight planning
Balance of plant maintenance is focused on ensuring the operational integrity
and reliability of all wind farm assets other than the wind turbines, including the
substation(s), foundations, array cables, export cables, scour protection and
corrosion protection systems.

Figure 44 Technicians servicing the floating substructure at the

WindFloat Atlantic project. Photo of the WindFloat Atlantic project
courtesy of Principle Power/Ocean Winds.
What it costs
About £6 million per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 142

Who supplies this O.2.2.1 Floating substructure monitoring,
Acteon, CWind, Fred. Olsen, James Fisher Marine Services and Worley.
inspection, and minor repair
Key facts
Function
The balance of plant forms an integral part of the wind farm system. Proactive
balance of plant maintenance is a key aspect of a preventative maintenance Identify and address corrosion, structural and floating substructure subsystem
regime. problems above and below the water line on the floating substructure.

Regular inspections of all balance of plant elements are required to ensure Who supplies this
emerging issues are highlighted and remedial repair work is planned to avoid CWind, Deutsche Windtechnik, Fugro, Global Wind Service, Mistras, Offtech
loss of generation. Wind and Strainstall.
What’s in it Key facts
• O.2.2.1 Floating substructure monitoring, inspection, and minor repair Monitoring, inspection, and minor repair activities focus on the structural integrity
• O.2.2.2 Anchors and mooring system inspection and minor repair of the substructure, the secondary steelwork, its corrosion protection and the
• O.2.2.3 Cable monitoring, inspection, and minor repair various subsystems used on the floating substructure (see B.2 for further
information). This is in addition to statutory inspections.
• O.2.2.4 Scour monitoring and management
They are managed by the wind farm owner, although they are often
• O.2.2.5 Substation monitoring and maintenance
subcontracted to a specialist third party provider.
On some sites, cleaning is needed to remove seabird guano, which can be a
serious health and safety hazard.
Routine surveys are likely to be undertaken in the first two years but thereafter on
a less frequent basis across the wind farm, until the rate of defects observed
justifies more frequent monitoring and inspection. Inspection areas include:
• Corrosion protection systems
• External and internal surfaces
• Joints
• Mooring attachment points

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 143

• Subsystems (for example ballasting, auxiliary lights and power systems), and
O.2.2.2 Anchors and mooring system inspection
• Welds.
Activity needing subsea inspections are generally carried out using ROVs. Diving
and minor repair
is required only in exceptional circumstances and efforts are being made to Function
maximise the use of safer, remote techniques.
Identify and address corrosion and wear that occurs on anchors, mooring lines
What’s in it and jewellery.
• O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle Who supplies this
Ashtead Technology, HebDrone, Geo Oceans, InterMoor and Proceanic.
Key facts
Anchor inspection depends on the anchor type (see B.3.1 for further
information). Drag embedment anchors are buried in the sea bed and so
inspection usually involves checking burial depth. Suction anchors and driven
pile anchors are inspected for corrosion where they protrude out of the sea bed.
Mooring chains are either inspected using general visual inspections or close
visual inspections, usually using ROVs (see B.3.2 for further information). Chain
links are cleaned if this is necessary for inspection.
During inspection, ROVs visually inspect the whole chain lengths, especially at
critical points such as touch down points which receive the most wear. They use
callipers to take measurements of link diameters and link touch points. The data
is then compared to measurements taken during manufacturing.
ROVs can also conduct photogrammetry to build a digital model of the chain to
use in fatigue assessments and to monitor wear with time.
Synthetic mooring lines are inspected visually to check for wear and tear,
especially at attachment points for buoyancy devices and clump masses.
The frequency of inspections depends on what is being inspected. Chain in the
high-load environments like the touch down points may be inspected every six

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 144

months, or even more frequently, initially. Chain in lower-load environments can O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle
be inspected annually or even less frequently. Frequency of inspection also
depends on observed failure rates. Function
Mooring lines are replaced when observed wear breaches limits. Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are used to inspect underwater structures.

Jewellery such as links are inspected in a similar way to chains (see B.3.3 for Who supplies this
further information), whereas jewellery such as buoyancy devices and load Manufacturers: ECA Hytec, Saab Seaeye and Seatronics.
reduction devices are inspected visually.
Operators: Film-Ocean, Fugro, James Fisher Marine Services and ROVCO
In-line tensioners are inspected visually, but there is little else that can be done to
Key facts
ensure their condition, and their long-term performance has not been proven.
Inspection class ROVs are used to inspect the substructure, anchors, and
If an anchor or section of mooring line fails, then it is replaced as rapidly as
mooring systems below the water line. They are also used to inspect the cable
possible.
route, particularly in areas at risk of scour or other sea bed movements, and at
Early floating offshore wind farms may install load monitoring on mooring lines to
other high-risk locations, such as crossings with other cables.
understand how actual loads compare with calculated loads and with observed
Inspection ROVs typically have a speed of 3 to 5 kn, weigh 8 to 12 kg and have
degradation.
dimensions 1 m x 0.7 m x 0.5 m.
What’s in it
They are equipped with propulsion systems, lighting, and a range of imaging
• O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle equipment.
• O.2.2.2.2 Autonomous underwater vehicle ROVs are launched from a DP2 vessel equipped with an A frame or moon pool.
ROVs are attached to the vessel by umbilicals or tether cables which transmit
electrical power, data, and optical signals. Tethers and umbilicals are usually
strengthened with steel wire, to support the mechanical loads of the ROV
underwater.
Radio waves don’t travel far through water, so it’s not possible to operate an
ROV with wireless technology. There are acoustic and optical modem
technologies that may someday enable wireless operation.
The continued development and use of unmanned subsea inspection vessels is
an area of innovation.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 145

What’s in it O.2.2.2.2 Autonomous underwater vehicle
• Control system Function
• Lighting system
Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) provide low cost means of surveying
• Manipulator arm underwater, focussing on balance of plant assets such as cables and
• Power supply foundations.
• Propulsion system Who supplies this
• Remote camera Manufacturers: ECA Hytec, General Dynamics, Teledyne Marine Gavia and
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
Operators: Fugro, Modus and UTEC.
Key facts
AUVs have the intelligence to operate independently from the vessel and has no
connecting cables, whereas ROVs are connected to a remote operator.
AUVs have the potential to replace vessel-based surveys. They are launched
offshore from parent vessels.
AUVs can be launched from a CTV and therefore avoid the need for a larger
vessel with the lifting capacity needed to launch and recover an ROV.
What’s in it
• Crew to operate and maintain it
• Vision system and specialist tools

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 146

 Cable damage may result from the mobility of dynamic sections in the water
O.2.2.3 Cable monitoring, inspection, and minor
column, mechanical loads of wave and tidal action where the cable is exposed,
repair from anchors or fishing gear, or as a result of handling during transport or
installation that exceeds the cable’s specification. Although cables typically come
Function
with a two-year warranty, none of the main causes of damage is covered by the
Identify faults in the array and export cables themselves, in addition to any cable warranty.
accessories installed, and replace whole or sections of cable.
Excessive cable exposure or insufficient cable burial depth is typically resolved
Who supplies this by remedial measures including protective mattresses and rock dumping,
Boskalis, Briggs Marine, CWind, Offshore Marine Management, Pharos Offshore normally using a dynamically positioned fall pipe vessel, or occasionally side-
and Power CSL. dumping vessels. In the worst case, sections of cable may need to be reburied.
The owner is responsible for monitoring and surveying the cable and repairing it
Key facts
when required. The survey work and remedial work is likely to be subcontracted
Cables are monitored and inspected to ensure they are operating as intended
to a specialist provider.
and to identify issues that could lead to future faults (see B.1 for further
• Array cables are always owned by the wind farm owner.
information).
• Export cables are normally owned by the transmission system operator, or in
Dynamic and static cables are monitored and inspected using mostly the same
the UK they are transferred to an offshore transmission system owner
methods. The electrical performance of cables, joints and connectors is
(OFTO) within the first 18 months after works completion date.
monitored using techniques including distributed acoustic and temperature
sensing, and partial discharge monitoring. Surface or visual inspections are used Some offshore wind farms have redundant export cables so a fault on one cable
to monitor the cable exteriors, cable accessories, cable protection system and does not necessarily lead to loss of wind farm output.
cable entry/exit points from floating substructures, the sea bed and offshore Cable repair normally requires a full cable-laying spread consisting of a CLV with
substation foundations. Subsea visual inspections use ROVs. a cable plough or jetting equipment, with a quadrant to ensure that the minimum
The dynamic sections of array cables require additional visual inspection of the bend radius is not exceeded. On deck, the cable is cut, a new section inserted
buoyancy and ballast elements and where it is tied down to enter the sea bed. with cable joints linking the new and old sections, and any accessories are
replaced. Unlike in subsea telecoms, where cables are largely standardised,
The frequency and number of units inspected depends on the results of the initial
subsea power cables may differ substantially. In the past, bespoke joints have
surveys, and are varied as results change for subsequent inspections. Surface
been used but there is interest from transmission system operators in developing
surveys can be used to detect substantial cable exposure, but ROV surveys are
universal joints.
required for more accurate burial depth data.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 147

For array cables, shorter cable lengths and challenges in joining shorter cables
O.2.2.4 Scour monitoring and management
mean that replacement of the cable may be more cost effective than repair. If so,
the cable is cut or disconnected from each floating substructure, the array cable Function
length removed, and a new cable laid using the same process as for its Mitigates the risk of undermining sea bed movements on infrastructure installed
installation. below or on top of the sea bed, including at anchors and around the jacket
What’s in it foundation of the substation.

• I.2.3 Cable-laying vessel Who supplies this

• Maintenance record management Coda, Octopus, DHI, HR Wallingford, Norfolk Marine and Subsea Protection
• O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle Systems.

• Rock dumping vessel Key facts

The presence of scour (erosion of the sea bed surface) around marine structures
is common. Large diameter structures, like fixed monopile offshore wind turbine
foundations, are particularly prone to scour because of the deflection of water
movement around the structure.
Drag embedment anchors are buried under the sea bed (see B.3.1 for further
information). They require monitoring to ensure they remain buried at sufficient
depth. Suction and pile driven anchors protrude from the sea bed but are
typically small diameter structures meaning that scour is unlikely to develop as
quickly. The shallow embedded depths of drag embedment anchors means that
any scour that does occur presents a bigger risk to the anchor’s performance.
Scour is generally managed through rock (or grout, sand, or gravel) dumping.
Mats are generally placed on top and these stabilise the infill material and
prevent secondary scour. Frond mats, tyre-filled sacks and tyre-based mats
have also been used.
Concrete mattresses may also be used, potentially with protective mats, where
cables have become exposed.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 148

What’s in it O.2.2.5 Substation monitoring and maintenance
• Rock dumping
Function
• Sea bed inspection
Ensures there is no interruption to transmission from electrical failures or
• Scour protection mats
structural problems with the offshore platform.
Who supplies this
High voltage electrical contractors: ABB, GE Grid Solutions, Schneider Group
and Siemens Power Transmission and Distribution.
Offshore contractors: Deutsche Windtechnik, Petrofac.
Key facts
Monitoring and maintenance of the offshore substation primarily consists of non-
intrusive inspections of topside switchgear and transformers, sampling of
transformer oil, foundation and topside structural inspection and resulting
infrequent repair interventions (see B.4 for further information).
The owner carries out paint repairs and secondary steelwork repairs (for
example to railings, gratings, gates, stairs, and ladders).
Serious repair operations, such as replacing transformers, require heavy lift
vessels.
Rapid turnover parts and consumables are stored in a large warehouse at the
onshore base.
Back-up diesel generators require periodic maintenance and refuelling.
Access to the substation may be by vessel or helicopter but since few failures
require urgent attention, the weather downtime of vessels may not be as
important a consideration as it is for turbines. During planned power outages to
support detailed inspection and maintenance operations, careful planning is

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 149

required to ensure weather windows are used to avoid excessive wind farm
downtime if work cannot be completed and assets re-energised.
O.2.3 Statutory inspections
Onshore substation maintenance comprises non-intrusive inspections of Function
switchgear, transformers, and any reactive power compensation equipment (see Statutory inspections (and other health and safety inspections) are a crucial
B.5 for further information). Infrequent repair in response may be required. activity to ensure the ongoing safe operation of wind farm infrastructure and
Unlike many of the systems of an offshore wind farm the onshore substation is systems, and to fulfil statutory obligations to inspect safety-critical systems on a
almost entirely non-offshore wind specific, consisting of standard high-voltage regular basis.
electrical equipment. What it costs
What’s in it About £200,000 per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
• Inspection Who supplies this
• Maintenance record management
Bureau Veritas, DNV, SGS and TÜV SÜD
Key facts
Safety-critical items are subject to a statutory inspection regime, where there are
legal requirements including recommended inspection frequencies and method
of inspection. Inspections are carried out by qualified personnel, either as part of
the primary turbine maintenance works or by a team of independent inspectors.
Inspection frequencies are six-monthly or annual, depending on the equipment. If
a scheduled inspection has not been carried out then technicians are not
allowed to use the affected equipment, which may stop maintenance and repair
activities from being carried out.
Most owners train their own technicians for these roles as they are frequent but
require minimal time. Where there is a requirement for periodic statutory
inspections and certification, such as for fall arrest systems, independent
certifiers provide these services.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 150

Owners seek to perform inspections prior to other planned work being carried
O.2.3.1 Health and safety equipment
out in the summer months to minimise the likelihood of weather delays and
ensure equipment remains certified for use. Function
Safety-critical devices and equipment that require statutory inspections include: Health and safety equipment provides personnel with access to vital equipment
• Anchor points to reduce the risk of injury, and to provide equipment to assist in emergency
situations.
• Boat landing and ladders
• Davit cranes Who supplies this
• External gates and railings and floor gratings Aspli, Trauma Resus, Viking Life Saving Equipment and WFE Safety.

• External evacuation and rescue equipment Key facts

• Fall arrest systems A comprehensive set of health, safety and personal protection equipment is
• Firefighting equipment and fire prevention equipment carried in the project vessels or stored in each turbine. Running stock is
maintained at the onshore O&M logistics facilities.
• First aid supplies & equipment
Turbines have basic emergency equipment to permit overnight occupation in the
• Navigation aids and aviation lighting
turbine in the event of personnel being stranded due to access restrictions.
• Pressure systems
Typical health, safety and personal protection equipment includes:
• Turbine cranes
• Advanced medical kits
What’s in it • Ear defenders and safety eyewear
• O.2.3.1 Health and safety equipment • Emergency communications devices
• Emergency rations and water
• Eye-washing kits
• First aid kits for minor injuries
• Fire extinguishers and suppressants
• Fuel and diesel spill kits
• Gloves and safety boots

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 151

• Rescue equipment including descenders, spinal boards and stretchers, hub
rescue equipment, and O.3 Major repair
• Survival suits, personal locator beacon, life-vests, and floatation devices. Function
What’s in it The major refurbishment, replacement, and repair of large components such as
• Inventory tracking gearboxes, blades, transformers, generators, substructures, or substation
components at the wind farm.
Who supplies this
Major repair in-situ will be supplied by marine contractors with suitable vessels.
Major repair using tow-to-port requires AHVs, construction ports and large
cranes.
Key facts
The major repair of large components is not a pre-planned activity in wind farm
O&M. Incidents are rare but do occur when critical components have failed, are
likely to fail imminently or present health and safety risks.
Major repair of large components at fixed offshore wind farms usually takes place
on-site using jack-up vessels. This approach is not available for floating offshore
wind farms as the water depths are likely to be too deep for jack-up vessels.
Major repair for floating offshore wind farms can be completed by either towing
the assembled wind turbine to port and completing any work at the quayside, or
in-situ using motion-compensated vessels. The technology required to facilitate
floating to floating lifts for in-situ major repair is not currently available.
What’s in it
• O.3.1 Main component refurbishment, replacement, and repair (in-situ)
• O.3.2 Main component refurbishment, replacement, and repair (tow-to-port)

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 152

 There are many innovations being progressed to address this challenge. In the
O.3.1 Main component refurbishment, future, in-situ refurbishment, replacement, and repair is expected to be a cost-
replacement, and repair (in-situ) effective option for the largest components.
What’s in it
Function
• Replacement parts
The major refurbishment, replacement, and repair of large components such as
• SOVs with motion compensated crane
gearboxes, blades, transformers, generators, substructures, or substations at
the wind farm. • Specialised lifting equipment

Who supplies this

Boskalis, Fred. Olsen, Heerema, James Fisher Marine Services, Maersk,
Saipem, Seajacks, Subsea 7, TechnipFMC, Van Oord and Ziton.
Key facts
All but the shallowest floating offshore wind farms are located at sites too deep to
use jack-up vessels for main component refurbishment, replacement, and repair
at site.
Nevertheless, on-board turbine service cranes can lift substantial loads from the
nacelle to the floating substructure level to exchange or repair some major parts.
Exchange is carried out in one visit, followed by off-site refurbishment. Retrofit
programmes are carefully planned to ensure effective vessel utilisation taking
into account repair turnaround times. This means that asset downtime, and
hence lost revenue, is minimised, but requires the availability of spare
components.
Any lift from the floating substructure to a vessel needs to be heave
compensated as a minimum, and ideally 3-D motion compensated.
The technology to facilitate floating-floating lifts for the largest components, such
as gearboxes, is not currently available. Conducting component replacement in-
situ for these items, therefore, is not an option.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 153

 the floating offshore wind turbine could be towed to a sufficiently shallow,
O.3.2 Main component refurbishment, sheltered site where a jack-up crane vessel would be used.
replacement, and repair (tow-to-port) Tow-to-port also requires floating offshore wind turbines to be disconnected and
reconnected from cables and moorings.
Function
Due to the unavailability of in-situ main component refurbishment, replacement,
The major refurbishment, replacement, and repair of large components such as and repair, this is the only option currently available to floating offshore wind farm
gearboxes, blades, transformers, generators, substructures, or substations at a owners.
port.
Retrofit programmes are carefully planned to ensure effective vessel utilisation,
Who supplies this taking into account repair turnaround times. This means that asset downtime,
AHVs: Boskalis, Bourbon Offshore, Damen, DOF Subsea, Maersk, MMA and hence lost revenue, is minimised.
Offshore, Siem Offshore, SEACOR Marine, Solstaad Offshore and Vard Marine. What’s in it
Construction ports in the UK: Aberdeen, Cromarty Firth and Dundee. • I.4.1 Anchor-handling vessel
Jack-up cranes: DEME, Fred. Olsen, Jan de Nul, Seajacks, Seaway 7, and Van • I.8 Construction port
Oord.
• Jack-up vessel or land-based crane
Key facts
Conducting main component refurbishment, replacement and repair in-situ is
challenging as motion-compensated lifting operations are required. Alternatively,
floating offshore wind turbines can be towed to port for main component
refurbishment, replacement, and repair to take place.
This involves disconnecting the floating offshore wind turbine from its moorings
and cables and towing it to a port using AHVs. At the port, maintenance work
can be undertaken using a jack-up vessel or a large land-based crane.
A tow-to-port strategy is less attractive than an in-situ strategy because turbine
downtime is longer, resulting in larger revenue losses. It also requires floating
offshore wind turbines to be towed to a construction port with the space, facilities
and water depth required to repair floating offshore wind turbines. Alternatively,

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 154

O.4 Offshore vessels and logistics Robust communication equipment and infrastructure is a key element of offshore
logistics in order to ensure live communication between all personnel.
Function Small wind farms close to shore use CTVs to provide daily transport to the wind
farm for technicians. Large wind farms further from shore use SOVs to house
Offshore vessels are used to access offshore infrastructure, and offshore
technicians offshore for multiple weeks at a time to conduct maintenance
logistics involves management and coordination of all marine-based activities
campaigns.
and operations.
Some portfolios leverage benefits of scale by using SOVs to service several
What it costs
smaller wind farms in the same geographical region.
About £1 million per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
What’s in it
Who supplies this
• O.4.1 Crew transfer vessels
James Fisher Marine Services, SeaRoc, Vissim and WindandWater.
• O.4.2 Service operation vessels
The wind farm owner establishes and manages a marine operations centre at the
• O.4.3 Turbine access systems
main O&M port.
• O.4.4 Helicopters
Key facts
Marine coordination involves the 24/7 monitoring of the locations of all vessels
and personnel within the vicinity of the project, including the supply and
interpretation of specialist tools such as marine coordination software.
Cameras are often located on selected offshore structures to enable CCTV feeds
to review conditions and monitor offshore activities.
Operators need to make judgements about the priority of activities based on the
scheduled maintenance and unscheduled service workload and weather
forecast. The industry is increasingly adopting software simulation tools to
maximise operational efficiency in relation to scheduling tasks and deploying
resources, taking account of weather conditions, sea state, vessel capability and
operational priorities.
Bigger wind farms further offshore and with more complex operational systems
increase the logistical challenge.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 155

 What it costs
O.4.1 Crew transfer vessels
The charter day rate for a CTV is about £2,000 (excluding fuel), depending on
Function specification, availability, and contract period.
Crew transfer vessels (CTVs) provide access for technicians and contractors to Who supplies this
the wind turbines from the onshore O&M base to turbine locations and
Manufacturers: Alicat, Fjellstrand, Manor Renewables, South Boats and Umoe.
substation. CTVs are the preferred access solution for projects closer to shore.
Vessel operators: Acta Marine Wind Services, MPI Workboats, Northern
Offshore Services, Turbine Transfers and Windcat Workboats.
Key facts
CTVs transport personnel to the wind farm on a daily basis and do not have
overnight facilities.
Key requirements are robust vessels that can operate in adverse weather
conditions. Wind farm operators typically use aluminium catamarans up to 30 m
long with capacity for 12 to 16 technicians.
CTVs are typically Class I passenger ships, as classified by the Maritime and
Coastguard Agency, which enable them to work further than 60 nm from a safe
haven. These vessels can be built to carry up to 24 passengers. Vessel speeds
can be up to 30 kn and vessels are designed to transfer maintenance team
members in comfort and safety to the wind farm ready to start work.
There is an oversupply of small CTVs (less than 20 m), with operators typically
opting for larger vessels with longer ranges and better sea keeping.
There is interest in SWATH (small waterplane area, twin hull) and SWASH (small
waterplane area, single hull) type vessels to increase technician comfort and
lower weather downtime.
Figure 45 A crew transfer vessel servicing the WindFloat Atlantic floating
offshore wind farm. Photo of the WindFloat Atlantic project courtesy of CTVs may have fixed or controlled pitch propellers but operators may prefer the
Principle Power/Ocean Winds. increased manoeuvrability of water jets. Vessels with a smaller draught (less than

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 156

2 m) may be used where harbours are more challenging to operate from due to
water depths.
O.4.2 Service operation vessels
CTVs have a load capacity up to 30 t for turbine components and consumables, Function
as equipment. Fuel is not typically included in the charter cost and there is an Service operation vessels (SOVs) provide an offshore O&M base, with staff
important emphasis on fuel efficiency of vessels. working from the vessel for periods of two to four weeks at sea. SOVs are the
What’s in it preferred way to maintain wind farms located far from shore.

• Crew
• Technicians

Figure 46 Fleet of service operation vessels servicing a fixed offshore

wind farm. Image courtesy of North Star Renewables. All rights reserved.
What it costs
The charter day rate for an SOV is about £30,000 per day depending on size
and fit out (excluding fuel).

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 157

Who supplies this O.4.3 Turbine access systems
Manufacturers: Astilleros Gondanm Cemre, Damen, Royal IHC and Ulstein.
Function
Vessel operators: Acta Marine, Bernard Schulte, Bibby Marine, Esvagt, Louis
Dreyfus Travocean, Østensjø Rederi and Vroon. Turbine access systems provide access to the turbine from a CTV or SOV.
Systems are designed to permit access to the turbines in as wide a range of sea-
Key facts
states as possible, in the interests of maximising possible maintenance time and
SOVs offer accommodation, mess, and welfare facilities for wind farm technician
turbine availability.
staff, as well as workshop and spares storage. SOVs stay at the wind farm for up
to four weeks at a time, at which point they return to home port to restock and What it costs
change crews. Costs typically included in vessel costs.
Access to the wind turbines is achieved either by smaller CTV, daughter craft, by Who supplies this
helicopter, or directly from the SOV using a turbine access system.
Ampelmann, Fjellstrand, Houlder, Osbit, Uptime and Windcat Workboats.
SOVs have operational speeds of up to 15 kn. They are equipped with dynamic
Key facts
positions systems. Vessel manoeuvrability is a key requirement to reduce
positioning time and therefore costs. For this reason, there is little use of surplus Many SOV turbine access systems are based on motion-compensated
platform support vessels (PSVs) from the oil and gas industry. PSVs have a more gangways that react in real time to changes in the sea surface, providing a stable
important role in supporting installation and commissioning. platform to allow personnel to walk from the vessel onto the turbine. Motion
compensating gangways have been trialled on CTVs.
SOVs can typically accommodate a crew between 50 and 100, of which up to 50
may be wind farm workers. Such systems are designed within operational limits and do not permit access in
the most severe sea states.
What’s in it
What’s in it
• Accommodation berths
• Control systems
• Mess, welfare, and leisure facilities
• Hydraulics
• Motion-compensated crane
• Steel infrastructure
• Spares and tooling storage
• Walk to work system
• Workshop facilities

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 158

 Helicopters rarely land on the offshore installations, with technicians being
O.4.4 Helicopters winched down to the turbine. Helicopters are limited by weight restrictions and
Function typically carry two to six technicians depending on the type of helicopter. The
type of spare parts and tools that can be carried is limited by weight and size.
Helicopters are used to provide access for technicians and contractors to the
wind turbines and offshore substation. Helicopters are normally contracted on a long-term basis, with either exclusive or
shared access to the aircraft.
What it costs
What’s in it
About £200,000 per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. This is
dependent on the level of expected use (such as flying hours and helicopter • Specialist offshore pilot training
type) defined by the operational strategy.
Who supplies this
Manufacturers: Airbus, Leonardo, and Sikorsky.
Operators: Babcock, Bond Aviation Group, Heli Service International and
Northern Helicopter.
Key facts
Helicopters allow access in otherwise inaccessible sea state conditions. Their
high speeds and low carrying capacities fit well with the dispersed nature of
offshore wind projects and the high frequency of low effort interventions that
make up a large proportion of offshore visits.
The high costs mean that helicopters are not used as primary means of
technician transport. They can be cost-effective for projects at the limit of the
effective range of CTVs for which the fixed cost of SOVs is unattractive.
Arrangements to use local airports need to be developed or a dedicated
helicopter base set up at the operations port. This usually requires additional
planning consent. It is important to locate the helicopter close to the operations
base to reduce inefficiencies in journey time.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 159

 Who supplies this
O.5 O&M port
Any port with the necessary facilities, located within a suitable distance of the
Function floating offshore wind farm, could become an O&M port. Aberdeen and
O&M ports provide facilities from which long-term O&M activities are carried out Peterhead are the first in the UK used to support floating offshore wind farms,
– such as jetties or quaysides for CTVs and SOVs, warehouses, workshops, and which service Kincardine and Hywind Scotland respectively.
offices – and which support major repairs. There are expected to be a smaller number of major repair ports as these have
more specific requirements. The Port of Nigg, for example, has suitable facilities
and is well-located to support floating ScotWind projects.
Key facts
O&M ports for floating offshore wind farms are expected to be similar to those for
fixed, whether using CTVs or SOVs.
Typically, wind farm owners look to use the nearest port that meets its
specifications to minimise transfer times and reduce the risk of time being lost
due to bad weather. Nevertheless, owners typically competitively tender the
contract for the provision of port services. For wind farms further from shore, the
use of offshore accommodation and other facilities (possibly shared with other
wind farms) becomes more attractive.
Port location is critical. Far from shore port requirements differ from a wind farm
that is operated using CTVs and workboats only.
Tow-to-port maintenance almost always requires a different port as ballasted
semi-submersible floating substructures have drafts of 15 to 20 m. A
construction base port for floating offshore wind projects could have the depth
Figure 47 The Port of Peterhead which is being used as the operations
requirements and facilities to do this work, such as quaysides and cranes (see
and maintenance port for the Hywind Scotland project. Image of
I.8 for further information).
Peterhead Port courtesy of Camtech Engineering. All rights reserved.
If suitable O&M ports are not available for floating offshore wind, floating offshore
What it costs wind turbines need to be moored in storage areas outside of the O&M port and
About £180,000 per annum for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. serviced using a jack-up crane vessel.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 160

Safe means of transfer onto vessels is needed. This often requires the installation What’s in it
of pontoons to ensure a level access route in all tidal conditions.
• Jetties
Each support vessel needs a berth of up to 30 m. A 450 MW wind farm may
• Operations office
require the operation of two or three vessels, depending on the distance from the
wind farm to shore and the maintenance strategies chosen, although up to • Parking
five berths may be specified in order to provide capacity for peak periods. • Quaysides
Uninterrupted access requires the availability of a non-drying harbour with • Warehouses
minimal tidal restrictions. • Wet storage, for floating offshore wind turbines being repaired
O&M port facilities required include:
• Workshops
• Jetties for CTVs, with approximately 35 m per CTV, depending on the size of
CTV used, and a minimum draft of 3 m, often with 2 t SWL telescopic boom
jetty cranes
• Quaysides for SOVs, with approximately 100 m quayside per SOV and
minimum draft of 7 to 8 m.
• Warehouses for spare parts
• Workshops for work such as sorting equipment brought back from site,
kitting of parts and equipment to go to site, and minor refurbishment
• Office buildings to house the operations control centre and other project
operations staff, and
• Convenient access for O&M technicians.
Ideally all ports would be as close as possible to the floating offshore wind farm.
In practice they are generally:
• O&M ports using CTVs: generally, within 40 km.
• O&M ports using SOVs: generally, within 200 km.
• Repair ports: could be a long way from the wind farm site but are expected
to be used infrequently.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 161

D Decommissioning
permission is likely to be sought to deviate from decommissioning plans as the
sector’s decommissioning techniques mature. The UK Government acts as
decommissioner of last resort.
Function Decommissioning of installed floating offshore wind turbines will require complete
Removal or making safe of the infrastructure of a floating offshore wind farm at removal of the floating offshore wind turbine and its mooring system. The
the end of its useful life, plus disposal of equipment. process for decommissioning anchors depends on the technology adopted and
its sea bed connection.
What it costs
For nacelle components, towers, and steel floating substructures the potential for
About £66 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm (gross, excluding any
recycling is considerable. There is no established process for recycling
resale value of equipment removed).
composite materials such as those used in the blades. Several manufacturers
Who supplies this are developing new composite materials and processes to enable blade
Contractors will be similar to those used for installation. materials to be reused.
It is likely that other offshore operators will also enter the space, including firms Careful planning is needed to ensure that hazardous materials, such as the oil
with offshore oil and gas decommissioning experience. used in transformers, are not spilled.
Key facts Environmental surveys will typically be required before and after
decommissioning, along with post-decommissioning management of the site in
At the end of the initial design life of a floating offshore wind farm, there are a
line with the Energy Act 2004.
number of options:
• Extend the operational life of existing assets through a programme of risk What’s in it
assessments, inspections, addressing regulatory aspects, and component • D.1 Floating offshore wind turbine decommissioning
replacement. • D.2 Anchor and mooring system decommissioning
• Repower the site with new turbines, which are expected to be larger. This • D.3 Cable decommissioning
requires decommissioning the existing floating offshore wind turbines,
• D.4 Offshore substation decommissioning
mooring lines, and array cables. It could be possible to extend the life of
• D.5 Decommissioning port
electrical transmission assets.
• D.6 Reuse, recycling, or disposal
• Fully decommission the site.
Properly financed decommissioning plans typically are required as part of
planning approval to construct the floating offshore wind farm. In practice,

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 162

D.1 Floating offshore wind turbine enable the use of different equipment or operations in a wider range of operating
conditions.

decommissioning What’s in it
• I.6 Floating offshore wind turbine installation
Function
Disconnection of floating offshore wind turbine from moorings and cables at the
wind farm site and tow back-to-port. It includes disassembly into smaller
assemblies or components for reuse, recycling, or disposal.
What it costs
About £3 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Expected to be the same as the floating offshore wind turbine installers.
Key facts
The floating offshore wind turbine decommissioning process is the reverse, at a
high-level, of the installation process. The floating offshore wind turbine is
disconnected from mooring lines and cables at the site. It is then towed back to
the port using AHVs and smaller support vessels, for wind turbine and floating
substructure disassembly.
Where it is determined that the remaining life is sufficient, there will be a market
for reuse of second-hand components, either as spares or re-installation
elsewhere, for example yaw motors or anemometers.
In general, the removal process will be quicker than for installation because
minor damage to components will be less critical. If components are to be
recycled rather than reused, then less care needs to be taken to preserve the
delicate aerodynamic surfaces and the condition of components. This may

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 163

D.2 Anchor and mooring system • Drag embedment anchors are relatively easy to remove, with several
different techniques being used. These vary according to the design of the

decommissioning anchor but include pulling the anchor upwards and in the opposite direction
to its operational loading.
Function • Suction-embedment anchors are also relatively easy to remove. A high-
pressure line is connected to the anchor using an ROV and water is pumped
Removal and shipment to shore of anchors and mooring systems.
into the anchor to reverse the embedment process.
What it costs
• Piled anchors are most likely to cut off at an agreed height, or the pile driven
About £18 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm. under the sea bed and left in position. Initially, the process is likely to draw on
Who supplies this the fixed offshore industry’s experience of decommissioning monopile
structures.
Expected to be the same as the anchor and mooring installers.
Key facts What’s in it
• I.4.1 Anchor-handling vessel
Decommissioning plans may define specific requirements for removal of
components below the mud line which may drive the choice or design of anchors • O.2.2.2.1 Remotely operated vehicle
and installation methods.
The removal process is likely to involve the use of a work-class ROV fitted with a
vision system and a range of cutting and drilling tools. These include guillotine
saws, hydraulic hole cutting tools (for making lifting holes) and abrasive waterjet
cutting.
Mooring lines are disconnected from the floating substructure, then
disconnected from anchors, then brought onto the deck of an AHV (see I.4 for
further information). Where the connection to the anchor is not accessible, the
mooring line may be cut. As they are brought on board any buoyancy modules,
clump weights and load-reduction devices are removed.
The removal of anchors depends on their type and the commitments made in the
decommissioning plan:

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 164

 What’s in it
D.3 Cable decommissioning
• I.2 Offshore cable installation
Function
Removal and shipment to shore of cables.
What it costs
About £33 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Expected to be the same as the cable installers.
In addition, companies such as CRS Holland, Pharos Offshore and Subsea
Environmental Services can carry out subsea cable recovery.
Key facts
The value, especially of the main conductor material in array and export cables,
is such that it is likely to cost effective to remove the cables.
There will be no significant differences in the process of decommissioning
subsea cables for floating offshore wind farms compared to fixed offshore wind
farms.
Cables will be disconnected at each end. They are then pulled from the sea bed
and wound on to drums or cut into short sections for storage on the
decommissioning vessel. Cable accessories, including any buoyancy modules or
cable protection installed, will be removed with the cable. The method of gripping
and pulling the cable will depend on how the cable is fixed to the sea bed, the
ground conditions and burial depth (if buried). For buried cables in sandy
conditions the approach is likely to involve fluidising the sea bed while the cable
is pulled. The industry is likely to develop new tools for the process.
Particular care is needed at cable crossings with other power or
telecommunications cables to avoid damage to functioning assets.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 165

 What’s in it
D.4 Offshore substation
• I.1 Offshore substation installation
decommissioning
Function
Removal of the offshore substation and its substructure to shore.
What it costs
About £12 million for a 450 MW floating offshore wind farm.
Who supplies this
Likely to be the same as the offshore substation installers.
Key facts
Decommissioning plans may define specific requirements for removal of
components below the mud line which may then drive the choice or design of
offshore substation foundation or floating substructure, and installation methods.
The process is likely to be a reverse of the installation process. Fixed offshore
substations will be dismantled using a large vessel. It may prove cheaper to cut
the structure into sections to enable a series of smaller lifts that can be
undertaken by a lower cost vessel. Floating offshore substations will be towed
back to port for decommissioning.
In some cases, there will be a market for reuse of refurbished electrical
components.
If the remaining life of the substation, after refurbishment, is sufficient, the
substation could be left in-situ and reused for a repowered wind farm of the same
capacity.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 166

D.5 Decommissioning port D.6 Reuse, recycling, or disposal
Function Function
The port where equipment removed is offloaded and marshalled for the next Once equipment is onshore, there is a motivation to extract maximum value via
stage of its processing. reuse, recycling, or disposal.
What it costs What it costs
Included in decommissioning contract for each of the components. Overall, likely to be a net positive value.
Who supplies this Who supplies this
Similar to construction ports for floating offshore wind, but also including facilities Delta Marine, DUC Marine Group and Scaldis Salvage & Marine.
with a lower specification and locations dedicated to decommissioning. Key facts
Examples in the UK include Aberdeen, Cromarty Firth and Dundee, and
Currently, different parts of decommissioned onshore wind turbines are reused,
specialist decommissioning facilities at Seaton.
recycled, or disposed of, depending on age, condition and material content.
Non-UK ports include Ferrol (ES), Nouvelle (FR) and Rotterdam (NL). There is an established second-hand market for onshore turbines known to be
Key facts robust and reliable with sufficient fatigue life remaining. The turbines are
refurbished and installed on new foundations for operation up to 50% beyond the
Facilities similar to those used for installation will be required. Large structures to
design life.
be broken up are likely to be transported to facilities dedicated to such activity.
Offshore costs and financing mean it is unlikely that offshore turbines will be
Ideally, decommissioning ports will have salvage and processing facilities on site.
decommissioned with sufficient fatigue life remaining to be re-installed offshore.
Some ports may develop expertise in handling certain types of materials. Some
Turbines are typically disassembled for recyclable scrap. The majority of nacelle
specialisations developed as part of oil and gas decommissioning may be
and tower mass has residual value and only small amounts of turbine mass
valuable, even if this involves additional transit time from the floating offshore
requires disposal. Turbines contain a range of valuable materials including steel,
wind farm site.
cast iron, copper, aluminium and in the future, permanent magnet materials.
What’s in it
Today, most composite blades cannot be cost-effectively recycled. It is likely that
• I.8 Construction port new materials and methods will emerge by the time floating offshore wind
turbines are deployed at large scale, as there are a range of projects underway
in this area.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 167

Blades are typically made from a combination of glass and carbon-fibre in epoxy-
or polyester-based resin matrices, along with polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
foam or balsa filler. At the root end, there are steel inserts to provide bolted
connection to the blade bearing. There is also typically a copper-based lightning
protection system.
So far, blades have been cut up and either sent for burning (in waste to energy
or district heating plant), to landfill or for low-grade re-use. The first more easily
recyclable blades are however now in use offshore.
Most steel floating substructures, anchors, moorings, substation topsides and
substation foundations have high steel content. This can be broken down and
recycled as input to the manufacture of new steel components. Synthetic rope
used in mooring lines can also be used for other applications. Some substation
components may be reused. Others can be recycled, again with relatively low
proportion having no residual value and requiring safe disposal.
Concrete floating substructures can be broken down and the aggregate used in
other concrete construction.
The cable conductor can be readily processed and reused in a range of sectors.
XLPE insulation may be cleaned, dried and ground, and recycled as filler for new
power cables or as insulation in lower voltage cables or accessories.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 168

Glossary Term
Balance of plant
Definition
Includes all the components of the wind farm except the
Table 3 Glossary of floating offshore wind terms. (BoP) turbines, including transmission assets built as a direct
result of the wind farm.
Term Definition
Anchor Structures embedded into the sea bed that resist the Barge A major type of floating substructure. It has a single hull
loads from the mooring lines or a floating substructure, that pierces the waterline and may be ballasted to
or the tendons of a tension leg platform. provide additional stability.

Annual energy The amount of energy generated in a year. Gross AEP is Department for UK government department that is responsible for
production (AEP) the predicted annual energy production based on the Business, Energy, business, industrial strategy, science and innovation
turbine power curve, excluding losses. Net AEP is the and Industrial and energy and climate change policy.
metered annual energy production at the offshore Strategy (BEIS)
substation, so includes wind farm downtime, wake, Consent Planning permission.
electrical and other losses. Cable protection Cable protection systems protect the subsea cable
Array cable Electrical cable that connects the turbines to each other system (CPS) against various external aggressions. Systems include
and the offshore substation. bend restrictors and bend stiffeners where the cable
Assembly (pre- Pre-assembly: the assembly of components to form may be subject to increased loading.
assembly and final major sub-assemblies, such as the pre-assembly of Capacity factor Ratio of annual energy production to maximum energy
assembly) tower sections into a tower. production if the turbine / wind farm ran at rated power
Final assembly: the assembly of major subassemblies all year.
with the floating substructure, to form an assembled Capital expenditure Spend on all activities up until works completion date.
floating offshore wind turbine. (CAPEX)
Availability The percentage of time the assets are available to Catenary A type of curve, its shape results from the force of
produce / transfer power if the wind speed is within the gravity acting on the self-weight of a flexible line
operational range of the turbine. between two supported end points. Examples include a
mooring chain or a dynamic array cable.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 169

 Term Definition Term Definition
Contract for Contract where government agrees to pay the wind Engineer, procure, A common form of contracting for offshore construction.
difference (CfD) farm owner the difference between an agreed strike construct, and The contractor takes responsibility for a wide scope and
price and the average market price of electricity install (EPCI) delivers via own and subcontract resources.
(reference price). If the difference is negative the wind Export cable Electrical cable that connects the onshore and offshore
farm owner pays the difference to the government. substations, or between an AC offshore substation and
Crew transfer A vessel used to transport wind farm technicians and a DC converter substation.
vessel (CTV) other personnel to the offshore wind farm turbines either Front end Front-end engineering and design (FEED) studies
from port or from a fixed or floating base. Vessels engineering and address areas of wind farm system design and develop
operating today are typically specially designed design (FEED) the concept of the wind farm in advance of
catamarans that accommodate around 12 passengers. procurement, contracting and construction.
Cross-linked A thermoset material widely used as electrical insulation Final investment The point at which a developer has in place all the
polyethylene in power cables. decision (FID) consents, agreements and major contracts required to
(XLPE) commence project construction (or these are near
Decommissioning Spend on removal or making safe of floating offshore execution form) and there is a firm commitment from
expenditure infrastructure at the end of its useful life, plus disposal of equity holders and debt funders to provide funding to
(DECEX) equipment. cover the majority of construction costs.
Dynamic cable The section of a cable, whether array or export, that is Floating offshore A wind farm that uses floating offshore wind turbines.
suspended from a floating substructure and hangs in wind farm
the water column. The floating end moves (hence the Floating offshore The integrated wind turbine and floating substructure.
term dynamic) relative to the end that is attached to the wind turbine The same term is used whether it is in a port or
sea bed, due to various loads on the substructure and connected via its mooring system at the wind farm site.
the suspended cable.
Floating A buoyant substructure for turbines, or offshore
Environmental Assessment of the potential impact of the proposed substructure substations, anchored to the sea bed via mooring lines.
impact assessment development on the physical, biological, and human The term includes several substructure types including
(EIA) environment during construction, operation and spar buoy, barge, tension leg platform and semi-
decommissioning. submersible.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 170

 Term Definition Term Definition
Gas insulated Gas-insulated switchgear is often chosen for its Jewellery The collective term for equipment attached to a mooring
switchgear (GIS) compactness and increased reliability over air insulated line, including: floatation elements, clump masses,
switchgear but has higher cost. shackles, H-links and load reduction devices.
Gigawatt (GW) and Unit of power and unit of energy. Levelised cost of Levelised cost of energy is a commonly used measure
Gigawatt hour energy (LCOE) of the cost of electricity production. It is defined as the
(GWh) revenue required (from whatever source) to earn a rate
High voltage An electric power transmission system that uses of return on investment equal to the WACC over the life
alternating current alternating current for the bulk transmission of electrical of the wind farm. Tax and inflation are not modelled.
(HVAC) power. Alternating current is the form in which electric Mean high water The average tidal height throughout the year of two
power is generated by wind turbines and delivered to an springs (MHWS) successive high waters during those periods of 24 hours
end user. when the range of the tide is at its greatest.
High voltage direct An electric power transmission system that uses direct Mean sea level The average tidal height over a long period of time.
current (HVDC) current for the bulk transmission of electrical power. For (MSL)
long-distance transmission, HVDC systems may offer Megawatt (MW) Unit of power and unit of energy.
lifetime cost advantages over HVAC systems over long and Megawatt hour
transmission distances. They are currently only used for (MWh)
point-to-point connections.
Monopile A type of foundation with a cylindrical tube (normally
Horizontal Horizontal directional drilling is a low impact (trenchless) foundation steel) that is normally driven tens of metres into the sea
directional drilling method of installing underground cables using a bed, although it can also be inserted into pre-drilled
(HDD) surface-launched drilling rig. holes.
Jacket foundation A major type of fixed foundation used for offshore Mooring line The line used to connect a floating substructure to an
substations and wind turbines. It consists of a small anchor. It can be made from steel chain, steel wire
number of legs which support the major loads, rope, or synthetic fibre rope.
connected to each other by braces to prevent buckling.
Offshore substation The structure used to transform and transfer the energy
(OSS) collected by the wind turbines to land in the most
efficient manner. It may involve increasing the voltage,

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 171

 Term Definition Term Definition
providing reactive compensation, and converting the Typical maintenance includes inspection, checking of
current from AC to DC. Some wind farms may have bolted joints and replacement of wear parts (with design
more than one offshore substation and equipment may life less than the design life of the project).
be located on a number of smaller structures and Maintenance also includes the unscheduled
potentially on one or more turbine transition pieces. interventions in response to events or failures.
Offshore An OFTO, appointed in UK by Ofgem (Office of Gas and Interventions may be proactive (before failure occurs,
Transmission Electricity Markets), has ownership and responsibility for for example responding to inspections or condition
Owner (OFTO) the transmission assets of an offshore wind farm. monitoring or reactive (after failure that affects
Operational Spend on all activities from work completion date until generation has occurred). Also included are
expenditure decommissioning. interventions due to major components not lasting the
(OPEX) full turbine design life (even if intervention was planned
prior to construction) and both on site repair and
Operations and O&M comprises wind farm O&M and onshore
replacement of large and small components.
maintenance transmission O&M.
(O&M) Ports Manufacturing port: where equipment is made and
Definitions of O and M are as follows:
shipped from, such as turbines or balance of plant.
Operations: day-to-day management including all the
Construction port: where equipment is stored and pre-
work not covered under maintenance and service. For
assembled, then finally assembled, before transport to
wind farm O&M, this includes cost for port facilities,
site.
buildings, management personnel, environmental
monitoring and community engagement. O&M port: the base port for operations and
maintenance vessels and supporting materials.
Maintenance of assets: scheduled (that is, planned a
long time in advance) maintenance, that may be based Major repair port: a port which can accommodate major
on suppliers' recommendations or owner's experience. repairs of floating offshore wind turbines.
It includes condition-based or time-based maintenance Remotely operated ROVs are remotely guided subsea mobile devices. They
programmes and planned health and safety inspections. vehicle (ROV) are usually deployed from a vessel. ROVs can be used
for inspections or to carry out handling and repair.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 172

 Term Definition Term Definition
Self-propelled SPMTs are remotely operated flatbed haulers used to Tension leg A major type of floating substructure. It is relatively small
modular transport large and heavy objects around ports and platform (TLP) compared to other types of floating substructure and its
transporter (SPMT) construction sites. stability is provided by vertical, or predominantly
Semi-submersible A major type of floating substructure. It has a large vertical, tendons.
structure comprised of several buoyant columns or Transition piece A part of the platform that provides the connection
turrets that are connected using pontoons and/or between the platform and the wind turbine tower. For
trusses. It is typically ballasted to provide additional floating substructures, it is usually an integral part of the
stability. platform.
Service operation A vessel that provides accommodation, workshops, and Turbine rated The nominal maximum power output from a wind
vessel (SOV) equipment for the transfer of personnel to turbine during power turbine. Sometimes this is referred to as capacity. The
O&M. Vessels in service today are typically up to 85m wind turbine is limited to this power output, which
long with accommodation for about 60 people. typically applies when the wind speed at the hub height
Significant wave The wave height (trough to crest) of the highest third of exceeds about 12m/s and continues until about 25-
height (Hs) the waves over a given period. 30m/s when the wind turbine stops generating to avoid
excessive loading. In more benign operating conditions
Spar A major type of floating substructure. It consists of a tall
characterised by ambient temperature, main
cylinder housing dense ballast in its lower part and has
component temperatures, wind speed, turbulence level
a large draft.
and grid voltage levels, the output may be allowed to
Supervisory Data acquisition, transmission and storage system exceed the rated power by about 5%.
Control and Data covering all wind farm assets. The SCADA system
Unexploded Explosive weapons that did not explode when they were
Acquisition enable individual wind turbines, the wind farm
ordnance (UXO) released and remain a risk to seabed users.
(SCADA) system substations and associated wind farm equipment to
communicate operational status including faults. This Weighted average The weighted average rate of return a wind farm owner
allows operators to remotely diagnose faults and issue cost of capital expects to compensate itself and its internal and
commands to stop, start and reset turbines and other (WACC) external investors over the life of a project.
equipment. The SCADA system keeps a full operating Wind shear The degree to which wind speed changes with height.
history of the wind farm.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 173

 Term Definition
Works completion Date at which construction works are deemed to be
date (WCD) complete and the wind farm is handed to the operations
team. In reality, this may take place over a period of
time.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 174

About BVG Associates
BVG Associates is an independent renewable energy consultancy focussing on
wind, wave and tidal, and energy systems. Our clients choose us when they
want to do new things, think in new ways and solve tough problems. Our
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generation systems. We’re dedicated to helping our clients establish renewable
energy generation as a major, responsible and cost-effective part of a
sustainable global energy mix. Our knowledge, hands-on experience and
industry understanding enables us to deliver you excellence in guiding your
business and technologies to meet market needs.
BVG Associates was formed in 2006 at the start of the offshore wind industry.
We have a global client base, including customers of all sizes in Europe, North
America, South America, Asia and Australia.
Our highly experienced team has an average of over 10 years’ experience in
renewable energy.
Most of our work is advising private clients investing in manufacturing,
technology and renewable energy projects.
We’ve also published many landmark reports on the future of the industry, cost of
energy and supply chain.

Guide to a Floating Offshore Wind Farm 175